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W104 - Open Building Implementation DURBAN 2014

Proceedings

W104 - Open Building Implementation

W104 Durban 2014 Proceedings W104 papers presented as part of the Proceedings of the UIA Congress: Architecture Otherwise Resilience - Ecology - Values, held on 3-7 August 2014 in Durban, South Africa CIB Publication 400

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PARI S:IIB WlO4 OPIltl BUILOI]tlG IIt/|PIItttlT]tlIAIIOttl lnternational CounciIfor Research and Innovation in BuiLding and Construction CIB(http://www. cibworl.d.nl.) wasestabtished in 1953witha mission to facititate internationaI cooperation in buiLding andconstruction research and innovation. CIBis a networkof over5000exoertsfrom 500 member organisations across70 countries andincludes mostof the major[aboratories andleadinguniversities in buitding andconstruction. TwoCIBWorkgroups areProgramme Partners of UIA2014.Thefirstonebeing: WimBakens istheSecretary GeneraI of CIB(since1994)andis a visitingprofessor at the University of Westminster in London, UK.Hegraduated in 1975,andobtained a PhDon"TheFutureof Construction" fromthe University of Technotogy, Eindhoven, TheNethertands. CIBW 104OPENBUILDING IMPLEMENTATION. OpenBuitding encompasses ideasaboutthe making and incessant transformation of the buittenvironment by acknowtedging the existence of distinct levelsof intervention, the principl.e that usersmust be enabtedto makedesigndecisions andthe principte technica[ that the interfacebetweensystemsattowschange/reptacement with minlmum disruotion andconftict. StephenKendatt, EmeritusProfessor of Architecture, Bat[StateUniversity, is a registered architect andeducator. He received his PhDin DesignTheoryand Methodsfrom Massachusetts Instituteof Technology underthe directionof Prof.JohnHabraken. He is currenttyconducting research for the (http://skenda[t.iweb,bsu.edu/index.html,) USgovernment on healthcare facititydesignfor ftexibitity. (http://www. infiItsystemsu s.com). JiaBeisi, Associate Professor of Architecture, University of HongKong,studiedat Southeast University in Nanjing, China, andobtained a PhDfromtheETHZurich.Heis Director andPartner of Baumsch[ager EberleHongKong.Ltd.Helectures (http:// internationa[[y onhisstudiesof adaptab[e housing design. www,baumsch[ager-eberle.com/en/office/tocations/hon gkong,htm l.), ShinMurakami, Professor, Department of HumanEnvironment, Sugiyama Jogakuen University, Japan, received his PhDfromthe Unlversity ofTokyo.Heis atsoa photographer anda hyper-space creator. He lecturesinternationatty and servesas an advisorto the UrbanRenaissance AgencyChubu.His focusrecentty is on activation of the existinghousing stock.http://shin-murakami.com

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IMPROVINGURBANRESITIENCE IN AFRICANCITIESBY MAINSTREAMING TRADITIONATPUBLICOPENSPACESI A STUDYOF IMO STATE,NIGERIA AgohaBasilOnyekozuru

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RECICLAGEM DO GRANDEHOTEL:AN OPENBUILDINGDESIGNINTERVENTIONFOR soclo-EcoNoMlc EMP0WERMENTIN MOZAMBIQUE RobertCruiming,YpeCuperus,Andr6 Mulder

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ENGINEERING EDUCATIONTO REPURPOSING ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL COMBATCAIASTROPHICSTRUCTURALFAILUREIN DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES:A NIGERIANCASESTUDY Olu Ola Ogunsote,JosephOlasehindeAfolayan,ChinwubaArum, BogdaPrucnalOgunsote

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FOREMERGINGMARKETS: SI SYSTEMASUSER-ORIENTED HOUSINGAPPROACH A COMPARATIVE STUDYONADAPTEDDWELLINGSIN INDONESIA,SOUTHKOREA AND BRAZIL MarianneCosta,Hideki Kobayashi, Jiyoungf ung

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ASURVEYSTUDYOFAPARTMENTREMODELING PLANFORTHEELDERLYINKOREA

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Jae-HoonLee,Woo-fungLee RHIZOMATICHEALTHSCAPES Alan Mee,Eric Wright, Philip Astley

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ANTIFRAGILITY IN ARCHITECTURE: IMPROVING ARCHITECTURE WITH APPROPRIATEREACTIONTO POSITIVESTRESSORS PeterSchweh{,NataliePlagaroCowee

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OPENBUILDINGIN BRAZIL:IS IT POSSIBLE? Rosam6nicada FonsecaLamouniel DeniseMoradoNascimento

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OPENEMERGENCYAND URGENTCARESYSTEMS: EMERGENTPROTECT DESIGN DECISIONS UTILISINGSCENARIO PLANNINGWITH SYSTEMS SEPARAIION Philip Astley,GrantR. Mills, RichardHind,Andrew D.F.Price

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THEIDEAOFNATURE:SELF-DEFENSESENSITIVEPATCH

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gebnemQakalopullarr THREE-DIMENSIONAL'SITES'INTO SOLVINGTHE PROBTEM AN INVESTIGATION OF EMPTYBUILDINGSIN CITYCENTRES Philip du Toit

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STRATEGIESFORALLOGRAPHICURBANISM Marecelladel Signore,Mona el Khafif

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HEALTHCAREFACILITIES DESIGNEDFOR FLEXIBILITY: THE CHALLENGEOF CULTURECHANGEIN A LARGEUSPUBLICAGENCY StephenKendall,Thom Kurmel,KarelDekket fohn Becker

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DEFININGFORMSOF COLLABORATIVE LIVINGIN MODERNCHINA Yiwei LIU,BeisiJIA

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HOUSEIPART1): REACTIVATION PROIECTBY DIY RENOVATION FOR UR FREESTYTE EXISTINGRENTALDWELLINGUNITS IN KOZOJINEWTOWNJAPAN NobuyukiNomura,MasanaoHattori,EisukeTabata,KazuhisaTsunekaw4Norie Kawano,Shin Murakami

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UR FREESTYLE HOUSE(PART2) - POSSIBILITIES OF RENTATUNITS BY MEANSOF DIY RENOVATIONIN JAPAN Shin Murakami, Norie Kawano,MasanaoHattori, Nobuyuki Nomura, EisukeTabata, KazuhisaTsunekawa

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ENERGYSAVINGSTRATEGIESFOR THE XUANCHENGOTYMPICSPORTSCENTER DESIGNINANHUI PROVINCE, CHINA LinglingLi, Mauro Caini,Padua,Padua,GiovanniBrugnaro,NaihuaYue

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AN APPROACHTO REDESIGN FORCHANGE:RESEARCH-BY-DESIGN Waldo Galle,MiekeVandenbroucke, Anne Paduart,NielsDe Temmerman

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ACTIONTO LONG-LIFEQUALITYHOUSINGIN JAPAN-DURABILITY OF THE METAL

lorNTsoFwooDENHousES Hiroki Ishiyama

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THE OLD BUITDINGSREUSEDESIGNBASEDON THE REPRODUCTION OF PII\CE SPIRIT ZhangShanshan,DongXu,ZhangXinyu

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FRAMEWORKFORAN OPENSPACEECOLOGY IN ARCHITECTURE Akshay Goyal

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FOR INFORMALSETTLEMENTUPGRADINGIN TIME.BASEDDESIGNAPPROACHES SOUTHAFRICA Amira Osman

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ON LONGTERM URBAN STUDYINGTHE EFFECTOFADAPTABLEMATERIALISATION DEVETOPMENT GOALS:A METH0DOLOGY PieterHerthogs,NielsDe Temmerman,YvesDeWeerdt,Wim Debacker

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HANDLINGMULTIPLEECOTOGIES INARCHITECTURALDESIGN Andreas Sattrup, Katrine Lotz

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BUILDINGTYPES THE HELSINKISEASIDEQUARTEROF SUSTAINABLE EskoKahri

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TIFESTYLEADAPTfrTIONSIN MUITICUUIURALSTUDENTHOUSING- CASE STUDIESIN JAPANANDIN USA Arno Suzuki THE CIRCLEMANAGEMENTFORURBANBTOCKS YangLiu

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ADAPTIVE CAPACITYOF BUILDINGS:A DETERMINATIONMETHOD TO PROMOTE FLEXIBTEAND SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION Rob Geraedts,Hilde Remoy,MarleenHermans,Evi van Rijn

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OF HISTORICAL RESEARCHON PUBLIC PARTICIPATIONIN THE REGENERATION ARCHITECTURE_A CASESTUDYOF HUANGTIANVIIIAGE, ANHUI XiaomengXing

UIA2014 DURBAN Architecture OTHERWHERE

CIB W104 OPEN BUILDING IMPLEMENTATION

! IMPROVING URBAN RESILIENCE IN AFRICAN CITIES BY MAINSTREAMING TRADITIONAL PUBLIC OPEN SPACES: A STUDY OF IMO STATE, NIGERIA. Agoha Basil Onyekozuru, Department of Architecture, Anambra State University, Uli, Nigeria. [email protected] Abstract Across the world today, the trend in urbanization tends to lend credence to the fact that by 2050 over 80% of world population will live in urban areas and the trend seems most evident in Africa. This no doubt is bound to pose great challenges for emerging cities in African settlements which are witnessing an increase in environmental, social and security challenges, resulting from distortions in the physical and social environments, thereby reducing their capacity to regenerate, maintain and sustain themselves. This is quite different from the situation in traditional societies where the environment naturally accommodates and regulates all changes with minimal distortion and or disequilibrium, thereby making the traditional environment quite resilient. Such resilience is attained when the traditional public open spaces are able to adjust to, and accommodate changes in their environment. Imo state, with 534 community government centres, 27 local government headquarters, at least 7 new towns, 7 urban centres and the state capital Owerri, coming to about 545 development and potential urban centres, is set for not only democratizing and spreading urban centres but creating resilient cities, the majority of which will definitely evolve around traditional communities hence the public open spaces. With its high population density, this situation will make Imo State one of the fastest growing resilient urban states not only in Nigeria but in Africa. This study used questionnaires, photographs, visits and interviews to explore this potential at the level of socio-economic and environmental values of traditional public open spaces. The data collected and analyzed using z-test statistic showed that these emerging urban environments could function better, be more resilient and sustainable if urban design is not only democratized but if conscious efforts are made to accommodate, integrate and evolve them around traditional public open spaces, by systematically mainstreaming this environmental heritage into urban design. Keywords: African cities, improving, mainstreaming, open spaces, traditional INTRODUCTION Imo State is one of the 36 states of the Federal republic of Nigeria and has one of the highest population densities in the West African sub region. It is one of the Igbo speaking ethnic groups of Nigeria referred to as the Eastern Heartland, because of its location in the heart of Igbo land. Its location is within the hot humid rainfall forest zone of the world and thus has a relatively high temperature most part of the year. This state is blessed with good rainfall and humidity which supports a variety of flora and fauna species. Thus, naturally encouraged by the rich vegetation and the climate, many activities become outdoor in nature, making the interplay and integrated use of external and internal spaces in their environment very valuable. Thus, over the years, from generation to generation, the creative use and value of open spaces increased. Open spaces therefore became not only an integral part of outdoor morphology, but also interpreted and defined the very life and lifestyle of the people. This is why, in a typical traditional Igbo environment, public open spaces can assist in defining and determining activities like family life, education, public and family gatherings, movement and communication, settlement, markets, festivals, public opinion, judicial settlement of disputes, security and indeed the major scope of life of the people is thus seen to be tied to the perception and understanding of the use of public open spaces of the environment. However, urbanization is fast eroding this beautiful tradition, such that in most urban areas open spaces, where existent are inadequate, and do not have the integrative milieu traditionally associated with the people, let alone being enough to provide established roles. This has led to poor perception and value of open spaces among urban dwellers, resulting in some resistant attitude towards open spaces. Perhaps the incessant conflicts among the people, resistance to authority, fighting, violence, street trading, wrong parking, insecurity, moral decadence and accidents could be attributable to a lack of creative integration of open spaces into urbanization based on what people have been used to. With the prediction that by 2050, more than 80% of the world population will live in urban areas and the majority of this being in the developing countries, including sub-Saharan Africa, the problem facing us in the future can better be imagined if sufficient resilience is not built into urban designing by creatively integrating traditional public open spaces into it. This therefore calls for looking not only at the ‘other-where’ but also the ‘into-where’ of traditional public open spaces in our urban design.

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! AIM The aim of the paper is to draw the attention of urban designers and planners to the need to integrate and mainstream traditional public open spaces into emerging cities for sustainable and resilient urban development. OBJECTIVES 1. To establish the importance of survival of traditional public open spaces in urban areas in Imo State, Nigeria. 2. To evaluate the extent of the contribution of traditional public open spaces in the socio-cultural life of the people. 3. To identify the role of traditional public open spaces in solving environmental problems of the urban city. METHODOLOGY The research involved the use of 300 questionnaires distributed through the three zonal headquarters of Okigwe, Orlu and Owerri; thus 50 each to the two urban Local Government Area (LGA) secretariats of Okigwe and Orlu, and the three urban LGA secretariats of Owerri West, Owerri North and Owerri Municipal, also the Federal secretariat was given 50, while the state secretariat was given 100 questionnaires giving a total of 300 distributed questionnaires. Of this number, 229 were returned, collated and analyzed for this research. Physical visits to selected traditional public open spaces were also made and pictures taken. A list of variables was factored in under environmental control and socio-cultural values; the survey was collated and analyzed using the ‘z’ test statistic. The result shows the influence of traditional public open spaces in the socio-cultural and environmental control life of people; and the need to mainstream traditional public open spaces into urban design for sustainability and resilience in the emerging urban centres; not only in Imo State, but also in Nigeria, and indeed in other parts of the world. HYPOTHESES H01: Traditional public open spaces do not have socio-cultural values on the life of the people. HA1: Traditional public open spaces have socio-cultural values on the life of the people. H02: Traditional public open spaces do not have environmental control values in Imo State. HA2: Traditional public open spaces have environmental control values in Imo State. THE CONCEPT OF TRADITIONAL PUBLIC SPACE Stating various forms of space, Mustafa (2008) identified abstract mathematical space, astronomical physical space, surrounding earthly space, psychologically territorial and personal spaces which are behavioral notions, and then architectural space described as the three dimensional extension of the world around man which he can enter and use. According to him, architectural space serves as habitation, shelter, circulation, cultural, social, scenic, economic, communication, recreation, symbolic or other intentionally appropriated functions. From this definition, not only well defined spaces such as halls and rooms are spaces, also the arrangement of furniture, structures, pathways, roads, water bodies, community, town squares are architectural spaces. It also includes perceived natural arrangements such as tree places or shades, water bodies, and pathways, which serve man in the physical environment. THE CONCEPT OF TRADITIONAL PUBLIC SPACE IN IGBO LAND In Igbo land, community squares, as architectural spaces, are mostly physical or psychological and centrally located public open spaces in communities, villages or neighbourhoods, used for meetings, ceremonies, traditional competitions such as wrestling, music and dances, carnivals, rallies, markets, landmarks, paths and goals, vistas, passive and active recreations, tree canopies or places and other socio-cultural, economic or religious activities over time. They contain fauna and flora that help to stabilize, regenerate and purify the environment. They also not only form the basis and basic unit of environmental design but also form the organizing element in rural and urban planning and design. When located in the villages they are called village squares, or neighbourhood squares when associated with neighbourhoods. They become town squares when the communities have been transformed into towns, cities or urban areas. Other names for town squares are civic centres, city squares, urban squares, market squares, public squares, piazzas, plazas and town greens. Most town squares not only accommodate functions and are centrally located, but are also surrounded by small shops, cottage industries such as bakeries, meat markets, public buildings and stores.

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! They could have things like monuments, water fountains, wells or statues; and could be named after these features or as memorials to important people, revolutions or events. Such transformations have led to some town squares accommodating royal courts, government buildings, city halls, theatres, restaurants, museums, parade-grounds, public motor parks, and places for preservation of cultural value artifacts such that some have now become national squares or memorials and a wonderful heritage to the people. Since some of these community squares are always visited by people who stay under the shades which the trees provide, the squares play great roles in community policing and security in providing observation and surveillance points, where strangers to the community can be easily noticed or identified and actions immediately taken. VALUES OF TRADITIONAL PUBLIC OPEN SPACES IN IGBO LAND Traditional public spaces form environmental patterns of great value (Christopher, 1977). Some of these are factored in and listed under; a). Economic: This includes agricultural land, Rivers, regional transport, regional boundary, identifiable neighbourhood, neighbourhood boundary, T-junction, Y-junction, market squares, markets, shops, bulk storage spaces, yam barns which not only generate revenue for the people, but also increase the living standards of the people.

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Plate 1: Umunaokwu Lagwa village square Aboh Mbaise, Imo State, Nigeria, used for gatherings, festivals, morning markets, local roads. Source: Author’s field work (2014)

Plate 2: Community square transformed into market square. Omuma, Oru East Local Government area, Imo State, Nigeria, used for direction, advertisement, market square, shops. Source: Author’s field work (2014) b). Socio-cultural: This includes, nuclear settlement, carnival routes, grave/burial area, cooking layout, public space to wait, community square, animal/fauna area, public reception, community hall, positive outdoor space, market squares, T-junction, Y-junction, which provide communal and cultural opportunities, recreation, settlement of disputes which enhance the quality of lives of the people and improve social and emotional resilience.

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Plate 3: Tree place of Okpuruobu Tree Awaka Kingdom, Owerri North, Imo State, Nigeria used for relaxation, gatherings, festivals, local roads. Source: Author’s field work (2014)

Plate 4: Community square, Umutanze, Orlu Local Government area, Imo State, Nigeria, used as shrine, religious activities, settlement of disputes. Source: Author’s field work (2014) c). Environmental control: This exists as crossroad, paths and goals, water bodies, natural flood routes, water bodies, dump sites, pond/shallow, well site, house cluster, row of houses, roundabout, family bathing, still pond water, hierarchy of open spaces, tree canopy, main gateway, main entrance, green area, indoor sunlight, water basin receptacle, street window, water basin receptacle, irregular path shapes, intimacy gradient and are important in environmental control, quality and resilience.

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Plate 5: Umuoke Umuelele village square Owerri West, Imo State. Nigeria with its tree places for relaxation, local routes, refuse dump, and flood water (arrowed) now a problem due to building on the flood route and receptacle basin built up leading to water logging of the square. Source: Author’s field work (2014)

SURVIVAL OF TRADITIONAL OPEN SPACES: THE LIFE CYCLE MODEL Traditional public open spaces survive due to the fact that not only do people use them but they are highly cherished. On the survival and use of spaces to transmit culture, Rapoport (1980), defines culture as a way of life typical of a people, a system of symbols, meanings and cognitive schemata transmitted through symbolic codes and as a set of adaptive strategies for survival related to ecology and resources. This creates the basis for the transformation of traditional community squares, to form landmarks, produce images, and strong and collective memories in their users, no matter how distant they may be from the spaces (Lynch, 1986). Open spaces may be relatively natural or substantially man-made such as community squares or gardens. They may be recreational amenities and conservation grounds. They could also be land with historic and scenic landscapes or places of natural beauty such as water bodies, valleys, hills, mountains, lakes, oceans and bays, and economic such as market squares (Byrom, 1974). Open spaces that are considered public, when they are made accessible to the public, unrestricted. Rapoport (1979), in his contribution, states that concepts and theories of urban design based on western and ethnocentric traditions which neglect folk or popular traditions of Africa and other less developed areas, have failed to meet the needs of modern cities, because they concentrate on the role of planners, neglecting the environments and people that created them, with much vacuum between modernity and history. A city seen from the spirit of popular tradition, as public open spaces he argues, not only accommodates the concept of Western and ethnocentric traditions, but also becomes an element with cosmic organizing power for the people and function of larger human settlements. Although people’s beliefs, traditions and culture at times seem abstract, they are expressed as symbols such as dances, crafts, arts, and also in architectural spaces such as village or community squares, roads and tracks, shrines, and in the historical development of the people, all of which inter-play or find expression in public squares. These therefore, as components, find expression in open spaces as the main organizing element which may have international, national, regional, neighbourhood, community and domestic influences. Open spaces, whether terrestrial, psychological, physical or architectural, express directly the activities, attitudes, feelings and emotions of those who use them over time and space and thus transit from generation to generation as patterns and virtues, as language (Christopher, 1977). This implies that open spaces such as community squares are the embodiment of people’s beliefs and symbols of expression with understandable meanings, patterns, language and communications of the activities of the people who use them and therefore much more than the physical eyes can see or ears can hear (Lynch, 1986). These spaces range from courtyards and activity spaces in homes or cluster of residences to unrestricted spaces that accommodate pathways, roads, natural features such as streams, rivers, oceans, mountains and valleys among others. Open spaces may be fully

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! public or semi public or private but whichever is the case, they reflect the active emotions, feelings and entire life of the people in physical forms. Public spaces seen in the urban built environment are therefore the evolutionary transformation and changes through history of people’s activities into physical spatial forms with psychological and emotional meanings to the people and those associated with them (Lynch, 1986). It is therefore certain that the study of surviving public spaces identified, recognized and incorporated in urban design leads to a sustainable environment as it relives the people and becomes traditional. Tradition is not ancient, but what takes its root in the ancient, while accommodating the dynamic trend of the modern society in a continuum. Oguejiofor (2005) sees tradition as an activity or object in which the past and present are fused. Louis (2007), in his contribution, feels that tradition as continuum is not static but a means of transmitting values and institutions. Furthermore, he posits that so long as there is no attention to origin, there can be no understanding of tradition and therefore no understanding of contemporary world with the future in jeopardy. Traditional public open spaces in cities are therefore open spaces that have their roots in the past but have dynamically fused with current trends over time, by being still useful even in transformed states, and will determine the direction of cities to serve future generations. Hence, the images and patterns perceived in city spaces are a combination of immediate and past experiences (Lynch, 1996) and therefore determine the future. In an attempt to explain the dynamics of survival of architectural space, the cyclic lifecycle model is very relevant. Mustafa (2008) proposes five stage cyclic lifecycle, namely; problem formulation, problem solution, implementation and use. He believes that as a given space gets to the end of its useful life, the cycle is repeated by way of renovation, remodelling, re-adaptation of use or the generation of new space and or improved usage by those who use or need them. By this approach therefore, no space can be obsolete but will always find relevance in the socio-cultural, traditional, environmental and economic setting of the people it serves through transformation. This explains why spaces, although they may change in form and function, survive many generations and therefore sustainable. STUDY AREA: IMO STATE Imo state comprises twenty seven (27) Local Government Areas and lies within latitudes 4°45'N and 7°15'N, and longitude 6°50'E and 7°25'E, with an area of about 5,100 sq km. It is bordered by Abia State to the East, the River Niger and Delta State to the West, Anambra State to the North and Rivers State to the South, and hence referred to as the Eastern Heartland. Owerri, the state capital, has roads radiating and linking the major South Eastern cities. The rainy season begins in April and lasts till October with annual rainfall varying from 1,500mm to 2,200mm (60 to 80 inches) and leads to flooding at times, creating problems in the use of open spaces. An average annual temperature above 20°C (68.0°F) creates an annual relative humidity of 75%, with humidity reaching 90% in the rainy season. The dry season experiences two months of harmattan from late December to late February. The hottest months are normally between January and March every year. The rainy season begins in April and lasts till October with annual rainfall varying from 1,500mm to 2,200mm (60 to 80 inches) and leads to flooding at times creating problems in the use of open spaces, which serve as receptacles. An average annual temperature above 20°C (68.0°F) creates an annual relative humidity of 75%, with humidity reaching 90% in the rainy season. The dry season experiences two months of harmattan from late December to late February. The hottest months are normally between January and March every year and make outdoor activities invaluable.

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! DATA COLLECTION, COLLATION AND ANALYSIS Secondary data are not readily available. The data collection therefore involved the use of questionnaires, physical measurement, photographs and interviews. The results are as given below: s/n

Cluster centre

1 2 3 4 5

Okigwe Orlu State secretariat Owerri Municipal Owerri west Total

Number sent out 50 50 100 50 50 300

Number collected 45 36 61 43 44 229

No not collected 5 14 39 7 6 71

% collection 90 72 61 86 88 76.3

Table 1: Questionnaire Collection / Source: Author’s field work (2014) FACTORING, LISTING AND SPECIFICATION OF VARIABLES FOR THE RESEARCH All the identified variables are nominal (Kothari, 2013) as listed below: s/n Description of Code of Range of Scale of Positive values Variable Variable values measurement 1. Agric land AGL 1-6 Nominal US;58,SS;30, RA;55=143 2. Rivers RIV 1-6 Nominal US;52,SS;17, RA;30=99 3. Regional transport RET 1-6 Nominal US;109,SS;37, RA;41=187 4. Regional boundary REB 1-6 Nominal US;80,SS;28, RA;35=143 5. Identifiable IDN 1-6 Nominal US;109,SS;33, neighbourhood RA;49=191 6. Neighbourhood NBB 1-6 Nominal US;109,SS;33, boundary RA;66=208 7. T-Junction TJU 1-6 Nominal US;110,SS;35, RA;47=192 8. Y-Junction YJU 1-6 Nominal US;112,SS;26, RA;48=186 9. Vegetable garden VEG 1-6 Nominal US;67,SS;28, RA;45=140 10 Fruit tree orchard FFTO 1-6 Nominal US;40,SS;23, RA;35=98 11. Bulk storage ban BSB 1-6 Nominal US;49,SS;24, RS;44=117 12. Community Cf 1-6 Nominal US;53,SS;28, farmland RS;52=133 13. Cottage industrial CIA 1-6 Nominal US;94,SS;18,RS;33 area =145 14. Community project CPS 1-6 Nominal US;72,SS;29, site RS;51=152 15. Animal/fauna ANF 1-6 Nominal US;59,SS;20,RS;36 =115 Table 2: Economic value of traditional public squares / Source: Author’s field work (2014)

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Negative values UNS;69,SNA;4, RNA;5=78 UNS;13,SNA;17, RNA;17=47 UNS;19,SNS;13, RNA;13=45 UNS;23,SNS;13, RNA;14=50 UNS;17,SNS;7, RNA;9=33 UNS;20,SNS;5, RNA;3=28 UNS=13,SNA;7, RNA;9=29 UNS;11,SNS;17, RNS;9=37 UNS;56,SNS;17, RNS ;10=83 UNS;69,SNS;25, RNS;21=115 UNS;75,SNS;23, RNS;3=101 UNS;66,SNS;15, RNS;8=89 UNS;25,SNS;24, RNS;16=65 UNS;53,SNS;10, RNS;6=69 UNS;55,SNS;15, RNS;15=85



! s/n

Description Variable

16.

Range of values

Scale of measureme nt

Positive values

Negative values

Crossroad

Code of Variabl e CRR

1-6

Nominal

UNS;11,SNS;11;RNS;5=27

17.

Paths and goals

PAG

1-6

Nominal

18.

NFR

1-6

Nominal

19.

Natural flood routes Water bodies

WAB

1-6

Nominal

20.

Dump sites

DUS

1-6

Nominal

21.

PSW

1-6

Nominal

22.

Pond/shallow well site House cluster

HCL

1-6

Nominal

23.

Row of houses

ROH

1-6

Nominal

24.

Roundabout

RDA

1-6

Nominal

25.

Family bathing

FAB

1-6

Nominal

26.

Network of paths Still pond water

NOP

1-6

Nominal

Hierarchy of open spaces Tree canopy

HPS

1-6

Nominal

TRC

1-6

Nominal

MGW

1-6

Nominal

INC

1-6

Nominal

32.

Main gate way/entrance Inbuilt courtyard Green area

GRA

1-6

Nominal

33.

Indoor sunlight

INS

1-6

Nominal

34.

Water basin/ receptacle Street window

WBR

1-6

Nominal

STW

1-6

Nominal

Irregular path shapes Intimacy gradient Pedestrian path/walkway Space connected buildings Inbuilt courtyard

IPS

1-6

Nominal

ITG

1-6

Nominal

PPW

1-6

Nominal

SCB

1-6

Nominal

US;113,SS;28,RS;56= 197 US;99,SS;23,RS;33=1 55 US;100,SS;27,RS;29= 156 US;107,SS;13,RS;32= 152 US;98,SS;19,RS;35=1 52 US;34,SS;23,RS;44=1 01 US;95,SS;29,RS;43=1 67 US;99,SS;17,RS;22=1 38 US;111,SS;27,RS;49= 187 US;54,SS;28;RS;44=1 26 US;101,SS;26,RS;34= 161 US;38,SS;18;RS;35=9 1 US;62,SS;22,RS;32=1 16 US;96,SS;23,RS;42=1 61 US;88,SS;28,RS;49=1 65 US;86,SS;23,RS;40=1 49 US;79,SS;16,RS;31=1 26 US;64,SS;21,RS;43=1 28 US;86,SS;14,RS;27=1 27 US;49,SS;10,RS;17=7 6 US;79,SS;32,RS;40=1 51 US;79,SS;16,RS;26=1 21 US;98,SS;26,RS;41=1 65 US;88,SS;28,RS;39=1 55

IBC

1-6

Nominal

US;86,SS;23,RS;40=1 49

UNS;38,SNS;38,RNS;11=87

27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

40.

of

SPW

Nominal

UNS;20,SNS;20,RNS;19=59 UNS;24,SNS;11,RNS;26=61 UNS;27,SNS;30,RNS;18=75 UNS;23,SNS;23,RNS;25=71 UNS;83,SNS;22,RNS;20=125 UNS;16,SNS;16,RNS;14=46 UNS;18,SNS;28,RNS;25=71 UNS;12,SNS;13,RNS;13=38 UNS;66;SNS;12,RNS;16=94 UNS;17,SNS;17,RNS;15=49 UNS;77,SNS;22,RNS;32=131 UNS;59,SNS;28,RNS;16=103 UNS;29,SNS;20,RNS;12=61 UNS;25,SNS;14,RNS;10=49 UNS;38,SNS;15;RNS;11=64 UNS;25,SNS;25,RNS;23=73 UNS;49,SNS;18,RNS;29=96 UNS;32,SNS;31,RNS;26=89 UNS;66;SNS;35,RNS;37=138 UNS;41,SNS;12,RNS;11=64 UNS;39,SNS;24,RNS;14=77 UNS;18,SNS;15,RNS;16=49 UNS;34,SNS;21,RNS;11=66

Table 3: Environmental control values of traditional public squares / Source: Author’s field work (2014)

754



! Key: US = Urban Surviving public open spaces SS = Suburban Surviving public open spaces RS = Rural Surviving public open spaces UNS = Urban not Surviving public open spaces SNS = Suburban not Surviving public open spaces RNS= Rural not Surviving public open spaces

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS ‘Z’ test statistic: Z = PQ/√NPQ Where; P = Proportion of positive responses Q = Proportion of negative responses N = sample size B = level of significance = 0.05 C= critical value at 0.05 level of significance, the ‘Z’ score taking value between -1.96 to 1.96. D = Decision rule: if the computed ‘Z’ value is between -1.96 to 1.96 of our critical value, we reject the null hypothesis E = Computed ‘z’ value s/n 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Options Urban public open spaces Surviving Suburban public open spaces surviving Rural public open spaces surviving Urban public open spaces NOT Surviving Suburban public open spaces NOT surviving Rural public open spaces NOT surviving Total

Code US

Frequency 1173

% 36.91

SS

409

12.87

RS

667

20.99

UNS

584

18.38

SNS

187

5.88

RNS

158

4.97

3178

100

Total

2249 (71%)

929 (29%)

Table 4: Traditional public squares do not have environmental control value Source: Author’s field work (2014) Z =0.71x0.29/√3178x0.71x0.29 = 0.2059/34.92 = 0.0064 Decision: Since the computed ‘Z’ value 0f 0.0081 is between -1.96 and 1.96 of our critical value, we reject the null hypothesis. We therefore accept the alternative hypothesis that open spaces have economic values in Imo State, Nigeria.

755



! s/n 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Options Urban public open spaces Surviving Suburban public open spaces surviving Rural public open spaces surviving Urban public open spaces NOT Surviving Suburban public open spaces NOT surviving Rural public open spaces NOT surviving Total

Code US

Frequency 2089

% 38.44

SS

560

10.30

RS

923

16.98

UNS

887

16.32

SNS

521

9.59

RNS

445

8.19

Total

3572 (66%)

1853 (34%)

5435

Table 5: Traditional public squares do not have economic values Source: Author’s field work (2014) Z = .66x0.34/√5435x0.66x0.34 = 0.2244/34.92 = 0.0064 Decision: Since the computed ‘Z’ value 0f 0.0064 is between -1.96 and 1.96 of our critical value, we reject the null hypothesis. We therefore accept the alternative hypothesis that open spaces have environmental control values in Imo State, Nigeria.

OBSERVATIONS The following observations were made: 1. Traditional public open spaces including community squares abound in urban, suburban and rural areas all over Imo State. The difference between them and the general space are hardly differentiated as everywhere is traditional open space. 2. While the traditional public open spaces are almost intact in rural communities, they are surviving but progressively changed, transformed into other uses in the suburban areas and in cities, leading to resistant behaviors by the people who still want to use the spaces as of old, as socio-cultural, economic and environmental control places and this leads to conflicts and disobediences to planning uses of the spaces. 3. Where the environmental uses have been abused and converted to other uses, flooding, erosion, refuse heaps and other abuses have been the result. 4. Traditional public squares still play a great role in the life of people in the rural, suburban, semi-urban and urban areas.

CONCLUSION The Community Government of Imo state has great potential in democratizing urban design and development and preserving the traditional public open spaces through integrative modernization. Every community government council has its headquarters which translates into development urban centres. The concept of private layout in each centre headquarters will provide all the physical infrastructure needed within the area with identified traditional public open spaces well integrated as the organizing units of urban design and planning. The integration of traditional public open spaces in the emerging urban design proposals from the outset will lead to more of the traditional public open spaces not only surviving, but also

756



! cities developing into a resilient, sustainable, peaceful and orderly urban development. This will not only democratize planning and public participation but will open up more urban centres, thereby discouraging rural- urban migration with its attendant social and economic problems. This will also improve the life of the people and the economic, socio-cultural, environmental and resilient values of the environment. It will also strengthen grassroots governance, which is the hallmark of community government and thereby preserve the environmental heritage of the people. REFERENCES Byrom, J., 1974. 'Leisure and the Landscape Architect', in I. Appelton (ed.), Leisure, Research and Policy. Scottish Academy Press, Jedburgh. Christopher, A., 1997. Pattern Language. Oxford University Press, London. Kothari, C., 2013. Research Methodology, Methods and Techniques. New Age International Publishers, New Delhi. Lynch, K., 1986. The Image of the City. MIT Press, London. Munoz, LJ., 2007. The Past in the Present: Towards a Rehabilitation of Tradition. Spectrum Books Limited, Abuja. Mustafa, P., 1998. 'A Structured Approach to Cultural Studies of Architectural Space', In SM Ünügür, O. Hacıhasanoğlu & H. Turgut (eds.), Culture and Space in the Home Environment: Critical Evaluations and New Paradigms, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, pp.27-32. Oguejiofor, JO & Onah, GI., 2005. 'African Philosophy and the Hermeneutics of Culture; Essays in honour of Theophilous Okere', in JO Oguejifor & GI Onah, African Philosophy and Hermeneutics of Culture; Essays in Honour of Theophilous Okere, Lit Verlag Munster, Rome. Orji, E., 1999. Owerri in the Twentieth Century. Casers Limited, Owerri. Rapoport, A., 1979. 'On the Cultural Origins of Settlements', in AJ Snyder, Introduction to Urban Planning, Mcgraw-Hills Book Company, New York, pp. 31-61.

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! RECICLAGEM DO GRANDE HOTEL: AN OPEN BUILDING DESIGN INTERVENTION FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT IN MOZAMBIQUE! Ir. Robert Cruiming, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, [email protected] Ir. Ype Cuperus, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, [email protected] Dr. André Mulder, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, [email protected] Abstract Poor economies find themselves in an almost no-win situation: They would benefit from improving the economic situation of the very poor by making them self-supporting and economically productive. However, the very poor are occupied by daily survival and thus cannot afford to improve themselves. This paper describes the status quo of a dilapidated hotel in Beira, a so-called vertical slum that is squatted by one thousand inhabitants trapped in self-sustaining poverty. It builds on the assumption that if a technical intervention creates conditions with clear lines of control, defensible space and basic conditions for trade and productivity, the downward spiral can be reversed towards improvement. The concept of Open Building gives guidelines for a built environment that works based on a clear division of control. Then a proposal to improve the hotel is presented, based on Open Building levels of intervention: the urban fabric reconfiguring the base building and adding modular units that can house small businesses around collecting, recycling and selling materials. In the final analysis, a scenario is painted as proof that interventions that create controllable space could be the first step towards improvement and could work as a template for similar cases. Keywords: vertical slum, colonial heritage, recycling, Open Building, self-empowerment INTRODUCTION Many African countries have outgrown their colonial past and are now rapidly improving their economies by supplying other countries with resources. This creates instability both between and within countries. It is likely to widen the gap between the numerous very poor and the few very rich, thus possibly creating social friction, unrest and an unsafe environment to live in. If the very poor could improve their living conditions by themselves it could benefit the country and economy as a whole. This paper describes how some basic improvements to a dilapidated hotel in Beira could plant the seeds for a bottom-up improvement of local living conditions. First the scene is set, by describing the Grande Hotel building in Beira, Mozambique. Then the concept of Open Building is explained as a strategy to analyse the status quo and to plan basic interventions needed to create conditions for a gradually self-sustaining and self-improving neighbourhood. A proposal to make it work is presented and in the final analysis generic conclusions are drawn from this case study in order to be applicable elsewhere.

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! THE SCENE: BEIRA AND THE GRANDE HOTEL The Grande Hotel is a dilapidated building occupied by the very poor of Beira. It is a place of anarchy and survival. In order to get a clear understanding of the interventions to be proposed, it helps to understand the historical and functional context of the building. A short history of Beira Mozambique is a sub-Saharan country located at the east coast of Africa, with a coastal line of over 2500 kilometres. From the European perspective, it was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1492 and later claimed by the Portuguese as a colony until 1975. At the southern tip of Mozambique, the harbour town and capital Maputo was established, now with a population of over 1 million people. In the centre Beira, 400,000 inhabitants developed into the second largest city and main port serving Africa to ship its natural resources overseas. After the Portuguese withdrew from the city, native Mozambicans who hoped to improve their living standards settled in the city. Today, multinational commerce has started to settle in the city. The friction between these two worlds is visible in how the poor live. That, in short, is the scene of the Grande Hotel in Beira.

Figure 1: Current situation of the Grande Hotel, exterior (Source: Stoops 2011) and interior (Source: Prieto 2011). The Grande Hotel da Beira: Then In 1953 Arthur Brandão, a good friend of the Portuguese regime of Salazar and director of the Companhia de Moçambique that once colonised the interior of Beira, commissioned architect Fransico de Castro to build the Grande Hotel (Figure 1). It was intended to become the main showpiece of success of the ‘Estado-Novo’ in that time. It was meant to provide 5-star accommodation for business partners, influential persons and wealthy tourists from Rhodesia, South Africa and the Portuguese colonial empire. The hotel consisted of the finest, most luxurious and modern materials of the time. The total construction costs over-ran the budget by 300% but it was money well spent, according to the ideals of the client. The hotel was only in full operation for a period of eight years. With 116 rooms and a floor surface of 21,000 m2, it was never profitable even by the most optimistic estimates. Until the independence of Mozambique, the swimming pool was open for the inhabitants of the neighbourhood and the building was used for conferences only twice. Some argue that the reason for its failure was that it could not obtain a casino license (Rolletta 2006; Lança 2010; Anno 2011) but the regime believed that is was immoral to have places for gambling in their colonies (Newitt 2004). Nevertheless, it has served many purposes. After the Portuguese Carnation Revolution of 1974, Mozambique became an independent state with common growing pains. The communist FRELIMO party (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) came to power and used the Grande Hotel as a base to establish the communist state in the region. In the Mozambican Civil War (1977 – 1992), the hotel became a military base. In 1981, the city became part of a neutral zone that was controlled by the Zimbabwean Defence Force to secure Zimbabwean exports in the

759



! Beira Corridor. The safety and aid supply attracted refugees from the interior (Newitt 2004). The Grande Hotel was transformed into a refugee camp and the soldiers were relocated to the battlefield. Since 1992, Mozambique has experienced stability and peace. Today, the harbour of Beira is rehabilitated and is experiencing a booming economy due to the transit of minerals to Asia. The Grande Hotel da Beira: Now Today the Grande Hotel accommodates approximately 1,000 inhabitants (Ivo 2008) and acts as an informal neighbourhood on its own with some street vendor stalls and internal squares. Large families of up to nine persons populate the hotel rooms and in-built shelters. They pay no rent and they cannot claim right of ownership. The space and architecture of the building does not at all cater for the spatial needs of the current population, it does not offer conditions to support a communal feel for the self-protecting and mistrusting inhabitants. There is no structure of control. Although the local municipal secretary of the neighbourhood – who also lives in the Grande Hotel – is seen as the unofficial supervisor, he does not have the power of other municipal secretaries in more affluent communities in Mozambique. The only common rule of the Grande Hotel is to respect each other; then the Grande Hotel is open to those who are in need of shelter. Neither building nor public spaces are maintained. Garbage is dumped all over the place and it never gets cleaned-up. The rooves leak and the window frames have no glass. The elevator-less elevator shafts are now openly accessible holes that are dangerous after dark for the young and old. The garden gives room to the first Olympic size swimming pool of Mozambique. Today it contains highly polluted water and is used for fishing for consumption, washing and as a public lavatory like so many other places such as the former hotel restaurant, the beach and the park in front of the Grande Hotel. According to the local Red Cross, there is a high risk of cholera, diarrhoea, malaria, and scabies (Vasco 2012, interview, 12 March). The HIV/AIDS epidemic is making the situation worse. Most of the Grande Hotel inhabitants work in the informal economic sector. The nickname of ‘whato muno’ (not from here) (Stoops 2011) excludes them from participation in the social and economic community of Beira. The formal economy is growing as a result of the booming transit at the harbour and puts the informal economy under pressure. It makes it even harder for the Grande Hotel inhabitants to make ends meet for a basic living. The building was gradually stripped from all materials that could be sold for some food, such as plumbing, cabling and parquet flooring. Thus poverty made the Grande Hotel even harder to live in. ‘Whato muno’ also underlines the bad reputation of the Grande Hotel inhabitants in Beira. The Grande Hotel is a place where crime thrives and where the police do not have any authority. This is a grim picture. Nevertheless, the Grande Hotel is a fascinating building as a provider of shelter for a dynamic society one cannot escape from and that has already delivered its third generation of inhabitants. The architecture and their users over time reflect the struggling history of Mozambique. The local municipality would like to intervene, but they are not the legal owners nor are they responsible for the Grande Hotel. The Grande Hotel is one of the few properties in Mozambique that is not state-owned. Officially it still belongs to the Portugal-based Gruppo Entroposto S.A., which is the continuation of the Companhia de Moçambique. It was written-off as war damage. There are no local funds to refurbish the building and poor collaboration of the local parties with the national government blocks the way to national funds (Makgetla 2010). No private investor is willing to participate in this risky project. In this light, it is understandable that the municipality would like to relocate the current inhabitants to slums on the outskirts of the city and demolish the Grande Hotel to clear the plot for redevelopment as a place for commercial and tourism activities. This however rather moves than solves the problem of the negative impact of the very poor in a developing economy. Would it not be better to develop a low budget intervention that creates conditions for a self- sustaining society that builds rather than consumes, that has an interest in defending and maintaining rather than in cannibalizing its shelter? The concept of Open Building indicates a direction.

760



! THE CONCEPT OF OPEN BUILDING The origins of the concept of Open Building are best captured by one of John Habraken's finest quotes: 'We should not try to forecast what will happen, but try to make provisions for the unforeseen' (Habraken 1961). In order to accommodate unknown future change, he suggested introducing different levels of decision making in the building process: tissue, support and infill, respectively referring to the urban fabric, containing base buildings with their fit-outs. The raison d’être of Open Building can also be expressed in terms of care, responsibility and technology. People who care about the environment they live in will make it a better and safer place. Therefore, the built environment must encourage people to take responsibility for their own territory. An environment that clearly distinguishes those spaces and parts of a building, for which occupants should take responsibility, will address the users’ needs to feel responsible. Therefore, a building should be designed and built in such a way that both spaces and parts of the building can be clearly allocated to those parties and individuals that should take responsibility for them. Buildings, which are designed and built with separate systems, can create conditions for responsibility and care. The subdivision of the building process needs to reflect the lines of decision-making and the definition of responsibilities between the parties. This subdivision can then be translated into specifications for connections between building parts. This in turn creates buildings that can be modified and taken apart again (Cuperus 1996). It offers the basis for a well-structured building process with well-defined interfaces. It allows us to at least partially transfer the construction process from building to manufacturing. It is the key to reducing waste by coordinating dimensions and positions instead of improvising on site by cutting to size. Applying information instead of energy. This is an important condition to re-use building parts, thus extending the lifetime of building parts, without the waste of dumping and recycling, coinciding with degradation and the use of energy. Open Building is a multi-faceted concept, with technical, organizational and financial solutions for a built environment that can adapt to changing needs. It supports user participation, industrialization and restructuring of the building process. If change is the problem, a layered organization of the building process can provide at least part of the solution. Positional and dimensional co-ordination of building parts and their interfaces are a tool and a condition for industrialization and probably a leaner construction process (Cuperus 2001). A PROPOSAL: A SELF SUSTAINING RECYCLING MARKET In order to keep the Grande Hotel, it needs to be adapted to a set of functions with an economically sound basis and minimum viability that is likely to sustain itself. Control is the core of the Open Building concept. In this paragraph, a recycling market is proposed as a self-sustaining economic activity, the concept of Open Building is used to identify different, independent yet coordinated levels of control and construction. Recycling market in a recycled building The Beira Municipality attempts to demolish the Grande Hotel and relocate the inhabitants. This will force the current users to other places, thus replacing the problem. In addition, there is no guarantee that there will be a return on the investment to redevelop the site. That is why a low level intervention is suggested that will generate sufficient income to pay for itself. Planning a recycling market in and around the Grande Hotel is a double edged sword: by accommodating an economy based on recycling goods, the Grande Hotel itself is subject to recycling. The romantic Art Deco architecture, once a sign of colonization will remain, but is now taken over by the current inhabitants, giving the building and its style a second chance.

761



!

Figure 2: Concept of a civil amenity site, each container will be a workshop in the recycling market (by author). Repair and reuse comes naturally in poor societies. In the western world, it has recently been reinvented as Cradle to Cradle (McDonough et al. 2002). Separate collection of waste is common in modern cities and is well organized in civic amenity sites (Figure 2). This idea is adapted and adopted in this proposal. On the recycling market, the Beirans can sell waste products at a wide range of different workshops. Each workshop is specialised in the transformation or repair of specific types of materials or goods. The workshop holders gain a profit by selling the end products. A recycling market in and around the Grande Hotel anticipates local economic, social and environmental benefits. The current informal economy in the Grande Hotel building serves its own basic survival without any perspective. If conditions are made for a recycling market, the economy should develop into an economy for basic growth. It will attract new business activities that profit from their collaboration. In the Grande Hotel case, which is now an island the city seeks to avoid, this could result in the greater Grande Hotel area becoming embedded in the urban fabric. On the Beira scale, it will take environmental pressure off the existing municipal garbage dump. Master plan: Urban fabric, site and building In order to make the recycling market happen, a master plan with a strict separation of different levels of intervention is proposed that allows for a phased time planning (Figure 3). Currently, the garden behind the building contains a polluted swimming pool, a church and a mosque. The site itself is big enough to house a recycling market. The first step towards improvement is to clean and reorganize the site and its routing. By cutting a gate into the west wing, block B, of the Grande Hotel on the Avenue Alonse de Paiva the new public entrance will be made north to south towards the garden. The dwellings that will get lost by cutting the gate need to be compensated with dwellings adjacent to the new workshops. In front of the new entrance, a bus stop will be located. Rear alleys will be created to supply the recycling workshops behind the building, thus reconnecting the site to the urban and social fabric of Beira. This intervention sets the conditions for future options, such as a general groceries market, clearance of the swimming pool, public latrines and places of worship for the larger community. Newly built units, to be described in the next paragraph, will accommodate the recycling market. Once the market has become a self-sustaining economic network, the hotel rooms used for dwelling can be upgraded per floor or one unit at the time.

762



! Workshop units The second step towards improvement is the construction of workshop units, consisting of a load bearing structure of precast concrete columns and beams, on site connected with in-situ poured concrete. This is a locally known, cyclone proof structure. This is a structure with a long life span and can be completed with different configurations of materials for roofing and partitioning with a shorter life span. The combination of fitting out the base buildings that in turn are positioned in line with the master plan creates conditions for a clear distinction of control, life spans and different future functions. Its dimensions are based on a 3.50 metre grid that coincides with the design grid of the Grande Hotel. The materials and building parts to fit out the new workshop units will also fit in the base building of the Grande Hotel. A typical workshop unit consist of a ground floor with a structure of concrete beams and columns. The facades can be filled in with different materials, such as bascule type overhead doors with timber louvres that double as canapés while open, and closed sections made of plastered hollow building blocks, filled with non-biodegradable garbage material as a by product of the recycling market. A 5,000 litres water tank, collecting free rainwater from the roof is located on the ground floor in the shady south of the unit. Additions differ per workshop unit: a furnace for forging steel or workbenches and tables for other trades such as bicycles or telephone recycle and repair. On top of this concrete structure, a structure of timber columns and beams can be built to house the workshop owner and its family as they now live in the Grande Hotel. The first floor consists of a living space around a concrete fireplace that generates smoke to keep mosquitos at bay. The second floor accommodates sleeping arrangements. The building is topped with a double-layered roof of corrugated iron that creates shade, waterproofing and cross ventilation against accumulating heat (Figure 4).

763



!

Figure 4: Exploded view of a workshop built by the open construction module (by author). Generic use of the proposed base building structure and its fit-outs The generic structure of precast columns and beams on a 3.50 metres module can also be used to build larger structures such as a church and mosque (Figure 6). Since the design and dimensioning of the infill elements, such as the timber structures and partitions are based on the Grande Hotel's design module, they can be used to fit out the old hotel as well (Figure 5). Special attention needs to be given to keep the openings for cross ventilation intact.

764



! Organizational aspects: stakeholders The above-pictured plans are of spatial and material matter and cannot be accomplished without the approval of the stakeholders involved. The municipality should release the plot for development and should change the illegal status of its current inhabitants. This of course is a delicate process in order not to create unwanted precedents for other sites in the city. Although our sympathy may go towards a high degree of self-governance by the inhabitants, this needs to be carefully coordinated with possible supporting stakeholders such as NGOs and profiting stakeholders such as the local water supplier, who may not like to lose control over the closed circuit water supply of the compound. The ruling FRELIMO party (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) as well as the opposing MDM (Movimento Democrático de Moçambique) have their own interests, either electorate or corruption driven. All stakeholders should see the benefit of a self-sustaining community with its own organizational structure. Call it the Grande Hotel Board. If not, this could well be a major hurdle to overcome.

CONCLUSION The Grande Hotel de Beira is a derelict reminder of colonial times. At the same time, it can be seen as an icon of the architectural and cultural past of Beira. Restoration may be an affront to the very poor citizens who feel little sympathy for the past. Adopting the building and handing it over to the community may take away this sensitivity. At the same time, it will become a catalyst for new life. This paper addressed the problem of dilapidated buildings that are taken over by the very poor. Redeveloping such projects is expensive, politically sensitive, outcome-unsure, and in addition, replacing the people creates new housing problems elsewhere. A different strategy was suggested that makes the inhabitants responsible for their own environment. The concept of Open Building was used as inspiration to allocate control by (groups of) dwellers to layers of the built environment: a collective interest to defend and maintain the site and base building, making individual households and tradesmen stakeholders, through offering the possibility for economic growth by planning a recycling market. At the higher level of interest, the municipality gains by turning an unsafe no-go area into a clean place for trade and urban activity. The suggested workshop unit demonstrates another way to apply Open Building principles: the dimension module was derived from the Grande Hotel building, which in turn makes the infill elements fit to upgrade parts of the building as well. The refurbishment of the Grande Hotel de Beira is an academic proposal that is not executed and can therefore not be evaluated and we can thus only speculate on its successes. Precedents may give us indications. The concept of Open Building suggests a subdivision of the built environment based on control rather than on construction. For that reason, it may not be easy to introduce in political environments that are top-down controlled as it can be seen as an unwanted power shift that empowers the dwellers. As such, “Open Building and Politics” is worth an in-depth study. Although developed for a specific site, this project has the potential to become a precedent for similar cases in totally different circumstances. Indeed, what they share is the desire to gradually improve housing and living conditions that will benefit both citizens and society. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A word of gratitude with regard to Dr. Gerhardes Bruyns for his inspired teaching, the hospitality of the Faculdade de Arquitectura e Planeamento Físico of the University of Eduardo Mondane as well as the inhabitants of the Grande Hotel de Beira who shared theirs secrets on how to survive harsh circumstances while keeping a positive attitude towards life. More information and drawings on the Reciclagem do Grande Hotel are available in the MSc thesis and the website (Cruiming 2013).

765



! REFERENCES Anonymous., 2011. ‘A Beira e o Grande Hotel da Beira’, The Delagoa Bay Blog, viewed 21 March 2013, . Cruiming, RR., 2013. ‘Grande Hotel – Beira, Mozambique’, MSc thesis, TU Delft. Summary also available at: . Cuperus, Y.J., 1996. ‘Housing for the millions: The challenge ahead’, Conference Paper, International Housing Conference, Hong-Kong. Cuperus, Y.J., 2001. ‘An introduction to Open Building’, Conference Paper, The Ninth Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction, Singapore, National University of Singapore. Habraken, N.J., 1961. De dragers en de mensen: Het einde van de massawoningbouw, Scheltema & Holkema, Amsterdam. Habraken, N.J., 1972. Supports: An alternative to mass housing, The Architectural Press, London. Ivo, F., 2008. Estudo preliminar para a desocupação e demolição do Grande Hotel na Beira, Franciso M. Ivo Arquitecto, Beira. Lança, M., 2010. We, the ones from the Grande Hotel da Beira, viewed 21 March 2013, . Newitt, M., 1994. A History of Mozambique, Hurst & Co. Publishers LTD, London. Makgetla, I., 2010. Building Beira: a municipal turnaround in Mozambique 2003-2010, viewed 21 March 2013, . McDonough, W & Braungart, M., 2002. Cradle to cradle, North Point Press, New York. Rolletta, P., 2006. ‘O delírio de um Grande Hotel’, Savana, September 2006. Stoops, L., 2011. Grande Hotel, documentary, Serendipity Films, St. Antelinks.

766



! REPURPOSING ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION TO COMBAT CATASTROPHIC STRUCTURAL FAILURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A NIGERIAN CASE STUDY! Prof. Olu Ola Ogunsote, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Prof. Joseph Olasehinde Afolayan, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Dr. Chinwuba Arum, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Prof. Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria, [email protected] Abstract Regular and calamitous collapse of buildings is a major concern in Nigeria. To combat this menace, stakeholders have tried to identify its causes and make recommendations for its amelioration. This paper discusses the major building collapses in history and gives examples of collapses in Nigeria that have claimed lives, and it also identifies their causes. The profit motive and professional incompetence or negligence epitomise major facilitators of substandard structures that lead to structural failure, with immeasurable human costs. In Nigeria, these two facilitators are manifest in several processes and activities in the design and construction of buildings. The paper maintains that it is possible to strike a balance between quality and quantity in building structures, and recommends re-envisioning of the training of architects, engineers and other professional in the construction industry. The deficiencies in the training, practical exposure and ethical orientation of student architects, engineers and quantity surveyors are highlighted. These shortcomings can be ameliorated by requisite adjustments to the curriculum, more rigorous field training of students, emphasis on project management skills, and greater integration of the disciplines responsible for the built environment. This integration should include colocation of the disciplines in the same or adjacent faculties, course sharing, teaching of architectural design and structural analysis courses by subject experts, emphasis on multidisciplinary design software such as Revit, and encouragement of teamwork by encouraging the use of some form of Building Information Modelling (BIM) for the design, analysis and costing of structures. The establishment of multi-disciplinary consulting firms should be encouraged by removing legal bottlenecks to registration, and by giving them preference in the Public Procurement Act. Keywords: architecture, education, engineering, Nigeria, structural failure. INTRODUCTION Incidents of catastrophic building collapse in Nigeria have increased with urbanization, while publicity of these calamitous events has become widespread and practically instantaneous, especially with the proliferation of social media. The response of the emergency services is now timelier; the politicians make more noise and threaten stiffer sanctions against erring parties. This is sometimes followed by the demolition of adjacent buildings that were suddenly discovered to be structurally unsound. After a few days or weeks of media frenzy attention shifts to other breaking news. However, for the orphaned and widowed, bereaved and deprived, amputees and disfigured, destitute and broken hearted, the harrowing descent into depression would have just commenced. The culprits most often than not walk away as free men, and suffer only material losses. Their collaborators sometimes suffer no losses at all. This social menace is a cause for great concern, and architects are usually next in line after engineers on the roll call of suspects, even when the contractor or owner is obviously at fault. Many studies have identified the immediate and remote causes of these structural failures, and also suggested means of limiting their occurrence. While some of these studies include better training as one of the remedies, this paper analyses the structural design components in the curriculum of representative Nigerian universities, and compares these with those in leading universities, including those that offer courses that combine architectural with structural engineering training. The paper argues the thesis that repurposing and better integration of architectural and structural engineering training can reduce incidences of catastrophic building collapse.

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! MAJOR BUILDING COLLAPSES IN HISTORY History is replete with the collapse of structures. The most definitive of these still remains the Tower of Babel as documented in the biblical Book of Genesis (Plate 1). This brick tower was designed so that the “top may reach unto heaven” (Genesis 11:4), but its building was discontinued after God confounded their speech and scattered them upon the face of the Earth (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014). The Third Apocalypse of Baruch describes how they “sought to pierce the heavens, saying, Let us see (whether) the heaven is made of clay, or of brass, or of iron” (Greek Apocalypse of Baruch 3:5-8). The assumption from the text of Genesis is that the tower collapsed with age, but the Book of Jubilees documents how God overturned the tower with a great wind, and also gave the height as 2,484 metres, which is about three times the height of the Burj Khalifa (Jubilees 10:18-27; Charles 1913). The Burj Khalifa (Plate 2), being much shorter than the Tower of Babel has a more modest goal of reaching the sky.

Plate 1: Artist’s impression of the Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1563) (Source: Open History Society 2014).

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Plate 2: The Burj Khalifa in Dubai. Standing at 830 metres, this remains the tallest building and the tallest manmade structure in the world. Much like the Tower of Babel, the Burj Khalifa aims to reach from the earth to the sky (Source: Photograph by the authors 2011). Other examples of building collapse in the Bible are less nebular, but probably more dramatic. In the Book of Judges, Samson toppled the two main pillars upon which the house stood, and killed himself and all the

769



! Philistines within (Judges 16: 28-30). The Book of Joshua describes how the walls of the City of Jericho collapsed after the Israelites marched around it seven times, blew their horns and shouted (Joshua 6: 1-27). While theologians and archaeologists debate with historians and scientists about the veracity of these biblical building collapses, written history has sufficient cases of catastrophic building collapses dating from the Roman Empire to the present time. Many of these structures were bridges and masts, but amphitheatres, residential buildings, office towers and many other high-rise buildings have been known to collapse (Table 1). The most dramatic of these is the collapse of the 110-storey twin towers at the World Trade Centre in New York after the September 11 terror attack of 2001 (Plates 3 and 4). More recently, the 2013 collapse of the Rana Plaza garment factory in Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh which killed more than 1,100 workers and injured 2,500 others shocked the world (Plate 5). Table 1: Major building collapses in history. Year

Structural collapse

Location

Casualties

27

Fidenae amphitheatre collapse

Fidenae, Italia, Roman Empire

More than 20,000.

140

Upper tier collapse of the Circus Maximus

Rome, Italia, Roman Empire

About 13,000.

1973

Skyline Plaza, a 24-storey apartment building

Virginia, USA

14 killed, 34 injured.

1986

6-storey Hotel New World

Singapore


1993

6-storey Royal Plaza Hotel

Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand


1995

Sampoong Department Store

Seoul, South Korea


2001

110-storey Twin Towers, World Trade Centre

New York, USA

2,606 killed in the towers and on the ground.

2010

Tenement building

New Delhi, India


2012

20-storey high-rise office building, 10-storey and 4-storey buildings

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

At least 17 killed.

2013

Building under construction

Thane, Mumbai


2013

Rana Plaza Garment Factory

Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh

More than 1100 killed, more than 2500 injured.

(Source: Internet search).

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!

Plate 3: Dramatic collapse of the Twin Towers at the World Trade Centre in New York after the September 11 terror attack of 2001 (Source: Google Images).

Plate 4: Ground Zero: Gaping hole left after the collapse of the Twin Towers at the World Trade Centre in New York after the September 11 terror attack of 2001 (Source: Authors’ photograph, 2005).

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!

Plate 5: Collapse of Rana Plaza Garment Factory in Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh (Source: Tamal 2014). EXAMPLES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE IN NIGERIA Building collapse in Nigeria is very common and well documented. A recent national technical workshop organised by the Nigerian Building and Roads Research Institute examined the history, causes, cost and consequences of building failures in Nigeria (Akindoyeni 2012; Aliyu 2012; Alufohai 2012; Atume 2012; Ejeh 2012; Ike 2012; Jambol 2012 and Matawal 2012). Several authors have published research findings about the same subject, and made various recommendations (Adedeji 2013; Akinwale 2010; Ayodeji 2011; Dimuna 2010; Ede 2010; Fakere, Fadairo & Fakere 2012; Ibrahim 2013; Nigerian Building & Road Research Institute 2011; Olanitori 2011; Oloyede, Omoogun & Akinjare 2010; Olusola, Ojambati & Lawal, 2011; and Taiwo & Afolami 2011). These building collapses often claim scores of victims, and are most common in urban areas (Table 2). Table 2. Examples of major building collapse in Nigeria. Date

Structural collapse

Location

Casualties

October 1974

Multi-storey building under construction

Mokola, lbadan

27 killed.

June 1977

School building

Kaduna

16 killed, many injured.

August 1977

Housing Estate

Barnawa, Kaduna

28 killed

September 1987

Residence

Idusagbe Lane, ldumota, Lagos

17 killed.

June 1990

Sague Comprehensive Primary and Secondary School

Port Harcourt

50 killed.

June 1997

Three-storey building under construction

Enugu

20 killed.

June 2005

4-storey building

Aba

25 killed, many injured.

July 2005

3-storey building

Lagos

30 dead, many injured

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! Date

Structural collapse

Location

Casualties

July 2005

5-storey office building

Port-Harcourt

30 killed, many injured

July 2006

4-storey block of flats

Lagos

25 killed.

July 2006

Block of 36 flats, penthouse and shops

Ebute Metta, Lagos


August 2006

4-storey building

Lagos

50 killed, many injured

July 2008

Four-Storey Shopping Centre under construction

Utako District, Abuja


June 2009

2-storey building

Iddo, Lagos


August 2010

4-storey building

2 Ikole Street, Garki 2, Abuja

21 killed.

July 2011

3-storey building

6 Mogaji close, Idumota, Lagos

18 killed.

(Sources: Adedeji 2013; Dimuna 2010; Fakere, Fadairo & Fakere 2012; Ike 2012). The most notorious cities for building collapse are Lagos, Port Harcourt, Abuja and Enugu (Plates 6, 7 and 8). The higher incidence of collapse of buildings in highly populated areas has been ascribed to the high demand for housing and services, leading to shylock landlords engaging in sharp practices in order to increase their profit.

Plate 6: The two-storey building in Jakande Estate, Isolo, Lagos that collapsed in November 2012. Two sisters died in the incident (Source: Google images).

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Plate 7: Remains of a 6-Storey building that collapsed at Maryland, Lagos in November 2011 (Source: Matawal 2012).

Plate 8: Collapse of a two-storey building owned by the Nigerian Navy in Gwarimpa, Abuja. (Source: Ike 2012). STRUCTURAL FAILURE IN BUILDINGS Failure is an unacceptable difference between expected and observed performance. A failure can be considered as occurring in a component when that component can no longer be relied upon to fulfil its principal functions (Roddis 1993). Structural failure occurs when ultimate limit states are surpassed resulting in collapse, overturning or buckling. On the other hand, structural failure due to serviceability limit states being exceeded leads to deformation, cracking, vibration, etc. (British Standards Institute 2001, 2002). Building collapse is therefore necessarily characterised by structural failure due to ultimate limit states being exceeded.

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! Limit State Design (LSD) A limit state is a set of performance criteria such as vibration levels, deflection, strength, stability, buckling, twisting, or collapse that must be met when a structure is subject to loads. Limit states design of structures is based on the limit states beyond which structures become unfit for their intended use. The reliability of a structure is determined using two limit states: the Serviceability Limit States (SLS) and the Ultimate Limit States (ULS). Limit state design is known as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) in the United States. The serviceability limit states are the limits beyond which specified service criteria are no longer met. Structures that exceed serviceability limits may cause occupant discomfort in everyday use, when they are subject to routine loads, even though they may not collapse. For example, when the vibration of a floor can be felt by users, or a bridge can be seen to sway, or a truss can be seen to sag, then the structures might have exceeded their serviceability limit states, and users may feel unsafe in such structures. Ultimate limit states concern the safety of the whole or part of the structure, and are evidenced by failure of structural members when exceeded. The ultimate limit states specify the conditions under which a structure may collapse when subjected to peak loads. Examples are general yielding, rupture, buckling, overturning and fractures. Limit state design covers the variability of material strength, loading and structural performance. Ultimate limit states are determined by limit states for strength, stability, fatigue, brittle fracture and structural integrity. CAUSES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE The University of the West of England, Bristol (2009) classified the causes of building collapse under the following general headings: ● Bad design. ● Faulty construction. ● Foundation failure. ● Extraordinary loads. ● Unexpected failure modes. ● Quality of materials. ● Quality of workmanship. ● Cost cutting measures. ● Acts of God and environmental disasters. ● Soil failure. ● Combination of causes. Dimuna (2010) listed the following as the causes of building failure or collapse in Nigeria: ● Deficient structural drawings. ● Absence of proper supervision. ● Alteration of approved drawings. ● Building without approved drawings. ● Approval of technically deficient drawings. ● Illegal alterations to existing buildings. ● Absence of town planning inspection or monitoring of sites. ● Clients’ penchant to cut corners. ● Use of substandard materials. ● Inefficient workmanship (labour). ● Use of acidic and salty water. ● The activities of quacks. ● Clients’ over reliance on contractors for decision making on site. The Nigerian factor A rather interesting proposition about the causes of building failure by Ede (2010) is that there are some causes that are unique to, or at least more prominent in Nigeria, and he dubbed these the Nigerian factor. According to him, the Nigerian factor in the building industry rears up its ugly head in different forms such

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! as corruption, lawlessness and presumptions that any engineer or professional in the built environment can assume all forms responsibility in a building process without the basic skills required for it. Atume (2012) further expanded this argument by listing the forms in which the Nigerian factor appears in the building industry and they include the following: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Corruption. Lack of supervision. Bad governance. Misuse and abuse of authority by those in authority especially some of the professionals. Insufficient quality control and standards. Lack of sanctions against erring professionals and landlords. Illegal conversion of buildings which often lead to structural deficiencies. Non adherence to approval regulations. Lack of soil investigation and improper interpretation of site conditions. Negligence. Unethical dealings between project promoters and the relevant planning authorities. Non-involvement of registered professionals in one or more stages of the project. Poor and bad construction practices. Incompetent and low quality workmanship. Greed. Corner cutting by the client or the contractor. Hasty construction. Use of poor quality materials or poor or inadequate formwork. Construction by all-comers due to the perception of engineering as an easy access window to make quick money.

Tempting as this proposition about the uniqueness of Nigeria in matters concerning structural failure of buildings may be, reports from numerous developing nations, and even poor regions of developed countries suggest that the causes of building collapse are more universal than national. Pecuniary facilitators of building collapse One factor that underlies most of the causes of building collapse is greed. There is a tendency by most stakeholders in the building industry to maximise profit, often at the expense of safety or moral standards. This greed is most obvious from the activities of clients, owners and contractors, but even professionals and consultants sometimes delivering substandard or incomplete services. Many professionals are more interested in the fees they will collect than in the quality of their services, and therefore engage in various unprofessional practices such as fee undercutting, supplanting, bribery, collusion with contractors and negligence. This greed is most noticeable in the following practices. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Cost savings by not using qualified and certified consultants and workers. Use of cheaper but structurally inferior materials. Use of insufficient quantities of, or omission of key structural elements. Building on cheaper but unstable soil without necessary reinforcement. Cost savings by neglecting essential tests. Cost savings through elimination or reduction of structural redundancy, and considering such as unnecessary luxury. Cost savings through reduction or elimination of regular maintenance of critical structural elements. Ignoring signs and warnings of imminent structural failure because of the cost implications of repairs.

The dichotomy of quantum and quality in building structures A recurring theme in the cases of collapsed buildings is the poor structural quality of buildings being a trade-off for making higher profits. This zero-sum postulation is however false, since it is possible to design and build safe buildings at reasonable cost, and with reasonable profit. This is a challenge to professionals, researchers and academicians, who must find better and smarter ways of building stronger, safer and cheaper buildings. The use of novel materials in rebuilding devastated communities after disasters is gaining ground, although the issue of the often significantly higher reconstruction costs need to be addressed.

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! THE NEED FOR REPURPOSING ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION This paper has identified several deficiencies in the training, practical exposure and ethical orientation of building professionals. These deficits may be reduced by re-envisioning architectural and structural engineering education. Deficiencies in the curriculum The challenges of building collapse and the increasing demands on the construction industry necessitate regular review of the curriculum of architecture and structural engineering programmes. Yet, many universities operate outdated curricula, and graduates often do not possess the skills anticipated by employers, or those required to operate professional consultancy services successfully. Inadequate field training of students Exposing students to more rigorous field training through frequent field trips and well supervised Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is necessary to enhance the practical experience acquired by students in school. The choice of SIWES workplaces by students is sometimes not based on the quality of practical experience they would acquire, but more on the remuneration and working conditions. Employers sometimes consider these students as cheap labour and not as trainees, and therefore do not expose them to necessary challenges and supervision. Lack of emphasis on project management skills While some form of project management or professional practice procedures is taught in architecture and engineering schools, they are rarely taught by professionals who are fully engaged in professional practice, and the mode of teaching rarely emphasizes real life case studies. Yet the complexity of large projects requires refined project conceptualization, financing and management skills. This skill deficit is worsened by the non-recognition or poor remuneration of project managers, and the architect or engineer is often made to perform the required duties without additional compensation. This often leads to disconnect between the various professionals and the ensuing mistakes and inefficiencies can increase the risk of structural failure. Non-integration of the disciplines responsible for the built environment The empire syndrome and the regulation of architecture and structural engineering programmes by different professional bodies make integration of these programmes challenging. This also applies to related disciplines such as building and quantity surveying. These professionals need to work as a team on practically all large construction sites, yet their training is largely compartmentalized. Poor professional ethics Some consultants emphasize the business aspect of their practices over the social responsibility expectations, and over the ethical guides of their professions. They perform as little of their duties as possible, and demand maximum compensation. They are also easily compromised, and they enter into shady deals with contractors, and even with other consultants. They employ unqualified assistants, who they underpay. The best place to inculcate good professional ethics is in school and during tutelage, thus the curriculum and practical exposure must emphasize this. EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATION OF ARCHITECTURE AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMMES All schools of architecture offer structural analysis and design in one form or the other. The number of credit hours offered varies, but most schools offer at least four courses on at least two levels. Departments of civil engineering sometimes offer one or two courses directly related to architectural design. The building structures courses in architecture schools are usually taught by architects, and since there is no continuing education programmes for lecturers, the tendency is for the currency and standard of the building structures curriculum to decline over time. This has led to a situation whereby architecture graduates can rarely independently complete structural analysis and design of even small structures. The architectural design courses in departments of engineering are also taught by engineers who rarely possess the currency in professional architectural practice to make much impact on the students.

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! Attempts have been made by some universities to offer degrees that combine architectural design with structural engineering. Others have located architecture departments in faculties of engineering, and many courses in such architecture programmes are taught by engineers. Princeton University, Princeton, USA: Architecture and Engineering programme This unique programme is offered jointly by the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the School of Architecture, and it combines the curricula of the two schools. The programme has two options: the structures focus and the architecture focus. The architecture option has a strong emphasis on architecture theory, history, and practice, and is designed for students planning to do graduate work in architecture or to practice engineering in consultation with architects and planners. It includes 6 engineering science and 2 engineering design courses (Table 3). The structures option has a strong emphasis on civil and environmental engineering, and is designed for students who intend to become practicing engineers and may go to graduate school in architecture or engineering. It includes 3 compulsory architecture courses (Table 4). Table 3: Engineering courses offered in the architecture option of the Architecture and Engineering programme, Princeton University, Princeton, USA. Course type Engineering science requirements

Engineering design requirements

Subject code CEE 205 CEE 262A

Course title

Level / comments

Mechanics of Solids

200

Structures and the Urban Environment

200

CEE 312

Statics of Structures

300 (or CEE 361)

CEE 361

Matrix Structural Analysis and Introduction to Finite-Element Methods

300 (or CEE 312)

CEE 364

Materials in Civil Engineering

300

ARC 311

Building Science and Technology: Building Systems

300

ARC 374

Computational Design

300

CEE 366

Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures

300

CEE 461

Design of Large Scale Structures: Buildings

400 (or CEE 462)

CEE 462

Design of Large Scale Structures: Bridges

400 (or CEE 461)

(Source: Princeton University, Princeton 2014). Table 4: Architecture courses offered in the structures option of the Architecture and Engineering programme, Princeton University, Princeton, USA. Course type

Subject code

Course title

Engineering science requirement

ARC 374

Computational Design

300

Track specific requirements

ARC 203

Introduction to Architectural Thinking

200

778

Level



! Course type

Subject code

Course title

ARC 204

Introduction to Architectural Design

200

Junior Independent Work

300

ARC

Level

Source: Princeton University, Princeton 2014. Howard University, Washington, USA: School of Architecture and Design The School of Architecture and Design is in the College of Engineering, Architecture and Computer Sciences. There are several structures courses offered in the 5-year programme (Table 5). Table 5: Engineering courses offered in the School of Architecture and Design in the College of Engineering, Architecture and Computer Sciences, Howard University, Washington, USA. Course code

Course title

Credit units

Level

Semester

ARCH-501

Structures I (Statics)

3

300

Fall

ARCH-502

Structures II (Strength)

3

300

Spring

ARCH-503

Structures III (Structural Innovations)

3

400

Fall

ARCH-504

Structural Innovations (Elective)

3

400

Spring

Total

12

Source: Howard University, Washington, USA 2014. Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland: Master of Science in Architecture programme The Faculty of Architecture offers a 5-year programme, which is divided into a 7-semester first degree programme and a 3-semester second degree programme. Structural engineering courses are taught by structural engineers but the courses are specifically tailored to architecture students (Table 6). Table 6: Engineering courses offered by the Faculty of Architecture, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland. Subject code

Course title

ECTS credits

Level

Semesters

I-B-3

Building Mechanics

3

100

First

I-B-3

Building Mechanics

3

100

Second

I-C-14

Building Structures

3

200

First

I-C-14

Building Structures

2

200

Second

II-C-4

Building Structures

2

400

Second

II-C-4

Building Structures

3

500

First

Total

18

Source: Politechnika Krakowska, Wydzial Architektury 2014. University of Jos (UniJos): Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme The University of Jos offers a 4-year Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme. Structural analysis and design courses are offered at the 200, 300 and 400 levels (Table 7).

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! Table 7: Structural engineering design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, University of Jos, Jos. Course code

Course title

Number of credit units

Level

Semester

ARC 245

Building Structure and Architectural Forms I

2

200

First

ARC 246

Building Structures and Architectural Forms II

2

200

Second

ARC 345

Building Structures and Architectural Forms III

2

300

First

ARC 443

Building Structures and Architectural Forms V

2

400

First

ARC 444

Building Structures and Architectural Forms VI

2

400

Second

Total

10

(Source: University of Jos, Jos 2014). Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA): Bachelor of Technology in Architecture programme This 5-year programme includes four compulsory courses offered at the second, third and fourth levels (Table 8). The courses cover basic theory of structures and reinforced concrete, steel and timber design. Students gain practical experience during the one-semester Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) programme which all students must participate in during the second semester of the fourth year of training. The architectural training inculcates in them basic engineering skills, such that while taking responsibility for the aesthetics of the building, the basic structure would have been proposed along with the form. The use of CAD is not standardised in the department, and there is no standard software used either for architectural or structural design. Many students however use older versions of AutoCAD, ArchiCAD and Revit Architecture for architectural design. Table 8. Structural engineering design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Course code

Course title


Level

Semester

ARC 211

Theory of Structures I

2

200

First

ARC 212

Theory of Structures II

2

200

Second

ARC 304

Building Structures (Reinforced Concrete Design)

3

300

Second

ARC 411

Building Structures (Steel/Timber Design)

3

400

First

Total

10

(Source: The Federal University of Technology 2012). Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA): Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) Programme Students are given architectural perspective by being acquainted with dimensional awareness, graphic communication in relation to the environment and free-hand drawing of forms in terms of shades, light and shadow. They learn about isometric and perspective projections along with structural detailing. They gain environmental, visual and detailing skills which basically fuse the skills of an architect with those of an engineer (Table 9).

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! Table 9: Architectural design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Course code

Course title


CVE 409

Elements of structural detailing & architecture

3

Total

3

Level

Semester

400

First

(Source: Federal University of Technology 2012). University of Lagos, Lagos (UNILAG): Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme This 4-year programme includes four compulsory courses offered at the second, third and fourth levels (Table 10). Table 10: Structural engineering design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, University of Lagos, Lagos. Course code

Course title


Level

Semester

ARC 231

Structures I

2

200

First

ARC 232

Structures II

2

200

Second

ARC 331

Structures III

2

300

First

ARC 431

Structures IV

2

400

First

Total

8

Source: University of Lagos, Lagos 2014. Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria: Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme This 4-year degree programme offers building structures at 200, 300 and 400 levels. The courses are taught by architects, but sometimes by structural engineers (Table 11). Table 11: Architectural design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Course code

Course title


Level

Semester

ARCH 205

Building Structures I

2

200

First

ARCH 206

Building Structures II

2

200

Second

ARCH 305

Building Structures III

2

300

First

ARCH 306

Building Structures IV

2

300

Second

ARCH 405

Building Structures V

2

400

First

ARCH 406

Building Structures VI

2

400

Second

Total

12

(Source: Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 2014). PROPOSED INTEGRATION OF ARCHITECTURE AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING COURSES

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! The enhancement of the integration of architecture and structural engineering programmes in Nigerian universities can be achieved in several ways. Colocation of the disciplines in the same or adjacent schools or faculties Schools and Faculties of Environmental Technology or Environmental Sciences in Nigeria are commonly made up of the Departments of Architecture, Building, Estate Management, Quantity Surveying, Surveying and Geo-informatics, and Urban and Regional Planning. Sometimes the Departments of Fine and Applied Arts, Industrial Design, and Geography are included. Civil Engineering Departments are found in Schools or Faculties of Engineering Technology or Engineering. Although Civil Engineering Departments offer many options, of which structural engineering is only one, the tight relationship between structural engineering and other building construction disciplines is a compelling justification of their colocation in the same or adjacent schools or faculties. Course sharing The three types of courses offered in Nigerian universities are the core or compulsory courses, the cognate courses which must be passed before graduation, and the electives. All universities operate some form of course sharing, with students taking courses mounted in other departments within the same school or faculty, and even taking courses mounted in other schools or faculties, for example the university wide courses which are taken by all students. Architecture Departments are however sited in Schools or Faculties other than that in which Civil Engineering Departments reside, and course sharing between these two departments is very rare. Introducing course sharing between the two departments will enhance their integration. Teaching of architectural design and structural analysis and design courses by subject experts Structural analysis and design courses offered by Schools of Architecture should be largely taught by registered structural engineers who should be permanent faculty members in the Architecture Department. This will require creation of career paths for them, so that they can be specially assessed for promotion purposes, and be able to become Professors of either architecture or structural engineering, depending on the focus of their research. Likewise, architects should form part of the faculty of Structural Engineering Departments, and conducive environment be created for their academic and professional development. Emphasis on multidisciplinary design software Software for architectural design and for structural analysis and design has traditionally been in separate packages, although many of these packages allow some form of model transfer, especially through intermediate file formats. Current versions of Revit however combine the software for architectural design, structural analysis and design; and mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineering design. Promoting the use of such software across departments will reduce the learning curve when sharing courses, and will simplify teamwork and model sharing. Encouragement of the use of BIM software for the design, analysis and costing of building structures Building Information Modelling (BIM) enhances collaboration between all stakeholders in the conceptualization, design, construction, maintenance and even utilization of building projects by using an intelligent 3D model to inform and communicate project decisions. Although several challenges remain in the universal adoption of BIM, it is especially beneficial in the synergy between architectural design and structural analysis and design. Encouragement of multi-disciplinary consulting firms The integration of architectural design with structural analysis and design needs to be carried forward from the classroom to professional practice. Most consulting firms are uni-professional and sole-proprietorships, and the principals rarely gained enough experience while they were interns, and before they set up their own practices. Teamwork and collaboration is better achieved in multi-disciplinary consultancies with an inclusive ownership structure, such as limited liability companies. The major impediment is the requirement by various regulatory bodies that their regulatees own majority shares in registered consultancy firms. The Public Procurement Act should also give preference to multi-disciplinary consulting firms.

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! CONCLUSION Calamitous structural failure of buildings is caused by many factors, most of which are technological and social. Although professional training and curriculum development are less significant factors, these building collapses can be reduced by repurposing architectural and engineering education. This reenvisioning would necessarily address the identified deficiencies of outdated or poor curricula, insufficient acquisition of practical experience in school, lack of emphasis on project management skills, inadequate integration of the disciplines responsible for the built environment and poor professional ethics. There would also be need to revisit the knowledge sets that building professionals must acquire, with clear delineations of areas of overlap of professional responsibility, which will form the basis for curriculum review. This repurposing and integration would however be difficult since it must change the status quo significantly, and it can only be partial at best if the specialization required of the various disciplines is to be retained and enhanced. Inculcating social responsibility and professional ethics through curriculum review can also be challenging and reinforcement of these ideals during internships and through continuing professional development programmes can be crucial. RECOMMENDATIONS While the benefits and disadvantages of tighter integration of architectural and structural engineering programmes require further study, it promises to reduce the incidences of calamitous structural failure of buildings. This integration may be achieved by colocation of these disciplines in the same or adjacent schools or faculties, course sharing between the programmes, teaching of architectural design and structural analysis and design courses by subject experts, emphasis on multidisciplinary design software and encouragement of the use of BIM software for the design, analysis and costing of building structures; and the encouragement of multi-disciplinary consulting firms. REFERENCES Adedeji, AJ., 2013. ‘Environmental disasters and management - Case study of building collapse in Nigeria’, International Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 39-45. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 2014. B.Sc. Architecture: Departmental courses offered. Viewed 3 April 2014, . Akindoyeni, A., 2012. ‘Effective disaster management at the sites of collapsed buildings. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 147-163. Akinwale, AA., 2010. ‘The menace of inadequate infrastructure in Nigeria’, African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 207-228. Aliyu, U., 2012. ‘Role and obligation of the statutory regulatory authorities, consultants, contractors and artisans in mitigating building collapse. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 105-113. Alufohai, AJ., 2012, ‘Estimating the cost of building collapse in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 96-104. Atume, F., 2012. ‘Causative factors of building collapses in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’. Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 78-95. Ayodeji, O., 2011. ‘An examination of the causes and effects of building collapse in Nigeria’ Journal of Design and Built Environment, vol. 9, pp. 37-47.

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! British Standards Institute, 2001. BS 5950-1:2000 - Structural use of steelwork in building - Part 1: Code of practice for design - rolled and welded sections, British Standards Institute. British Standards Institute, 2002. BS 8110-1: 1997- Structural use of concrete - Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction, British Standards Institute. Charles, RH., 1913. ‘The Book of Jubilees’, in The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Cracow University of Technology, 2014. Course catalogue, viewed 3 April 2014, . Dimuna, KO., 2010. ‘Incessant incidents of building collapse in Nigeria, A challenge to stakeholders’, Global Journal of Researches in Engineering, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 75-84. Ede, AN., 2010. ‘Building collapse in Nigeria: The trend of casualties in the last decade (2000-2010)’, International Journal of Civil & Environmental Engineering, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 32-42. Ejeh, SP., 2012. ‘Issue of accountability, transparency and integrity in construction industry. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 164-174. Fakere, AA, Fadairo, G & Fakere, RA., 2012, ‘Assessment of building collapse in Nigeria Nigeria: A case of naval building, Abuja’, Nigeria International Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 584-591. Federal University of Technology, 2012. 2012-2014 Calendar, Publications committee, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Howard University, Washington, USA, 2014. Department of Architecture, School of Architecture and Design: Undergraduate courses, . Ibrahim, RB., 2013. ‘Monumental effects of building collapse in Nigerian cities: The case of Lagos Island, Nigeria’, Basic Research Journal of Engineering Innovation, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 26-31. Ike, AC., 2012. ‘Case histories of building collapses in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’. Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria, Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 55-77. Jambol, DD., 2012. ‘Building collapse phenomenon – sanctions, liabilities and legal implications. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’. Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria, Abuja, 15-16 May 2012 pp. 114-146. Matawal, DS., 2012. ‘The challenges of building collapse in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 3-54. Nigerian Building & Road Research Institute, 2011. ‘Collapse of a 6-storey building at 11 Aderibigbe Street, Maryland, Lagos, Nigeria: NBRRI’s comments’, Occasional paper of the Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute, NBRRI, Federal Ministry of Science and Technology. Olanitori, LK., 2011. ‘Causes of structural failures of a building: Case study of a building at Oba-Ile, Akure’, Journal of Building Appraisal, vol. 6 no. 3/4, pp. 277-284. Oloyede, SA, Omoogun, CB & Akinjare, OA., 2010. ‘Tackling causes of frequent building collapse in Nigeria’, Journal of Sustainable Development, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 127-132.

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! Olusola, KO, Ojambati, TS & Lawal, AF., 2011. ‘Technological and non-technological factors responsible for the occurrence of collapse buildings in South-Western Nigeria’, Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS), vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 462-469. Open History Society, 2014. Tower of Babel – Donald Trump, Viewed 3 April 2014, . Politechnika Krakowska, Wydzial Architektury, 2014. Programy wedlug semestrow na rok akademicki 2013/2014, viewed 3 April 2014, . Princeton University, Princeton, 2014. Undergraduate announcement 2013-14: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, viewed 3 April 2014, . Roddis, WMK., 1993. ‘Structural failures and engineering ethics’, American Society of Engineering (Structural Div.), vol. 119, no. 5, pp. 1539-1555. Taiwo, AA & Afolami, JA., 2011. ‘Incessant building collapse: A case of a hotel in Akure Nigeria’, Journal of Building Appraisal, vol. 6, pp. 241-248. Tamal, A., 2014. ‘Building collapse in Savar, Bangladesh’, .

viewed

3

April

2014,

University of Jos, Jos, 2014. Department of Architecture – course contents, viewed 3 April 2014, . University of Lagos, Lagos, 2014. University of Lagos Architecture curriculum handbook, viewed 3 April 2014, . University of the West of England, Bristol, 2009. Foundations, School of the Natural and Built Environment, viewed 3 April 2014, .

785



! SI SYSTEM AS USER-ORIENTED HOUSING APPROACH FOR EMERGING MARKETS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON ADAPTED DWELLINGS IN INDONESIA, SOUTH KOREA AND BRAZIL Marianne Costa, Chiba University, Japan, [email protected] Hideki Kobayashi, Chiba University, Japan, [email protected] Jiyoung Jung, Chiba University, Japan, [email protected] Abstract Building adaptation is about responding to changes in demand for property and thus, it is more prevalent in industrialized countries. In the developing world, redevelopment is encouraged rather adaptation because of the shortage or poor quality of the existing stock. The conceptual framework is based on the SI System principle, which separates decision-making in a residential environment, according to a subsystems approach that distinguishes parts that should adapt according to the user’s needs (Infill) and parts that should endure for a century or more (Support). This principle has reorganized the design and construction of residential buildings into user-oriented systems in Japan. We believe this principle can be reinterpreted and updated to harness benefits of developing industries and technologies, improved logistics, and new social values on emerging markets. In order to investigate the features for implementing the SI System principle on emerging nations, research was developed in Indonesia, South Korea and Brazil. A fieldwork study was conducted to survey about 110 multi-storey dwelling units located in metropolitan areas of Jakarta, Seoul and Sao Paulo in order to identify the conflicts between the agents involved with the management of dwelling adaptations. The methodology consisted of dwelling observation and interviews about home adaptation, contract and management methods, and work troubles and complications. Three major differences were identified, characterized and analysed in comparison to the SI System adopted in Japan. 1) Another level or sublevel of decision-making is required between the support and infill levels, especially in low income apartments in Indonesia; 2) Unlike the SI System adopted in Japan, the support should respond to facade interventions such as balcony enclosures in the three nations; 3) Construction codes in Indonesia and Brazil should be reviewed as done recently in South Korea, because they are incompatible with the actual decision-making structure. Keywords: multi-storey housing, residential open building, and dwelling adaptation INTRODUCTION The concept of Open Building, proposed by N. J. Habraken in 1970, has attracted global attention as a rational approach for enhancing the adaptability of buildings, and therefore, their lifespan. In Japan, for instance, Next21 (1994) is the most prominent Open Building project to date and includes important experiments in sustainability, such as energy conservation, recycling and urban green zones (Kendall & Teicher, 2000). Moreover, open building applications in developed countries have promoted advances in the industrialisation of residential furniture and equipment. In turn, in emerging economies, residential Open Building background is still very narrow because their policies and marketing goals are more related, multiplying housing stock rather than improving its quality (Douglas, 2006). Furthermore, multi-storey dwellings have long been dismissed in housing studies as incapable of providing good dwelling conditions, mainly for people on low incomes (Malard, 1992). Hereafter, as urbanization progresses in emerging countries, housing programs to supply large demands should consider an Open Building approach in order to build sustainable residential environments. In the past two decades, market pressures, state role changes, and shifts in the global economy and society in general, have repositioned residential developments towards the consumer rather than the product. With a meaningful number of unsheltered families, some emerging countries already build custom apartments for higher income families. Residential Open Building can respond to the demands of mass customization, promoting consumer choice, disentangled property management, systemised housing production, and longer life spans of residential buildings.

786



! However, there should be different rules for decoupling and coordinating these parts in the emerging world, for 3 reasons: 1) the adaptation purposes and domestic demands are different; 2) the informal sector is a vital part of these markets; 3) the house building industry does not develop at the same speed as the economy. A survey was conducted in order to investigate these issues and other specific housing features, in Indonesia, South Korea and Brazil, by visiting 110 dwelling units in the metropolitan areas (Figure 1).

Jakarta, Indonesia, 2010 60 dwelling units; 6 public developments

Seoul, South Korea, 2011 34 dwelling units; 21 private developments

Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2012 16 dwelling units; 10 private developments

Figure 1: Multi-storey dwelling samples location SURVEY OUTLINE This research was carried out in three stages, each one corresponding to a different country. Team member natives of these countries guided the fieldwork activities, which were divided into three parts. The first part aimed to clarify dwelling adaptation purposes and methods, and consisted of multi-storey dwelling observation, with evidence registered by photos and videos, complemented by dwellers interviews, and before and after sketches. The second part aimed to clarify the adaptation services and management methods and issues in the housing market of each country and consisted of interviews with construction companies, furniture makers, and condominium managers. The third part aimed to investigate the local aspects and consisted of small adjustments to the interview content, designed and interpreted by the native team member (Figure 2). This paper focuses on the first part of the study.

Team Indonesia

Team South Korea

Team Brazil

Figure 2: Research teams in fieldwork activities The information was classified, assembled into a database, and analysed in order to identify the adaptation market demands and Open Building prospects in each country. Table 1 shows the apartment buildings main features and the amount of dwelling unit samples observed. Jakarta, Indonesia, 2010 Code Constr. Location ID01 1980 Tanah Abang ID02 1992 Tanah Abang ID03 1995 Kemayoran

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Blocks Households 60 960 57 2844 6 910

Storeys P+3 5 10

Unit Area 34.50m2 18.50m2 24.00m2

Plan 2LDK 2R 1K

Samples 10 10 10



! ID04 2001 Tanah Abang ID05 2005 Cempaka Putih ID06 2006 Cempaka Putih Seoul, South Korea, 2011 Code Constr. Location KR01 2005 Songdo KR02 2009 Songdo KR03 2007 Songpa KR04 1979 Gangnam KR05 1983 Gangnam KR06 1999 Gangnam KR07 1983 Seocho KR08 1998 Yongsan KR09 2008 Songpa KR10 2006 Gangnam KR11 1992 Nowon KR12 1988 Yang-Cheong KR13 2003 Dongjak KR14 1972 Seongbuk KR15 2006 Nowon KR16 1998 Nowon KR17 2000 Nowon KR18 2005 Seongbuk KR19 1970 Yongsan KR20 2001 Nowon KR21 2001 Nowon

6 1 1

600 80 100

Blocks Households 18 1048 6 1596 46 3696 7 560 7 644 1 19 6 481 9 1001 72 5678 34 30002 16 180 33 2276 7 613 7 357 4 225 25 690 11 436 15 782 9 228 14 1601 25 3003

Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2012 Code Constr. Location Blocks Households BR01 1970 Pinheiros 1 20 BR02 1973 Moema 2 80 BR03 1975 Alto de Pinheiros 6 480 BR04 1976 Pinheiros 1 28 BR05 1983 Vila Olimpia 1 32 BR06 1986 Vila Madalena 2 24 BR07 1987 Vila Madalena 1 14 BR08 1987 Moema 1 32 BR09 1991 Itaim Bibi 1 32 BR10 1991 Santana 1 68 *B=Basement; P=Pilotis; A=Attic for penthouse apartments

6 6 6 Storeys 25 64 32 14 14 5 13 22 34 23 15 15 24 7 15 23 10 20 6 20 28

Storeys B+P+10 B+P+20 2B+P+20 B+P+14 B+P+8+A 2B+P+12 2B+P+14 2P+B+16+A 2B+P+8+A B+P+17+A

22.20m2 37.80m2 27.60m2

1LDK 2LDK 2LDK

10 10 10

Unit Area Plan 108.90m2 3LDK 141.90m2 4LDK 108.90m2 3LDK 148.50m2 4LDK 120.05m2 4LDK 254.10m2 5LDK 181.50m2 4LDK 141.90m2 4LDK 148.50m2 3-4LDK 141.90m2 4LDK 59.40m2 1-3LDK 89.10m2 3LDK 108.90m2 3LDK 49.50m2 2DK 105.60m2 3LDK 79.20m2 3LDK 105.60m2 3LDK 79.20m2 3LDK 49.50m2 2DK 75.90m2 3LDK 148.50m2 4LDK

Samples 3 3 1 3 1 2 2 1 2 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Unit Area 120.60m2 102.64m2 143.03m2 188.70m2 62.54m2 129.36m2 123.42m2 125.33m2 61.49m2 83.32m2

Samples 5 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Plan 3LDK 3LDK 3LDK 4LDK 2LDK 4LDK 3LDK 3LDK 1LDK 3LDK

Table 1: Multi-storey dwelling characteristics MULTI-STOREY DWELLING OBSERVATION Original Design Floor Plan Features In Brazil, residential building samples are shorter in height, number of blocks and households, but the units are larger, especially compared to Indonesia (1LDK apartments in Sao Paulo occupy almost three times the area of 1LDK apartments in Jakarta), and can be justified by the lower level of urban densification and households with higher income. The samples floor plan design is mainly represented by 2LDK in Indonesia,

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! 3LDK in Brazil and 4LDK in South Korea. A distinct pattern was found at ID02, which consists of two rooms and develops the communal space concept for living room, kitchen and toilet (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Original floor plan classification Adaptable Features It was found that in Indonesia, most of the samples were deprived of interior and exterior cladding, and fitting kitchen sink in their original design. In South Korea, a few samples were built with the balcony already enclosed, and some had floor plan and finishing options during the construction period. And in Brazil, the presence of bedroom suites (master bedroom including private bathroom) and reversible rooms, or maid’s rooms (including a service bathroom) are very common. All these characteristics cause a different impact on dwellers choice and the appropriation of the dwelling environment, and this will reflect on the dwelling adaptations that will be examined in the next chapter (Figure 4).

Bare Finishing at ID04

Design Options at KR02

Reversible Room at BR08

Figure 4: Adaptable features Households Profile Regarding the household income level, the selected samples of Indonesia showed lower income than those of South Korea and Brazil. However, in Indonesia, the dwellings were supplied by the government, while in South Korea and Brazil, they were supplied by the private sector. The tenure can be classified in ownership and rental in Indonesia and Brazil, and ownership and leasehold in South Korea. Figures 5 and 6 show the household income, and tenure rates of each country.

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!

*Note: Monthly wages in the original currencies (Indonesian Rupiah, Korean Won and Brazilian Real) were converted in US dollars exchange value in each country at the moment of each survey and classified according to World Bank Atlas income division of 2011, 2012 and 2013, respectively. Figure 5: Household income classification

Figure 6: Household tenure classification SUPPORT AND INFILL ADAPTATION ANALYSIS In order to assess the informality on dwelling adaptations, the input of individual decisions within the building levels was investigated. Hence, by analysis of fieldwork data, several adaptation types were distinguished and sorted according to the SI System division (Table 2). SI System Support

Infill

Subsystems Base Building Common Level Boundary Level Interior Level

Decision-Making None Collective decision (HOA agreements) Individual decision according with rules Individual decision

Components Columns, beams, foundations Waterproofing, exterior walls and cladding, elevators Window frames, entrance hall, entrance doors, balconies Partitions, cladding, fixtures, home furniture and equipment

Table 2: Adaptability according to SI system division (Japan, 2003)

790

Adaptability Fixed Adaptable Adaptable Adaptable



! Brazilian samples had the largest amount of adaptations at the interior level, with special highlight to demolished partitions. Reversible rooms were often demolished to expand adjacent rooms or converted into home-offices, home theatres or extra bedrooms. Indonesian bare finished units called for cladding and fitting improvements from interior to exterior level. Korean dwellings had the largest number of balcony enclosures. Although, according to SI System division, at boundary level, the individual decisions should follow rules, and at common level, decisions should be made collectively, dwelling observation shows that these decisions have been made individually in both countries (Figure 7).

Informal

Formal

Grey Zone

Figure 7: Individual decisions by building level In Korea, balcony enclosure has become legal since January 2006. Moreover, in developments released after this date, every individual dwelling contract is provided by a column where balcony enclosure can be chosen. According to Korean building legislation, balcony enclosure however may include one or more of the following actions: (1) installation of exterior glass sash; (2) removal of interior glass sash; (3) placement of floor cladding with same material and height as the dwelling interior. In the case of (1) only, individual decisions could be taken according with rules, and balcony enclosure would be classified as a formal adaptation. However, the sum of (1) with (2), and / or (3), that would imply dwelling expansion with modification of common level components, and thus, could be assumed as informal adaptation. Therefore, it could be assumed there is a decision-making controversy between SI division and local legislation, which was named the grey zone. The same applies to Brazil and Indonesia, where even though adaptations involving changes in the dwelling area are considered illegal, 13% to 31% of the dwelling samples were expanded through balcony enclosure or addition of common parts, regardless of the dwelling size or dwellers' income. In Indonesia, there were dwelling expansions through the addition of the front yard, common hall, attic, and roof and, in some cases, wing walls coming out of the façade, depending on which floor the unit was allocated. The exterior of each unit seems to be treated individually. In Brazil, although the dwellings are larger, there were also cases of dwelling expansion through balcony enclosure, addition of terrace space and void addition. Finally, window frames are chosen individually, regardless of a common rule in both countries. Figure 8 shows some examples of boundary and common level adaptations.

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!

ID01: Ground storey expansion

ID03: Upper storeys expansion

ID03: Random exterior cladding and window frames

BR01: Balcony expansion, with complete demolition

BR09: Penthouse expansion

BR10: EV void expansion, service lines (extra bath)

KR07: Balcony enclosure with sash removal

KR08: Balcony enclosure with random window frames

KR09: Balcony enclosure without sash removal

Figure 8: Examples of boundary and common level adaptation CONCLUSIONS In the case of Japan, balconies are regarded as part of a collective concern, because they are used as an escape route, and thus, cannot be adapted. However, balcony expansion cannot be denied in countries like Brazil and Indonesia, because it simply does not match the users’ lifestyle. Therefore, following the Korean example, Brazilian and Indonesian building policies should acknowledge balconies as elements to enable and control dwelling expansion, especially for public housing, because of the narrower areas. In Brazil, Indonesia and South Korea, the decision-making rules over adaptation of support and infill components are unclear. Without proper legislation and design rules, some apartment buildings are just deteriorating faster with insulation and waterproofing problems, but others may present risk of collapse due to informal adaptations, such as accidental removal of bearing walls or addition of wing walls overloading the structure. Moreover, the informal activity, although usually related to low cost construction, have great participation in high cost construction. Improving adaptability of multi-storey dwellings in these countries requires decoupling the building parts and instituting proper decision-making rules. This study revealed a grey, unclear zone of decisions among dwellers and neighbourhood. Considering an intermediate scale of management could enhance the sense of neighbourhood identity, inhibiting informal adaptation, a decision-making level between infill and support levels is suggested, i.e., a sector of the building managed by a smaller group of homeowners. That should differ according to building policies,

792



! condominium declarations and bylaws, and dwellers’ sense of territoriality. For instance, in the cases observed in Indonesia, with over 900 households, decision-making rules could establish cladding patterns by block and entrance design by storey or façade orientation. Similarly, the block rule could be applied in Korean cases, and the façade rule in smaller condos observed in Brazil (Table 3).

SI System Subsystems SI System Use Life Span Decision-making JP Rules Decision-making Rules (status) ID Rules (proposed)

KR

Decision-making Rules (status) Rules (proposed)

BR

Decision-making Rules (status) Rules (proposed)

Support Base Building

Infill

Common Elements Boundary Elements Common

Long

Interior Elements

Individual Short

Neighbourhood Neighbourhood Dwellers Unclear Sub-group of Group of dwellers Neighbourhood dwellers (e.g. by block) (e.g. by storey) Neighbourhood Dwellers Neighbourhood Unclear Group of dwellers Neighbourhood (e.g. by block) Neighbourhood Dwellers Community Unclear Group of dwellers Neighbourhood (e.g. by façade)

Dweller Dweller

Neighbourhood

Dwellers

Dwellers Dwellers Dwellers Dwellers

Table 3: SI system decoupled in selected countries ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was fully supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research of Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT Grant), Grant number: 22360247. REFERENCES Cuperus, Y., 2001. ‘An Introduction to Open Building’, Proceedings of the 9th Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Douglas, J., 2006. Building Adaptation, 2nd edn, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Kendall, S & Teicher, J., 2000. Residential Open Building, E & FN Spon, London and New York. Malard, ML., 1992. ‘Brazilian Low Cost Housing - Interactions and conflicts between residents and dwellings’, Doctoral thesis, University of Sheffield, Sheffield. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Tourism, 2003. Skeleton Infill Housing, Bulletin of Skeleton Infill. Sakai, K., 2013. ‘A Study on Open Building Systems through Multi-Story Dwelling Customisation in South Korea’, Master’s thesis, Chiba University, Japan. Warouw, F., 2011. ‘A Study on Open Building System for Multi-Story Housing in Indonesia – Contemporary Customisation Practices and Future Opportunities’, Doctoral thesis, Chiba University, Japan.

793



! A SURVEY STUDY OF APARTMENT REMODELING PLAN FOR THE ELDERLY IN KOREA! Jae-Hoon, Lee, Dankook University, South Korea, [email protected] Woo-Jung, Lee, Dankook University, South Korea, [email protected] Abstract In South Korea, an expanding elderly population has been accompanied by rising rates of poverty and suicide within this age group, indicating that many of the country’s senior citizens are suffering economic and social isolation. The type of housing in which Korean seniors reside can be divided into three categories: owner-occupied, rental and elderly welfare facilities. Buildings can be largely classified into two types: detached and multi-unit houses. Compared to owner-occupied and rental houses, elderly welfare facilities are limited in number and are designed to provide care for seniors with physical disabilities, not for those at risk of isolation. It is necessary to provide an appropriate type of housing that can contribute to the social and mental health of seniors at large. In this context, this study proposes co-housing for the elderly as a means to contribute to the mitigation of elderly isolation through the remodeling of permanent rental apartments in which more than half of the current residents are aged, and goes on to explore the possibility of adopting this senior co-housing remodeling plan based on the results of interviews about the co-housing plan aimed at the senior residents of permanent rental apartments. Keywords: senior housing, co-housing for the elderly, remodeling of permanent rental apartments, interview analysis. INTRODUCTION As of September 2013, South Korea’s total population had reached 51,908,531, among whom 6,234,021 (12.2%) were aged 65 and over. The overall proportion of this age group stood at 3.1% in 1970, but the ratio has continued to rise and is projected to reach 24.3% in 2030 and 37.4% in 2050 (Statistics Korea 2013). 67 provincial regions (27% of the 248 cities, counties and districts around the country) have already entered the category of super-aged societies, in which the proportion of the elderly exceeds 20% of the total population. The progressive growth of this elderly population poses numerous problems associated with economic and psychological isolation among seniors, including rising rates of elderly suicide and poverty, consequently contributing to a high social cost and burden (Lee 2013). In an effort to alleviate economic and psychological isolation among senior citizens, the first proposed step is to strengthen governmental support programs. To this end, additional budgetary and human resources are required, but there will clearly be limits upon the available resources over time as the proportion of the elderly population swells. When the government is unable to provide sufficient support, the next best strategy is to encourage the elderly to overcome isolation for themselves. However, it is unreasonable to expect them to cope with this independently in their current living conditions amid the growing social issues associated with isolation among seniors. Efforts should be made to promote favorable living conditions that allow seniors to counter isolation on their own. The 2010 data shows that the majority of Korean seniors live in detached houses (52.85%) or apartment units (36.44%) (Table 1). While more than half of the elderly population resides in detached houses, their widespread and fragmented distribution makes it difficult for the government to provide care to seniors in need. In the case of apartment complexes, where more than a third of this age group is currently found, there are dedicated spaces for elderly residents within some complexes such as senior citizen community centers, but substantial expense is required to live in these apartment complexes.

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! Table 1: South Korea's housing status and number of senior housing units Classification

Detached house

Multi-family house

Townhouse

Apartment

Number of housing units (%) Number of senior housing units (%)

4,089,491 (27.86)

1,314,452 (8.96)

536,070 (3.65)

8,576,013 (58.43)

Nonresidential building 161,393 (1.10)

2,843,928 (52.85)

335,089 (6.23)

171,012 (3.18)

1,961,045 (36.44)

69,849 (1.30)

*Unit: household Total

14,677,419 (100.00) 5,380,923 (100.00)

(Source: 2010 Housing Census) On the other hand, the number of elderly welfare facilities has increased in recent years due to the expansion of government efforts at providing senior housing. However, this increase has taken place only in the supply of medical welfare facilities for seniors suffering physical and mental disabilities (long-term care facilities and hospitals), with no substantial increase of the number of residential welfare facilities for the healthy elderly (Figure 1). As of 2012, elderly welfare facilities numbered 4,768, with an accommodating capacity of 151,808 persons (Table 2), which accounts for a mere 2.4% of the 2013 elderly population (6,234,021).

Figure 1: Trends in number of elderly welfare facilities (Source: Kwon 2012).

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! Table 2: Elderly welfare facilities by type Classification Elderly residential welfare facilities Elderly medical welfare facilities

Total

Care facilities Group homes Welfare housing Long-term care facilities Long-term care group homes

Number of facilities Unit % 285 5.98 108 2.27 23 0.48 2,610 54.74 1,742 36.54

Capacity Person % 13,164 8.67 887 0.58 4,128 2.72 118,631 78.15 14,998 9.88

Notes

4,768 100.00 151,808 100.00 (Source: 2012 Report on the Elderly and Employees at Welfare Facilities).

New types of housing are required to allow seniors to overcome isolation through their own efforts. A variety of housing options should be provided that enable seniors to make choices based on their financial and health conditions and individual preferences. The provision of new types of housing accompanied by governmental support would doubtlessly contribute to impacting the social problems associated with the expanding elderly population. PROPOSAL OF CO-HOUSING FOR THE ELDERLY This study proposes establishing co-housing for the elderly through the remodeling of existing residential properties as a way to provide new types of housing able to meet the physical and psychological needs of the elderly and allow them to independently overcome isolation. The properties selected for remodeling are permanent rental apartments, a category in which more than half of the current residents are aged 65 and over (Table 3). Table 3: Supply status of rental housing and percentage of seniors living in rental housing. Classification Public rental housing Private rental Permanent 50-year National 5-/10year Deposit Total housing rental rental rental rental Number of 190,694 101,52 455,107 41.169 19,947 808,437 449,286 housing (unit) 0 Percentage of 56.3 44.7 29.2 16.5 14.5 34.7 20.8 senior residents (%) (Source: 2012 The Results of Housing Survey on Rental Houses 2011). The supply of permanent rental apartments began in 1989. By 1994 a total of 190,000 units had been provided, with floor areas ranging from 23.1 m2 to 29.6 m2. With the passage of more than two decades since their construction, these buildings are in a dilapidated condition and are unable to respond to the changes in characteristics of residents, requiring immediate remodeling to provide improved living conditions (Yoon et al. 2013).

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(Source: 1991 Collected Housing Designs) Figure 4: Permanent rental apartments selected for remodeling. To devise a plan for senior co-housing, this study selected 31 m2 apartment units built in the 1990s by the Korea National Housing Corporation. The physical features of such units are illustrated in Figure 4. The typical floor plan illustrated in Figure 4 shows that 16 households are aligned along a 1.5 m wide singleside corridor, eight on each side of the central staircase. Each features a front balcony, a master

bedroom, a kitchen-cum-dining room, a washroom, a second bedroom and an entryway.

Each unit is separated by load-bearing walls, which makes it difficult to create a larger space than the existing one without attempting to integrate households through structural alterations. However, it is possible to alter the unit plan by removing non-load bearing walls that separate rooms within a household. Prerequisites for plan design Prior to proposing a plan, a decision was made to determine the scale and nature of the program. First, considering that the housing space should be senior-friendly, the study focused on the accessibility from street level. The vertical limit of the plan was set to the third floor from the ground level, and the

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! horizontal limit was set to the immediate left or right of the central staircase in order to prevent convergence of the lines of flow and readjust the division of space. Second, considering the structural limitations of the original space and the general economic characteristics of the South Korean elderly, shared areas such as a common living room, common dining room, common kitchen and common laundry room were selectively included to better meet the needs of residents. Third, the space for each household was designed in such a way as to enhance privacy and improve the accessibility of common areas. In order to allow seniors a choice based on their financial status, the housing was designed to include two types: one for seniors living alone and another for senior couples. The diagrams in Figure 5 illustrate the spatial layout before and after remodeling, reflecting the physical features of the abovementioned permanent rental apartments targeted for remodeling and prerequisites for plan design. Figure 6 shows proposed floor plans for senior co-housing.

Figure 5: Diagrams of spatial layout before and after remodeling.

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A: Common Entryway, B: Hall, C: Living room, D: Laundry room, E: Kitchen, F: Dining room, G: Balcony Figure 6: Plans for senior co-housing through the remodeling of permanent rental apartments.

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! The floor plans shown in Figure 6 illustrate the distinct features of each floor: The first floor contains shared areas (common entryway, living room, dining room, kitchen, and laundry room) and four residential spaces for senior couples; the second floor provides residential spaces for eight senior couples; and the third floor includes shared living rooms and residential spaces for single seniors. The line of flow for each floor was ensured by removing non-load bearing walls. The entryway of each household was removed and the shoe closets for each household were instead placed at the common entryway in order to encourage residents to remove their shoes in the indoor spaces (shared and private spaces). This was intended to promote a sense of community by providing individual rooms within a large house. The existing structural limitations made it difficult to provide an expansive common living room for residents, so small-scale common living rooms were instead distributed on each floor to provide multipurpose spaces. Spaces for individual households were designed to primarily serve as bedrooms, thereby encouraging the residents to socialize with others in shared areas outside of when they sleep. EVALUATION OF CO-HOUSING FOR THE ELDERLY Summary of evaluation A survey was conducted in order to examine the validity of the senior co-housing plan suggested in this study. The survey (interviews) for plan evaluation was carried out over ten days beginning November 26, 2013 and targeted senior citizens residing in the 7th Building Unit of the Hansol Jugong Apartment Complex located in Jeongja-dong, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea (Approximately 1,400 households reside in the 7th Building Unit of the Hansol Jugong Apartment Complex, more than 80% of which are composed of elderly living alone or elderly couples). Along with a well-structured questionnaire, a model house in 1:50 scale was utilized as a means to improve understanding and spark interest among senior residents, and thus improve participation (Figure 7).While conducting the model-assisted survey, interviewers contacted interviewees on a face-to-face basis to obtain their response to the questionnaire.

Figure 7: 1:50 Scale model house Elements of evaluation The evaluation survey questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first related to the general characteristics of the senior residents, such as gender, age, physical characteristics, whether they have a spouse (if so, questions regarding the spouse’s characteristics were offered; if not, they proceeded to the question of how long they have lived alone), period of occupancy at the Hansol Jugong Apartment Complex and whether they are provided with social assistance. The second part investigated the lifestyles and habits of the senior citizens queried. The questions included in this part addressed which household chores that they find bothersome and tiring as they age. The third area dealt with questions related to the comprehensive evaluation of a co-housing plan for the elderly.

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! Table 3: Contents of the evaluation survey questionnaire Part A. Part B. General Characteristics Lifestyle and Habits a. Gender a. Frequency of meals per b. Age day c. Physical characteristics b. Preparation of meals d. Having a spouse or not c. Frequency of doing d-1. Spousal characteristics laundry d-2. Duration of living alone d. By whom and how e. Occupancy period laundry is done f. Social assistance e. Activities other than g. Level of education sleeping h. Occupation before retirement

Part C. Evaluation of Co-housing Plan a. Necessity of the plan b. Willingness to move following the initiation of the plan c. Willingness to share communal meals d. Evaluation of size of spaces in the plan e. Necessity of an individual space in which to do laundry f. Necessity of manager

General characteristics of the elderly surveyed 20 senior citizens aged 60 and over participated in the survey. The proportion of female participants was higher; four men and 16 women were surveyed. In terms of the age range of the participants, one fell into the 60 to 64 year-old age group, five were aged 65 to 69, four were aged 70 to 74, three were aged 75 to 79 and seven were aged 80 and above. Although half of the participants were aged 75 and over, these participants responded that their physical conditions were generally fine—15 answered they were healthy and five said they were somewhat frail. Among the subjects, ten (one man, nine women) were living alone, with an average period of living alone of ten years and over. Another ten respondents (three men, seven women) had cohabitants; six (two men, four women) answered that their cohabitants were healthy, while four (one man, three women) replied that theirs suffered physical or mental disorders. Lifestyles and habits of the elderly surveyed Among all the respondents, 14 (three men, 11 women) answered that they did not skip any meals, including breakfast, lunch and dinner. Although two women among them responded that they should not skip any meals due to diabetes, all 14 respondents said they did not encounter any difficulty in preparing meals. Six (one man, five women) responded as having two or fewer meals per day. Among them, three female respondents reported being on a strict diet as a means to maintain a moderate weight, while three (one man, two women) replied they had two or fewer meals per day because they found preparing meals bothersome and laborious. In the surveyed 7th Building Unit of the Hansol Jugong Apartment Complex, a restaurant serving the elderly offers free meals with a unique daily menu, which can help ease the burden of preparing meals. However, few of the senior residents queried (six out of 20) routinely visited the restaurant. While two respondents with diabetes did not use the restaurant due to health issues, most respondents who did not visit the restaurant indicated that they did not have a good impression of the facility. This demonstrates that although the restaurant offers convenience and free meals, the right to have a comfortable meal at will is regarded as important among some elderly people. As for the frequency of doing laundry, 17 (four men, 13 women) replied they did laundry every day on a regular basis, whereas the three remaining (female) respondents said they did laundry when a full load had been collected, since doing laundry was a laborious task. When it comes to washing laundry, it is much more convenient to use a washing machine, but this includes the disadvantage of using a large amount of water and electricity; on the other hand, hand-washing can save water and electricity, but it is cumbersome and arduous work for the elderly. Among all the respondents, ten reported they usually performed handwashing, while nine said that they used a washing machine. Half of the respondents chose personal labor in order to save on utility fees, while the other half chose to pay higher fees rather than suffer fatigue from performing labor.

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Figure 8: Activities other than sleeping by the elderly surveyed. Out of all the respondents, six (two men, four women) answered that they usually exercised during the daytime, and eight (one man, seven women) said they enjoyed socializing by visiting a senior citizen community center, senior education or welfare center. Two participants (one man, one woman) replied they nursed a care recipient and four (all women) said they spent the daytime hours alone in the home rather than going outside. Results of plan evaluation As to whether or not co-housing for the elderly as suggested in this study was needed, 14 (two men, 12 women) replied “yes” while five (one man, four women) indicated “no.” When it came to reasons for answering “yes,” respondents replied, “It would be good to have someone who take care of me when I am sick” (72-year-old woman, healthy, living alone for ten years or over), and “For now, I am not that lonely, since I am living with my family, but co-housing might be needed by elderly people who live alone” (67-year-old woman, healthy, living with family members). The eight participants who indicated that they enjoyed socializing were included among the 14 respondents who said “yes.” In contrast, the five respondents who responded in the negative indicated various reasons including, “It is hard enough for two people to live together; it would be much harder to live with many people” (81-yearold woman, healthy, living with a physically-challenged son) and “When the elderly live together, there can’t help but be conflict” (83-year-old woman, healthy, living alone for ten years or over).The respondents who answered “no” included one participant who ate only two meals per day because of difficulty with preparing meals, three female respondents living alone for ten years or over and a respondent who did not enjoy socializing and did not visit a senior citizen community center. The positive respondents were asked if they would participate in communal meals. Twelve respondents replied “yes” and one (female) replied “no.” The 11 positive respondents expressed their willingness to participate actively, saying, “Isn’t it necessary to have a communal meal at this kind of housing?” (73-year-old woman, healthy, living with her husband) while one negative respondent expressed outright rejection, stating “It would be difficult to have a communal meal because each resident would have different tastes” (80-year-old woman, healthy, living alone for ten years or over).

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Figure 9: Necessity of co-housing for the elderly.

Figure 10: Participation in communal meals. This co-housing plan suggests two different household units: units for the elderly living alone and units for elderly couples. The majority of the respondents perceived the household units for the elderly living alone to be small, even for someone living alone, whereas the household units for elderly couples were considered a reasonable size for living. However, one opinion was offered about interior space division. A female respondent (67-year-old woman, healthy, living alone for six years) said, “Although the size is appropriate, a partitioned room would be better than one big studio because a storage place is important.” Therefore, spaces constructed with partitions rather than a studio apartment as planned should be taken into account. This co-housing plan suggests shared facilities such as a communal entryway, living room, dining room, kitchen and laundry room; the communal living rooms, dining room and kitchen were evaluated as appropriate for shared use, while reactions to a communal entryway were divided, with six saying it was “appropriate” and seven responding “not appropriate.” As Korea has a custom of removing shoes while indoors, an entryway serves the important role of distinguishing private indoor space from public outdoor space. One respondent said, “An entryway should be placed in the private space” (83-year-old man, healthy, living with his wife), indicating that senior citizens do not maintain a positive impression of a communal entryway. As for the other shared facilities outside a

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! communal entryway, it can be seen that the elderly have a right to decide whether or not to use them, but for the communal entryway it can be interpreted that senior residents feel uncomfortable in using it. CONCLUSION This study proposed a form of senior co-housing created by remodeling permanent rental apartments as a new type of housing for South Korean senior citizens and examined the validity of the proposed plan by conducting interviews with such citizens residing in existing permanent rental apartments. The results of the study are as follows. First, the seniors who responded that senior co-housing needed to be built (14 respondents) outnumbered those who answered that it was not necessary (five respondents), indicating a need for senior co-housing. The participants who answered “yes” regarding the necessity of co-housing for the elderly tended to enjoy socializing, while those who indicated “no” were in general less sociable. Second, senior co-housing is a type of housing which helps ease the burden of performing household chores that the elderly may find troublesome with age. Still, this study found that a strong correlation does not exist between the characteristics of elderly people in terms of doing household chores and preferences regarding senior co-housing. This result was confirmed by respondents’ remarks: One respondent aged in the early 60s experienced no difficulty completing household tasks but responded that senior co-housing was needed, while another respondent over eighty found it difficult to manage household chores but considered co-housing to be not necessary. Third, the respondents who answered “yes” regarding the need for senior co-housing were generally satisfied with the proposed plan. However, their reactions to interior design features were divided; some seniors preferred an individual entryway over a shared entryway, and others preferred a unit with spatial partitions to the studio-type unit suggested in the plan. Therefore, there is a need to conduct additional study based on a modified plan reflecting their input. Lastly, the model-based interview survey for seniors proved to be effective. The use of a model house caught their interest and encouraged participation in the survey, allowing interviewers to obtain a wide variety of responses to the questionnaire. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work was supported by a Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) grant funded by the South Korean government (No. 2011-0028471). REFERENCES Korea National Housing Corporation, n.d. Collected housing designs, Seongnam-si, South Korea: Korea National Housing Corporation, viewed 17 March 2014, http://Http://www.codil.or.kr:8080/web/common/fileView.jsp. Kwon, S., 2012. Status and issues of welfare facilities for senior citizens and policy proposals, A forum for expanding welfare facilities to realize an advanced welfare state, Health and Welfare Committee. Lee, H., 2013. The elderly suicide rate in Korea, four times the OECD average The Kyunghyang Shinmun 1 January, viewed 17 March 2014, http://Http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201301292153085&code=940202. Lee, J., 2010. ‘A study on conversion of permanent rental housing into cohousing’, Unpublished Dissertation, University of Seoul, South Korea.

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! Lee, J, Lee, W & Kim, C., 2013. 'A remodeling plan of permanently-leased apartment for senior cohousing', Proceeding of Spring Annual Conference of KHA 25, no. 1, pp. 107-110. Lee, W., 2011. ‘A study on the cohousing for small site planning direction’, Unpublished Dissertation, Dankook University, Yongin-si, South Korea. Lee, Y., 2008. ‘The calculation of floor space of the elderly welfare housing according to the economic status of the elderly’, Unpublished Dissertation, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea. Statistics Korea, 2013. Statistics on seniors, viewed 30 September Http://kostat.go.kr/portal/korea/kor_nw/2/1/index.board?bmode=read&aSeq=308688.

2013,

Statistics Korea, 2012. Housing census, Daejeon, South Korea, viewed 17 March 2014, http://Http://kosis.kr/statisticsList/statisticsList_01List.jsp?vwcd=MT_ZTITLE&parentId=A#SubCont. Statistics Korea, 2012. Report on the elderly and employees at welfare facilities, Daejeon, South Korea, viewed 17 March 2014, http://Http://kosis.kr/statisticsList/statisticsList_01List.jsp?vwcd=MT_ZTITLE&parentId=A#SubCont. Yang, S, Oh, C & Kim, S., 2006. 'A study of appropriateness of space in multi-family housing', Journal of the Korean Housing Association, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 93-100. Yoon, Y, Park, J, Kang, H & Lee, S., 2013. 'Basic framework for remodeling of permanent rental housing as a means to improve the quality of residential environments', Huri Focus, 26, pp. 16-28, viewed 17 March 2014, http://Http://huri.jugong.co.kr/update/focus/focus_view_data.asp?b_id=27.

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! RHIZOMATIC HEALTHSCAPES Alan Mee, School of Architecture and Landscape, University College Dublin, Ireland, [email protected] Eric Wright, Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture, University of Johannesburg, South Africa, and BOOM architects, [email protected] Philip Astley, The Bartlett School of Construction & Project Management, University College London, England, [email protected] Abstract In many parts of the world, the political, social and environmental effects of the rampant production of space lead to reactionary movements such as insurgent urbanism (Davis 2013) which seek, under pressures of insufficient governance and minimal civic capacity, to address emerging manifestations of spatial chaos. However, what appears to be chaos at one level has the potential to emerge as a different form of complexity or order in a dynamical system of another scale. In this paper, it is argued that individuals, communities, even whole living cities together can self-organise, increase resilience, evade decay, and even flourish with the right supports. Following a literature review and desktop research, two rapidly globalising locations are examined for the potential of new systems to emerge: an informal settlement in one of the most unequal cities in the world, Johannesburg (South Africa), and an unplanned settlement in Dublin, in one of the fastest globalising countries in the world (Ireland). A theoretical investigation of related critical urban and spatial theory is followed by a focus on healthcare provision, and a definition of ‘Rhizomatic Healthscapes’ is proposed. One site in each city is examined in relation to the possible provision of appropriate rhizomatic healthscapes, defined as non-fixed health provision which minimises obduracy, following Habraken’s open building theory, and extending it to design scales around and above architecture. Then systems are proposed which could be less fixed and obdurate than existing provision, more open and flexible, and ultimately more successful in resistance to forces of unequal spatial production which prevent appropriate healthcare in a rapidly globalising, increasingly connected world. A framework is proposed for stimulating official responses to issues of health, spatial justice and quality in unplanned and informal settlements with reference to innovative policy, and suggestions are made for new design processes, products and responses to informal, unplanned and spatially chaotic scenarios. Keywords: spatial chaos, scenario planning, open building, rhizomatic healthscapes.

INTRODUCTION This paper deals with organisation for spatially chaotic, informal or unplanned city settlements where there is low access to public health services and little public investment in the workforce, technologies and space that enable service transformations through which they are delivered. This situation requires a new approach to planning and design processes. Reflections on the needs and relationships of the individuals living in these settlements will require new planning and design techniques that can facilitate dialogues within highly uncertain strategic and spatial environments. The term and the use of ‘rhizomatic healthscapes’ extends the philosophical approaches of Deleuze and Guattari, in that it describes this research problem as one that allows for multiple connections between ‘emiotic chains, organsiations of power (…) relative to arts, sciences and social struggles’ (Deleuze 1980) where the informal or unplanned settlement is an ‘inter-being’ of culture requiring a continual mapping of growth and change. The concept of ‘healthscaping’ involves developing the role of theory and strengthening the evidence base in healthcare research, building on an emerging ‘ecological theory’(Becker, Bonaiuto et al. 2011) and on project dialogues in the minds of practitioners as regards the complexity of health systems. There is a requirement to enable more varied ways to collect and communicate evidence for decisions on the needs and requirements of individuals in these settlements.

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! The principal aim of this paper is to investigate through a literature review and two divergent north-south sites how these ideas inform and frame the role of emerging theory that could facilitate decisions for health space within informal and unplanned settlements’ multiple, diverse and divergent scenarios. At a general level, this paper addresses knowledge on responses of the spatial sciences to rapid social change, the relevance of emerging scenario planning and systems separation theory, and transformations in service delivery and response for informal and unplanned settlements. At a specific site level, a project approach for healthscapes is proposed, and ‘Framework for Dialogue’ utilizing scenario planning and systems separation techniques for health services and systems are suggested. THEORETICAL FRAMING In many parts of the world, the political, social and environmental effects of the rampant production of space lead to reactionary movements such as insurgent urbanism (Davis 2013) which seek, under pressures of insufficient governance and minimal civic capacity, to address emerging manifestations of spatial chaos. Currently, terms such as collaborative urbanism and crowdsourced urban renewal (Harper 2013), figure strongly in city design discourses, but appear often to involve an introverted discussion, running in parallel to, or even ignoring, increasing volumes of real development, carried out under conditions of an out-of-control and increasingly profitable capitalism, which exploits or produces space at an ever quickening pace. In architecture and urban design, the ‘mutant’ typologies, the environmental destruction, the spatial chaos ‘at a worldwide scale’ hardly figure in a literature on image obsessed buildings and urban enclosures of the creative classes, which mainly fail to reproduce or extend the traditionally understood public realm, of street, square, or public park. Given these conditions, it is suggested here that a new focus on healthcare can become equally spatial and public, leading to a rhizomatic renewal of community identity as well as of the spatial, public and health landscape. While allowing for the local economies of design, considering appropriate responses to rapid spatial change can include those from the broader creative spatial sciences (urban design, spatial planning), with arguably deeper consideration of assemblages and critical urbanism, as well as a broader geographical set of scales. In this respect, the north-south divide has featured in the literature and is challenged (McFarlane 2011), by references to complex relationships observed between social movements cutting across social and historical boundaries, with a focus on ‘urban learning assemblages’. This paper does not address the large or local political histories of the sites examined, even though these aspects have had fundamental impact on these places, as the focus here is on the spatial manifestations of social and public life. DEFINITION OF ‘RHIZOMATIC HEALTHSCAPES’ Recent discourse suggests that spatial planning could benefit from increasing attention to the work of Deleuze and Guattari, and in particular “their normative political vision, which is a revolutionary agenda that aims at a condition of radical freedom for humans beyond the state and capitalism” (Purcell 2013). In this sense, Purcell describes their definition of a rhizome as ‘a form for the act of mutual augmentation through connection’, and further as “an acentered, non-hierarchical network of entities in which each member has the potential to communicate horizontally with any other” (Deleuze & Guattari 1987, p. 17). Purcell et al also separately consider radical democracy and the possible rhizomatic connections of solidarity as new forms of social organization beyond the state and beyond capitalism, in this case related to the globalised food system (Purcell 2013). The idea that health inequalities exist across many spatial scales, from different neighbourhoods within the same city up to the global is gaining ground, and the importance of mapping in addressing this is argued (Townsend 2013). However, much of the focus on evidence-based design has been on the physical design of healthcare facilities, in particular the link between design and healthcare to improve patient safety and quality of care. Becker et al are critical of the gap between published theory focused research and practice based research (Becker, Bonaiuto et al. 2011), and they propose that the concept of integrated healthscape strategies should focus not only on research, evidence and the methods used to collect and analyze it, but

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! also on the different purposes research serves, the role of theory, and the use of evidence based design research in practice. For Becker et al, and others, insights were gained from understanding the people of the neighborhood and attempts were made to promote the healthcare environment as a ‘community hub’, to provide a ‘welcoming environment. Essentially, a larger role for health in the community is proposed, rather than just for those whose health had declined. Becker (et al) argues that in any system comprising a dense web of interdependent factors “one can break into the system and intervene at any point in an attempt to shift its direction, disrupt its current trajectory and improve its performance.” Healthscape for Becker is therefore an interaction of different microsystems in the urban environment (or informal or unplanned settlement) to improve quality and safety in the redesign of healthcare settings. He proposes an ‘ecological framework’: • • • •

the clinical micro system (the space where the care, intervention, treatment takes place) the meso-system (a system of systems eg between the specialist hospital and the neighbourhood) the exo-system (the link to the professional schools, the workforce), and the macro system (values/politics) ie. the whole healthscape.

Identifying and collecting data for each system level (care providers, individuals, the group) and elements (technologies, physical) will elicit a new ‘mindset’ that can support success (or otherwise) in collaborative relationships. Multi-disciplinary teams will influence the research process and provide the evidence, interpret that evidence, for new interventions (and space) in the system at an operational, site level, whilst elucidating for new policy at the strategic level. Kaluzny sought to promote system resilience across and between microsystems in the face of informal, unpredictable changes in providers and individuals (Kaluzny 1985). This would be based on collaborative relationships as a more effective approach to achieve a goal than multiple individual efforts. But how do we harness the separate but connected individual? It is suggested that to improve the resilience of the microsystem it must survive autonomously, whilst the physical infrastructure and space of the microsystem be improved thus respecting the ecology of the setting. SCENARIO PLANNING AND SYSTEMS SEPARATION The application of scenario planning as an ‘open design approach’, that identifies possibilities through dialogue to help inform planning across the healthscape was identified by Astley et al.(Astley 2011) This approach would untie care activities (service delivery) from the building fabric and enable operational change in the system. Clinical space-use is also supported by virtual communications that allow acute specialists with the support of primary agencies to reach out to individuals in their homespace (the 'virtual ward'). Scenario planning undertaken with multi-disciplinary teams at a strategic and operational level would set out design systems enabled by infrastructural and physical possibility. Currently the application of scenario planning to facilitate new concepts of health space is supported by little evidence in thinking and practice, and if undertaken, it has been at a high, strategic level in the meso and exo systems (Astley 2011). Complementary concepts for project facilitation such as ‘sensemaking’ for the consideration of project participant inputs (Alderman 2005) and from Polaine (Polaine 2013) of ‘play’ shaping a mental model of (our, your) world are analogous to forming a picture of the flow of a service subject to constant change. Polaine describes the micro system as “nested mental models” and how service elements are designed as “touchpoints (…) sequences, interactions and interfaces, experiences and (product) design”. This ‘nesting’ is helpful to broaden the idea of engagement by the individual in the informal environment such as relying on cellular (smart) phone, occasionally logging onto the social infrastructures, as well as the micro-place for person to person interaction or treatment – whatever is needed/possible. A project can therefore be ‘nested’ within the meta-service, with individuals driving the service – not driven by a major investment in a capital facility or a very expensive installation of technology, but by some aspect of service provision (Alderman 2010). The implication of this thinking is that project transactions could be

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! less concerned with the physical resources and (fixed?) technologies but enable temporary project organizing, or deal making, as described by Pieterse in his extremely cogent exposition of enabling theory and practice relevant to individuals living in largely unplanned economies (Pieterse 2013). Further, Alderman and Ivory (2005), citing Linde and Lindroth, propose that new project management techniques such as scenario planning, are therefore both the process of network building and stabilization. Micro systems will be divergent, intermediaries may well be misunderstood, ignored. They argue a ‘clear project vision’ is required to enroll individuals into the immediate need of the project and this requires new forms of project management and design techniques to consider the wider network of activities whilst facilitating the ‘nested’ service design. The link to the systems separation concept of open building is that this approach enables ‘the vision’ not to be an entire idea of ‘a vision’ but one that is a constant spatial possibility to change indefinitely, and in the language of practitioners. So for example, consideration of how miniaturization of equipment might occur, also mobile diagnostics, treatment, imaging and on-site biomedical analysis, and all of these are considered as temporary, virtual, unfixed. These new scenario planning techniques encourage the design of processes and the dialogue of engagement (that also might have some urgency); starting with individual as well as group-driven processes, self-reflexive, self-critical; towards development of adaptive infrastructural and spatial possibilities, beneficial services, ongoing relationships and partnerships. But as we shall see with the following studies, even the highest density, unplanned or informal settlements have a self and communal regulatory framework but the meaning of space for health and the role of the community in running that space is very limited. TWO HEALTHSCAPE SITES Johannesburg and Dublin are the largest cities in their respective countries. Johannesburg has one of the strongest regional economies in Africa, and Dublin is considered to be the primate city for the rest of Ireland, dominating the economic life of the country. Johannesburg has been described earlier as one of the most unequal cities in the world (UN-HABITAT 2011), while Dublin has been associated with rising inequalities in housing and provision of public services more generally (Moore 2012). One ‘microsite’ in each city is now examined in relation to the possible provision of appropriate rhizomatic healthscapes, defined as non-fixed health provision which minimises obduracy, following Habraken’s open building theory, which involves technical, organisational and financial proposals to allow buildings and urban fabric to remain open to changing needs. He defines open building as follows : “Open building...results from a principled distinction between the physical levels but also the agents involved....the achievement of architectural coherence between (..) levels, under the control of different agents, has been negotiated successfully between urban design and architecture and between architecture and interior design (the infill level)” (Habraken 1998). The systems proposed could be less fixed and obdurate than existing provision, more open and flexible, and ultimately more successful in resistance to forces of unequal spatial production which prevent appropriate healthcare in a rapidly globalising, increasingly connected world. It is not intended that the two locations chosen here, Marlboro South, Johannesburg, South Africa, (an informal settlement) and Sandyford, Dublin, Ireland (an unplanned settlement) are seen as comparable sites in relation to historical, cultural, or other location specific aspects, but more as two separate places, subject to some similar forces, especially related to rapid urbanization, globalization, but also potential for selforganisation. The sites could be subject of further study at a later date, subject to refinement of objectives and findings. Sandyford in south Dublin, which for the purposes of this paper is defined as the (joined) two areas commonly known as the ‘Stillorgan Business Estate’, and the ‘former Sandyford Industrial Estate’, represents the entry by Dublin City Corporation in the 1970’s into the field of development and sale of industrial sites, which then evolved in the 1980’s towards a more mixed use site including retail, and lastly emerging after

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! 2000 as an unplanned, sharply contrasting (in density terms) unfinished commercial and residential development, effectively stalled since the end of the economic boom in 2008. In June 2014, there were 145 properties to let or for sale in the immediate area, one of the largest clusters of availability in Dublin. The 2013 Unfinished Housing Survey statistics for the area indicate that, on two adjoining sites, over 1,000 apartments for the area were ‘not started’ (192), ‘stalled’ (640) or vacant (262). There was a 44% approx. increase in population in the electoral district of Dundrum-Balally (which includes Sandyford) between the Census of 2006 and that of 2011, by 2,141 to 7,035 persons. Sandyford has a population of 2,600 approx., over one square kilometre, so a quite low overall density, but actually just very unevenly spread over the site with just a few high density apartment blocks, alongside unfinished (abandoned?) developments. Some relevant features of these apartment developments include low owner occupation (only one in five is owner occupied), small numbers of families and children, and a high proportion of young singles or couples, who are renting short term in the area, one third of whom are nonIrish. Subject to further research, it is possible that this neighbourhood’s recent physical emergence and unusual social character could be factors in the lack of appropriate local public health provision. Sandyford also has very high levels of self-reported health according to Census 2011. However, it is a new neighbourhood with almost no public health provision, real public amenities, or walkable areas for example. It also houses one of the few private hospitals/clinics in the country, which attracts patients from all over the island, but is not an option for local low-income residents. Some health geography research in Ireland related to spatial justice (Foley 2013) has revealed that although micro geographical data is hard to uncover, health is often an indicator of spatial entrapment at the local scales. Specifically in relation to the area which includes Sandyford, at local authority scale (Dun Laoghaire Rathdown), it is located on the KFIW Index (Kavanagh Foley Index of Wellbeing) as the lowest score (best) local authority area in the country. However, the researchers do point out that although over half of healthiest small areas (smallest geographical unit of Census 2011) in Ireland are in Dublin, these are often ‘cheek by jowl’ with very unhealthy small areas. This is the case in the Dun Laoghaire Rathdown area, where there is a markedly mixed set of indices across different small areas, from the highest to lowest levels of wellbeing. Given that Sandyford relies on a privately run hospital to serve the area, with the support of the Local Authority (which designates the planning objectives for site as ‘to improve, encourage and facilitate provision and expansion of medical and hospital uses and services’) that there is a lack of public primary care centre (PCC) facilities in the neighbourhood, and that Sandyford is not included in the list of 35 upcoming PCCs for Ireland (announced in July 2013), it can be concluded that there is an uneven provision of public health facilities in general for the area. The situation is compounded by the fact that public realm provision, including parks, public open space and playgrounds are all low or missing, and there is a roads dominated spatial character in general. The presence of a private hospital as the dominating health provision in the area is an indicator of fixed and obdurate health provision. Marlboro South in Johannesburg, South Africa, in extreme contrast, acts as a temporary accommodation zone for the displaced residents of the Alexandra Township to the north of the city centre. With a population of approximately 4,000 persons, the Marlboro South comprises a 1.9km long informal settlement of low-rise buildings, without public services in the main. It could be described as a collection of ‘micro-communities’ within a post-industrial built fabric occupying a former buffer strip. The site functions as a separation between Alexandra (one of Johannesburg’s largest and oldest townships) and a wealthier suburb, Marlboro Gardens to the North. The Marlboro South (MS) district houses a diverse mix of residents originating from all parts of South Africa. These residents have moved to this particular part of Johannesburg with aspirations to create better lives and secure better futures for their children. An enumeration of the area undertaken by SDI (Slum Dwellers International South African Alliance) revealed that many residents are on very low incomes. Many sites in MS (of total 329) were never occupied and many of the warehouses that were built, were either vacated or abandoned in the 1980’s. The increased number of new residents over time (related to rural migration) to Alexandra resulted in residents inhabiting this northern buffer strip due to overcrowding in Alexandra. A relevant statement by Informal Studio related to the site of Marlboro South in 2012 reads: ‘Only 21% (69 sites) still function as fully productive/commercial warehouses. Many of the remaining structures are standing empty. Some areas, consisting of open land between structures, are used as (illegal)

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! dumping sites or parking lots. Some buildings are used as crèche’s, clinics or churches. Most importantly, in terms of the focus of this project, 18.8% of the area is used as formal (0.02%) or informal (18.78%) housing.’ DISCUSSION Leaving aside for a moment the very real spatially unjust political histories of recent South Africa, these sites could both be seen as local manifestations of Soja’s ‘Postmetropolis’, related in his terms to a ‘regional urbanization process’, described as follows:“Linked to the resurgence of regionalism at many different scales, mass regional urbanization, with its combination of both decentralization (the migration of jobs and people from the old inner city) and recentralization ( in the new “suburban cities” as well as some old downtowns), has been replacing the mass suburbanization process that dominated postwar urban development in most of the world’s cities” (Soja 2009). The map comparison application of the Urban Observatory (Wurman 2014) website allows for instant appraisal of data for the two locations alongside other world cities, pointing to an ever increasing relevance of a comparative evidence base, and an increasingly live connectedness between these types of location, as they similarly react to the same forces of rapid spatial change. Although very different in the many respects already mentioned, the two sites do share some characteristics: • edge city, unplanned and unequal developments, each could be seen as 'bounded' physically, socially, spatially. • poor or non-existent public realm provision, poor public health provision, and 'unusual' land ownership scenarios, eg. totally privatised, no/few owner occupiers, etc. • seen as 'spatial products', that is, 'emerging manifestations of spatial chaos' displaying results of neo-liberal agendas (or worse) for the designed environment. It could also be argued that value systems in both areas sometimes bear resemblances: the need (and desire) to drive a new car, for example, or have satellite tv, can override the need for basic infrastructure like water supply (Marlboro South) or public footpaths (Sandyford). The differences between an ‘unplanned’ and ‘informal’ settlement can be related to specific definitions in the different jurisdictions: in Dublin, the lack of a Spatial Planning, urban design or other Master Plan (until 2011) for the emerging residential uses leads to the definition of Sandyford as ‘unplanned’, while in South Africa there is a clear definition of the term ‘informal settlement’ from Statistics South Africa, related to the Census: “An unplanned settlement on land which has not been surveyed or proclaimed as residential, consisting mainly of informal dwellings (shacks)”(Statistics 2001). The general edge city morphologies contain some surprisingly similar patterns in both places: big box sheds, motorways, informal/ mixed density settlements. While the city centre urban morphologies are quite distinct in the two cases, once the focus moves from the 'traditional' centre, the patterns of settlement start to appear more similar to each other, as well as to other edge cities globally, regardless of continent, wealth, geography, or topography. PROPOSED TOOLS AND SYSTEMS The following ‘Framework for Dialogue’ (Astley 2013) is a third dimension from practice, in addition to the two locations studies, as a contribution in this paper, to stimulate official responses to issues of health, spatial justice and quality in unplanned urban environments. Reference is made to the Processes of Engagement Map as a record of Informal Studio: Marlboro South, a course on in-situ upgrading developed at the University of Johannesburg’s Department of Architecture in 2012. The basis of the studio was to provide a defined service (in the time available) an overarching supporting process of development driven by residents themselves, and aided by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community based originations (CBOs). Within this meta-programme, a ‘nested’ healthscape design process is suggested, including products and responses to informal and spatially chaotic scenarios. The following ‘tools’ and ‘systems’ are proposed: A ‘Framework for Dialogue’, effecting open building (system separation) intelligences, overturning ‘unmappings’, systems beyond state, and seeking rhizomatic or assemblage groupings.

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! The ‘Framework for Dialogue’ We now propose scenario planning as a tool to facilitate multi-disciplinary dialogues. One of the co-authors (Astley 2013) has worked with a multi-disciplinary clinical team on a research-led health intervention, the London Pathway project whereby TB clinical service disrupters planned successful outreach mobile citywide networks, for the diagnosis and provision of TB services for the treatment and management of the informally housed and individual homeless. The aim of the project was to articulate and prepare for the development of health space for respite care. Space would be supported by an innovative mobile imagining, 'Find and Treat', interventions as well as the use of oral medicine management internet treatment by TB specialists with both client and health provider ‘at large’ in the meso and exo system. The spatial aspect of this work is the growing recognition that successful interventions need to be about more than dealing with illness, but to provide social and well-being support linked to housing and employment initiatives. Thus the benefit of articulating respite space as a concept to an intermediary care setting that might provide benefits of ‘care closer to home’ for those who don’t have a home or are informally housed (and if in prolonged hospitals stays may lose their assigned hostel space in the interim). The aim is to provide improved care for physical ill health problems, while also working to address mental health and substance misuse issues. The main organisational aspects of this integrated approach are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Workstreams - to challenge the existing assumptions on the organization of care and identify gaps in the workforce Scenario planning - as the technique to facilitate both professional and the individual citizen dialogue Systems separation - as an organizing and project management concept for space. It is a fit-out space with low-tech environmental performance requirements (eg. ventilation) Viability - of the proposed micro-system and use of space (within whole-systems thinking)

The team aimed to look to challenge existing assumptions on the organisation of care and to understand the impact of this whole systems thinking. Evidence and data was identified that supports the new care intervention, ‘the operational vision’. Site(s) suitability, financial viability and routes to funding were addressed. New and relevant partners were introduced to the scheme with the purpose of developing an integrated service model with innovative new thinking on design of human resources service and space delivery. The first workshop set out the basis for both the quantitative and qualitative measures for the scheme, flows and activity and identified any potential gaps in knowledge and further streams of work to support the bid with scenarios for the service development leading to a very outline, but formalized, business development case. The outcome of the front-end four scenario planning sessions was to articulate the integrated service model, supported by data and evidence agreed by the multi-disciplinary group. At this stage no layouts were produced, or locations identified, but relationships established as a prospectus to engage policy maker, health board members and funder partners in the disruptive service. In summary the key element of this ‘Framework for Dialogue’ approach was to utilize the level of professional expertise already involved and that included the client leaders (identified) working forward together through workstreams. This in turn allowed for detailed work in smaller groups, but within the overall framework of: Clinical & Social Care, Partnership and Community Engagement, scoping for Health Respite space, exploring Funding models, and exploring property related issues.

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Figure 1: A Framework for Dialogue. Supporting effecting intelligences in the dialogue (See local site examples, Figure 1.) Pan-scalar open building Effecting open building intelligences that utilize systems separation techniques involves a ‘pan-scalar’ opportunity, that is, within buildings, but also beyond, outside, or at a scale which includes broader communities, both digital and actual, and for temporary as well as permanent uses.

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! Overturning unmappings Research has shown that levels of health in an area can be related to compositional as well as contextual factors, so that poverty for example, or levels of deprivation and unemployment can correlate with poor health in an area. The importance of mapping overlapping social indicators and health inequalities is acknowledged, and the cross scalar nature of this has already been described above (Townsend 2013). In this respect, lack in provision of amenities, rights, and space are often hidden in the absence of clear understandings of land ownership, zoning and other power dynamics. Revealing these aspects of the built environment to local residents through graphical and other mappings (or ‘unmappings’ of inappropriately accepted readings of these places) can be a way to open dialogue on possibilities for healthscapes to emerge from the current manifestations of the place. Systems beyond state In political geography, certain state centered African (and other) development has been described as a “monstrous hybrid” (Taylor 2006) borrowing a term from Jacobs, in an argument which favours cities ‘and their (sometimes transnational) city-regions’ over states in attempts to eradicate poverty. In this sense systems beyond state, and even beyond city, could become effective. Rhizomatic or assemblage groupings In a rhizomatic healthscape, the health provision network would organize itself. An assemblage urbanism (Blok 2013), working again from writings of Deleuze and Guattari, would allow for self-organisation of systems of provision and care, as assemblage groupings. CONCLUSION This paper has analysed the critical spatial, health, systems and open building theory and literature, before outlining a definition of ‘Rhizomatic Healthscapes’. The scenario planning and systems separation aspects of one non-fixed health provision project in London were then described, and then the contemporary conditions for health were outlined in two specific locations, Marlboro South, Johannesburg, South Africa, (an informal settlement) and Sandyford, Dublin, Ireland (an unplanned settlement). The two specific locations were then discussed in the context of regional urbanization processes and morphologies. A‘Framework for Dialogue’ was then proposed which could contribute to the establishment of Rhizomatic Healthscapes, effecting open building intelligences, overturning ‘unmappings’, systems beyond state, and finally seeking rhizomatic or assemblage groupings.

REFERENCES Alderman NIC., 2010. 'Service-led projects: understanding the meta-project context', Construction Management and Economics, no. 28, pp. 1131-1143. Alderman NIC, McLoughlin I & Vaughan R., 2005. 'Sense-making as a process within complex service-led processes', International Journal of Project Management, no. 23 pp. 380-385. Astley P., 2013. Project Action Notes, 2nd September 2011, for Pathway Medical Respite Centre, Prospectus, a new model for intermediate care for homeless people, University College London. Astley P, Hind R, Mills GRW, Price DF, Mahadkar S & Page M., 2011. 'Open infrastructure planning for emergency and urgent care', Joint Conference of CIB W104 and W110 - Architecture in the Fourth Dimension. Becker, F, M. Bonaiuto et al., 2011. 'Integrated healthscape strategies: An ecological approach to evidencebased design', Health Environments Research & Design Journal (HERD), vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 114-129. Blok, A., 2013. 'Urban green assemblages: An ANT view on sustainable city building projects', Science & Technology Studies, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 5 - 24.

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! Davis, DE & Raman, P., 2013. 'The physicality of citizenship: The built environment and insurgent urbanism', Thresholds, no. 41, pp. 60-71. Deleuze, G & Guattari, F., 1980. A thousand plateaus, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. Foley, R & Kavanagh, A., 2013. Health and spatial justice. Spatial justice, housing and the financial crisis, Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. Habraken, J., 1998. The structure of the ordinary form and control in the built environment, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Harper, P., 2013. 'Crowdsourcing utopia: 21st century urbanism', viewed http://www.architectural-review.com/view/overview/crowdsourcing-utopia-21st-centuryurbanism/8651166.article?blocktitle=View&contentID=7574.

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Kaluzny, A., 1985. Design and management of disciplinary and interdisciplinary groups in health services: Review and critique', Medical Care Review, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 77- 112. McFarlane, C., 2011. 'Assemblage and critical urbanism', City, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 204-224. Moore, N & Vinci, I., 2012. 'Urban regeneration and the economic crisis: Past development and future challenges in Dublin, Ireland', Planum. The Journal of Urbanism vol. 2, no. 25, pp. 1-16. Pieterse, E., 2013. 'Grasping the unknowable: Coming to grips with African urbanisms', in Rogue Urbanism, Emergent African Cities, pp. 19- 35. Polaine, A., 2013. 'A nested set of meta-principles for service design', 10th European Academy of Design Conference – Crafting the Future. Purcell, M., 2013. 'A new land: Deleuze and Guattari and planning', Planning Theory & Practice, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 20-38. Purcell, M & Born, B., 2013. 'Budding Rhizomes: Planning, Deleuze & Guattari and the food movement', AESOP-ACSP Joint Congress, Dublin, Ireland. Soja, E., 2009. 'Designing the Postmetropolis', in A Kreiger & WS Saunders, Urban Design, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 255-269. Statistics, S A., 2001. Census 2001 concepts and definitions. Taylor, PJ., 2006. 'Commentary: Development as a `monstrous hybrid': an essay on the primacy of cities in the expansion of economic life', Environment and Planning A, no. 38, pp. 793-803. Townsend, T., 2013. 'Editorial', Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Urban Design and Planning, 166, P5, pp. 255-256. UN-HABITAT, 2011. State of the World Cities 2010/2011: Bridging the Urban Divide, United Nations. Wurman, RS & ESRI, 2014. The urban observatory’, viewed 16 March 2014, http://www.urbanobservatory.org/.

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! ANTIFRAGILITY IN ARCHITECTURE: IMPROVING ARCHITECTURE WITH APPROPRIATE REACTION TO POSITIVE STRESSORS! Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Schwehr, Director Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts – Engineering & Architecture, Switzerland, [email protected] Natalie Plagaro Cowee, Arch. SIA, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts – Engineering & Architecture, Switzerland, [email protected]

Abstract Unpredictable building and neighbourhood stressors provoke a constant request for adaptability, threatening fragile systems with collapse if they are incapable of reacting. Inspired by evolutionary epigenetic mechanisms, strategies are proposed that increase the adaptability of the built environment. In applying consciously developed, partially controllable positive stressors to existing neighbourhoods and buildings, reactive processes occur that redirect fragile systems towards robustness, resilience or onto antifragility. An assessment model is developed for the implementation of positive stressors in neighbourhoods, buildings and processes increasing the adaptability of the built environment and generating collective benefit. Keywords: evolution, epigenetic, antifragility, cooperation, resilience, open architecture, adaptability.

INTRODUCTION Our buildings and cities are under constant pressure to adapt and this makes our buildings fragile. This pressure is applied by stressors that lead to change in areas such as economy, society, ecology etc. and cannot be immediately neutralised by architectural concepts. Solutions that are being put forward today must therefore also be considered with a view to their expiry date. Sustainable architecture must be able to react to change by deploying different strategies. During the conception phase, the challenges of dealing with uncertainties and acknowledging the unknown are fundamental (Habraken 2000, p. 31) for planning strategies. It is important to bear in mind that depending on the buildings' adaptability (resistance characteristics), it will be able to resist at different degrees and that stressors have different effects. Stressors can endanger the built system. For example, they can destroy fragile buildings and cities but they can also strengthen the system by inducing it to transform to a higher system state. This condition is referred to as an antifragile state, the opposite of a fragile state. Antifragile systems benefit (to some degree) from uncertainty, disorder and the unknown, and the fragile is penalised by them (Taleb 2012, p. 26). Understood in this sense, stressors are transmitters of information that can have a positive or negative activating function within the complex system of the built environment and its interacting sub-systems. Applying stressors in the conception of antifragile strategies necessitates a systemic view of the built environment. The entire built environment consists not only of constructional and technical systems, but also includes living space with complex spatial, social and economic interaction and its comprehension calls for a systemic approach. A systemic view includes “an understanding of the environment that assumes interacting systems with dynamic relationships to everyday reality” (Fezer 1980, p. 16). That is why an antifragile architecture tends to have a specific form characterised by high demands, which is a basic requirement for the aspired high human-environment interaction. It calls for action and creates a range of possibilities (in the sense of Robert Musil 1930) to simulate everyday lives, which contribute to the strengthening of the entire system. “Activating natural relations” (Habraken 2000, p. 29) and acknowledging “the unknown as a basis” (Habraken 2000, p. 31) for planning strategies are basic requirements for antifragile architecture. This therefore raises

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! the question: How can we use the potential of stressors for a sustainable, durable architecture with a high level of human-environment interaction, or how can we make architecture more antifragile, meaning stronger than today? ANTIFRAGILITY IN ARCHITECTURE Analogue to evolutionary processes in nature, it is not the built structure alone that decides on success or failure of architecture, but the combination of the potential of the built structure and its activation through stressors. In nature, evolution, rapid change and adaption processes take place following the principle of epigenetic imprinting. Epigenetics is a special field in biology. It explores which factors determine (long-term) gene activity and cell development and whether certain determinants are inherited by subsequent generations. If the change in gene activity is short-term and easily reversible, it is known as gene regulation. It is based on changes to the chromosomes when entire or sections of chromosomes are influenced in their activity. It is also known as epigenetic modification or epigenetic imprinting. This does not, however, cause changes in the DNA sequence. Two levels of information are involved in epigenetic processes: The first information level is the genome (DNA) itself, whilst the second decides on activating or deactivating specific DNA sequences, that is to say “when and which contents from the genetic hand book of an organism are to be used” (Trageser 2013, p. 3). Epigenetic tags “are chemical mechanisms that can express (activate or suppress) genes to different degrees. They do not change DNA” (Miller 2012, p. 58).

Figure 1: Epigenetics Tags can activate or deactivate some DNA sequences (Source: in the sense of Szyf 2013). The interplay between potential and activation generates changes and adaption to new requirements without modifying the genotype in long-term processes. “To some extent, the human genotype resembles the hardware of a computer. It determines which resources are at the organism's disposal. But how these resources are to be utilised is first decided by the epigenetic programme because they determine when which genes are to be activated. As such, it resembles computer software“ (Kegel 2013, p. 13). As is the case with a computer, there is hardware in evolution that is not able to function on its own. Its potential is activated and it becomes meaningful only in combination with software. Architecture follows similar principles: The first information level is the form itself. The clearly defined building that can be represented in reality. “Reality corresponds to tangible space which can be documented with mathematical precision. Only actual facts are gathered and recorded. This involves the designability of the space, the material's properties (…). Sometimes designers disregard the experiencing of space. Subjective perception, value, moods etc. are not taken into consideration at this stage. As a result, it is an artificial, abstracted representation that is, however, of importance for planning and theoretical work” (Schwehr 2002, p. 30). It is an artificial product because it disregards the second level of information and has first to be activated by this. The second level of information is the programme of human-environment interaction. It enlivens the building and lets it function. Without it, architecture would be like a computer without software – reducing it to a mere sculpture without a function.

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! It is the interaction between these two information levels, that is, the hardware in combination with various software programmes of human-environment interaction which makes architecture a complex, planning task with no clear-cut solution. This also explains why, similar to identical twins, identical buildings acquire different biographies depending on the ongoing human-environment interaction by developing structuralspatial potential in different ways. The buildings themselves are not active – but their potential is activated by the programme, which in turn leads to other results, in other words to adaption processes.

Figure 2: Twins with same genes but different characteristics because of influence of epigenetic mechanisms (Source: Miller 2012). “Identical twins are born with the same DNA, but can become surprisingly different as they grow older. A booming field called epigenetics is revealing how factors like stress and nutrition can cause this divergence by changing how individual genes behave” (Miller 2012, p. 58). For family accommodation, different configurations will be activated or deactivated than for single accommodation. Some spatial areas or spatial configurations are activated, in other words, adopted in a similar manner, whilst others are adopted differently or not at all. In addition, a programme for family accommodation is, for example, laid out according to the family as well as between the individual members of the family.

Figure 3: Variation, selection and reproduction in the design process (Source: Schwehr 2010).

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! Although there are certain inter-subjective similarities, the programmes of human-environment interaction, as opposed to bought computer software, are always self rewritten with humans in mind, are highly flexible and adapt constantly to new requirements. Buildings that are to be sustainable over the longest possible time period must therefore draw their strengths from factors such as the uncertainty of an exact adoption, the unknown or possibly even from disorder. “The extended disorder family (or cluster): 1. uncertainty; 2. variability; 3. imperfect, incomplete knowledge; 4. chance; 5. chaos; 6. instability, volatility; 7. disorder; 8. entropy; 9. time; 10. the unknown; 11. randomness; 12. turmoil; 13. stressor; 14. error; 15. dispersion of outcomes; 16. ignorance” (Taleb 2012, p. 26). Reflecting on Taleb's disorder family, we have to ask ourselves whether we can even plan sustainable architecture if the aspired high level of human-environment interaction is encompassed by issues such as uncertainty, randomness, probability, disorder, and what to do in a world (and that we also should plan it – comment by schwehr, plagaro) which we do not understand, a world with unseen elements and properties, the random and the complex; that is, decision making under opacity, in other words, inscrutable (Taleb 2012, p. 26). Bruno Latour argues in a similar way when he demands: “What we need is to turn this process around: ...the problem with buildings is that they look desperately static. It seems almost impossible to grasp them as movement, as flight, as a series of transformations. Everybody knows... and especially architects know ... that a building is not a static object but a moving project: It also ages after completion, is altered by its users, changes because of everything that happens on the inside and on the outside and is often renovated, falsified or converted beyond recognition” (Latour 2008, p. 81). So what could strategies look like that take on a dynamic overall view and even benefit and extract added value from this unknown, uncertainty and disorder, in the sense of John Habraken's the Unknown as a Basis (Habraken 2000, p. 31)? How can we succeed in having programmes at our disposal that activate available structural-spatial potential and have a positive influence on our built environment? POSITIVE STRESSORS INFLUENCE ARCHITECTURE AND ACTIVATE INTERACTIONS Activating human-environment interaction is an information-carrying process that occurs on different levels. “Like genetic systems in evolution, buildings can also, only fulfil their function in close cooperation with their environment” according to Bauer (Bauer 2008) and because of this, are significantly influenced by environmental factors. Changes in environmental factors trigger stressors that constantly pressurise our buildings to adapt. We distinguish between stressors at neighbourhood level (e.g. location – a new road in the neighbourhood), at the process level (e.g. use – the desire for more space), and at a construction level (e.g. building element – normal wear and tear – windows not sealed). The stressors are often combined and overlap (Schwehr & Plagaro Cowee 2011).

Figure 4: Stressors on processes, buildings and neighbourhoods, requiring reaction and strategies for improving their acceptance (Source: Schwehr & Plagaro Cowee 2011).

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! Requirements on the built structure are formulated on all of these levels. If these requirements change, the entire system of the built environment, i.e. our buildings or suburbs, becomes stressed since certain components can no longer fulfil their function or meet the new requirements. If the pressure to adapt is greater than the building's resistance, the building becomes stressed and its entire system is endangered. The pressure to adapt, in other words, information on the necessity to adapt, is transferred by stressors. Stressors can either endanger, maintain or strengthen the system and are therefore indicators for the adaptability of the building. To measure the effect of stressors and its consequences, the following definition on the adaptability of buildings and suburbs applies: Adaptability in architecture refers to “the ability of a building to react within a short time to new circumstances with minimal effort and at justifiable cost. Adaptability is therefore an indicator of flexibility and of long-term value retention” (Plagaro Cowee & Schwehr 2012, p. 14). 1.) Stressors destroying the system The pressure to adapt is greater than the building's potential to adapt and endangers the entire system. For example, demolition / loss of value – the effort required to renovate the building exceeds the renovation potential. 2.) Stressors maintaining the system The pressure to adapt triggers faults that can be appropriately remedied and the entire system functions again. For example, complete renovation and value retention – a complete renovation strategy has adapted the building to the new requirements. 3.) Stressors strengthening or transforming the system The pressure to adapt has transformed the entire system into a higher-value functioning system. For example by using synergies, densifying or increasing the value in the course of a complete renovation, additional living space has been created for a greater number of occupants.

Figure 5: Positive or negative effects of stressors in systems (Source: Schwehr & Plagaro Cowee 2014). Understood in this sense, stressors are transmitters of information between the complex system of the built environment and its interacting sub systems. They can have a positive or negative effect on the system and are responsible for the form and intensity of human-environment interaction.

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! ANTIFRAGILITY MAKES ARCHITECTURE MORE SUSTAINABLE The different effects of stressors are reflected in the 'degree of resistance' assessment model. This model represents different system states of the built environment on a scale related to its adaptability. The assessment scale aims at answering the following questions: What would happen to the built system if it were subjected to a specific pressure to adapt? Where, how and which stressors have an effect on the system? As such, the assessment scale is not unlike a stress test that is to be applied when evaluating planning measures. In line with the effect of the system stressors introduced previously destroying–maintaining–strengthening and in taking Taleb's triad antifragile–robust–fragile into consideration (Taleb 2012, p. 34), processes, buildings or neighbourhoods are grouped into four categories. These categories are not entirely separable and overlap in certain areas.

Figure 6: Degree of resistance to adaptability. Improving architecture with appropriate reaction to positive stressors (Source: Schwehr & Plagaro Cowee 2014). The assessment scale ranges from fragile to antifragile states. The criteria between these two poles on the xaxis are robust and resilient. The y-axis shows the functionality and system state in view of the adaptability potential. Fragile The disturbance causes the built system to break down. It is unable to react to the necessary adaptions with a reasonable amount of effort, and to adapt its system state to the new requirements. It may come as a surprise that buildings or parts of building are classified as being fragile, although they usually appear to be robust, unlike glass that has to be placed in a cupboard for protection or wrapped in cotton wool during transport. But solidity has little to do with fitness and we ask ourselves how many building with a reasonable amount of effort can be made 'fit' again? “(...) that fragility – a term that had been lacking a technical definition – could be expressed as what does not like volatility, and that what does not like volatility does not like randomness, uncertainty, disorder, errors, stressors, etc. Think of anything fragile, say, objects in your living room such as the glass frame, the television set, or, even better, the china in the cupboards. If you label them "fragile", then you necessarily want them to be left alone in peace, quiet, order, and predictability. A fragile object would not possibly benefit from an earthquake or the visit of your hyperactive nephew. Further, everything that does not like volatility does not like stressors, harm, chaos, events, disorder, "unforeseen" consequences, uncertainty, and, critically, time” (Taleb 2012, p. 25). Robust The stressors do not lead to recognisable adaption pressure of the built system and do not affect its functionality. However, unlike resilient or antifragile systems, a robust system cannot react to changes. It behaves like the proverbial thick skin of an elephant. Disturbances rebound. Until the point where the disturbance becomes so strong ('the threshold' – (Walker et al. 2004)) that the system crashes. The robust is

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! “(…) neither harmed nor helped by volatility and disorder” (Taleb 2012, p. 31). “The "robust" here in the middle column is not equivalent to Aristotle’s "golden middle" in the way that, say, generosity is the middle between profligacy and stinginess—it can be, but it is not necessarily so. And (…) it is hard to consider robustness as always desirable—to quote Nietzsche, one can die from being immortal” (Taleb 2012, p. 35). Resilient A resilient system absorbs disturbance and reorganises itself so that its function is retained and it can continue without restriction. “Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedback” (Walker et al. 2004). Adaptability is defined as “the capacity of actors in a system to influence resilience” (Walker et al. 2004). Assigned in this way, neither fragile nor robust systems can react with reasonable effort to change and adaption processes. There are three aspects of resilience which can apply to a whole system or the subsystem that make it up (Walker et al. 2004): 1.) Latitude: the maxim amount a system can be changed before losing its ability to recover (before crossing a threshold, which, if breached, makes recovery difficult or impossible). 2.) Resistance: the ease or difficulty of changing the system; how 'resistant' it is to being changed. 3.) Precariousness: how close the current state of the system is to a limit or 'threshold'. The characteristics listed above guide the criteria in evaluating various influencing factors of stressors that will be explained in detail in the following chapter. Antifragile Following the principle of hormesis where disturbances strengthen the system, the antifragile system is made stronger and takes the system to a higher level. This condition is referred to as an antifragile state, the opposite of a fragile state. Antifragile systems benefit (to some degree) from uncertainty, disorder and the unknown, and the fragile is penalised by them (Taleb 2012, p. 26). “Antifragility likes volatility et al. It also likes time (Taleb 2012, p 25). The antifragile loves randomness and uncertainty, which also means –crucially – a love of errors, a certain class of errors. Antifragility has a singular property of allowing us to deal with the unknown, to do things without understanding them – and do them well” (Taleb 2012, p. 17). The possibility of a system to transform is defined by Walker et al. as “the capacity to create a fundamentally new system when ecological, economic, or social (including political) conditions make the existing system untenable”. This process of improvement (Taleb 2012, p.34) is an emergent process and leads to development of the old system into a new one. Weak points exist in all system states. Even the antifragile cannot indefinitely resist the pressure to adapt as it continuously transforms into new systems. There are also fragile, robust, resilient or antifragile elements within a built structure. When working with the assessment model, it is therefore important to bear in mind that a structure per se is neither fragile nor antifragile. It may well be that “some parts on the inside of a system may be required to be fragile in order to make the system antifragile as a result (Taleb 2012, p. 81) or: Could it be that the issue of fragility or antifragility is one of several characters of a structure?” (Taleb 2012, p. 81). Crucial factors are the points targeted by the disturbances, the intensity of the stressors and their effect on the built system. A MODEL FOR SYSTEMS TO GAIN ROBUSTNESS, RESILIENCE AND ANTIFRAGILITY These considerations lead to the conviction that processes, buildings or neighbourhoods can be improved by strategies that make them robust, resilient or antifragile. Such strategies can be implemented during or after the planning process. The model identifies the kind of stressors acting at different levels of process, building and neighbourhood. It diagnoses the problems and the characteristics (P1, P2, P3, Pn) of fragile systems brought about by such

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! stressors. The model offers the appropriate strategies (S1, S2, S3, Sn) that can contribute to making systems robust, resilient or antifragile. The resulting projects can be described, evaluated and subordinated to their new properties related to robustness, resilience or antifragility.

Figure 7: Improving fragile systems by reacting to problems caused by stressors, applying strategies and gaining in robustness, resilience or antifragility (Source: Schwehr & Plagaro Cowee 2014). Application of the assessment model Problems or characteristics which make systems fragile Application of the assessment model is explained below using specifically chosen exemplary problems in architecture. The identified fragile mechanisms are of a general nature and can be viewed at different levels of the process, the building or the neighbourhood. They are not clearly separable and may occur simultaneously. Our aim is to be able to diagnose systems that tend toward the precarious fields of fragility by recognizing a number of characteristics that are known to cause such tendencies. Identifying such problems or characteristics will help to take appropriate measures to redirect the tendency. Below, we list some examples of actual tendencies with specific, current architectural challenges. Problem: Renovation - Focussing on a certain aspect (e.g. energy) ǀ The system border is often limited to the building and not further ǀ Other relevant aspects (e.g. overall appearance of the locality, rental price index) are faded out. Renovation becomes a purely technical matter. And in doing so, every building should be able to fulfil all (sometimes incompatible) requirements. This leads to an inappropriate use of technology ǀ It results in closed technical systems that do not use synergies with other buildings and only react to further developments with great difficulty. ǀ Problem: Urban Sprawl - Increase in land use due to single-family homes (SFHs) ǀ It leads to urban sprawl, waste of valuable land resources, and an increase in commuter traffic ǀ Although at the same time, the majority of building plots have unused potential suitable for higher-density quality development ǀ The desire for one's own home is dictated by financial aspects and is often realised with architecturally questionable and poor quality (small rooms, cheap materials, unskilled craftsmen etc.) ǀ Such SFHs are often isolated buildings which do not contribute to a sustainable town development ǀ Problem: Office Planning

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Cost pressure on individual workplaces leads to open space structures ǀ Individual workplaces are under pressure. 'My workplace has to be able to do everything' (a place to concentrate; for virtual communication; for meetings; storage space etc.) ǀ Employees often have no opportunity to control social interaction and interpersonal distance, which leads to a significant loss of comfort ǀ Seemingly plausible economic reasons for desk sharing can also lead employees to a loss of identification with their company. At the same time, open space structures do not have the necessary spatial variety to meet the demands of the new working environment (developing team innovation; more collaboration instead of pure administration; meetings held more often etc.) ǀ

In summary, it is possible to identify the following problems or characteristics that make systems fragile. The list provides indications of a fragile tendency in architecture and is based on our own experiences as construction and research architects as well as many analyses of buildings and discussions with experts. It is a collection of typical phenomena, by which we have consciously not abstained from the local level of consideration and is therefore not to be understood as being complete. P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

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Top-down oriented Urban planning or building construction continues to have the tendency of being top-down oriented with decisions being made by a few selected members, without including all the actors who will be involved in the overall scheme. The more a design scheme refrains from involving all actors and the narrower the circle of decision makers, the more vulnerable the system will be to bottom-up dysfunctions, complaints. High repetition without variation High repetition without variation fails to cover the diverse necessities of a complex society. Modular and repetitive post-war reallocation schemes were efficient solutions at a precise moment of history, derived from an urgency to provide quick and cheap accommodation to a large homeless population. In the same way as repetitive speculation housing schemes, such developments fail to adapt to the necessities (stressors) of a merging society with additional requirements. No scenario planning was used to anticipate failure. 'Perfectly' planned system with trouble-free environment System creators have the tendency of longing for perfection, disregarding the fate of constant stressors, change and its consequences. Those considered as a trouble-free environment have more difficulty to react to sudden change. The trouble-free period (and therefore the period in which the system seems to be 'perfect') is in fact a slow process towards fragility. It can be said that the perfection of a system can only be provisional; provisional until change comes and alters the conditions of stability. There is no way of learning and improving for future in a flawless system. Specialisation, Optimisation We understand specialisation and optimisation as the end phase of a development process which includes the risk of not being able to confront the unpredictable or being unable to react to change. Specialisation and optimisation often lead to rigidity and are the result of prioritising some aspects at the cost of others whilst loosing the holistic approach. Artificiality Artificiality can be understood as a stressor that provokes even more artificiality as a reaction in the system it is acting on. The further our models are from mother nature, the higher the complexity and artificiality of the problem solving. High-tech buildings with complex control systems can be fragile when unexpected failure occurs. Lack of fault tolerance Considering that the only constant is change (Heraclitus of Ephesus, 535–475 BC), to design a system for constancy is inducing failure in advance. A system that has no margin for absorbing failure, risks collapse because of its ineptitude for adaptability. Lack of holistic approach In many cases, systems are isolated within their narrow borders without being part of other systems or interacting with them. Many other important system-relevant aspects are faded out when finding solutions and therefore not taken into consideration.



! Strategies and mechanisms that contribute to redirect a system towards robustness, resilience or antifragility Having identified problems and characteristics that make a system fragile, what could be the source of antifragility in the built environment? Which mechanisms should be promoted in normal practice that could enhance robustness, resilience or antifragility? In reaction to the mentioned problems inherent to fragile systems, we list a number of strategies below that have the ultimate objective of increasing humanenvironment interaction. We understand it to be an open list that may be completed. P1

Top-down oriented

S

Bottom-up ǀ Participation ǀ Cooperation ǀ Resonance ǀ User evaluated ǀ Interdisciplinarity In reaction to top-down oriented systems, bottom-up oriented systems consider constant cooperation and resonance from the outside in, and the inside out. Examples of this are the interrelation of sub-systems within the building, interaction between the building and its users or its location, collaboration in interdisciplinary planning teams etc. This approach leads to a systematic understanding of a building in which various tangible and intangible sub-systems are in constant interaction with each other (Schwehr & Plagaro Cowee 2011). High repetition without variation

P2 S

P3 S

P4 S

P5 S

P6 S

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Variation ǀ Scenarios Working with scenarios is rarely used in everyday planning practice. Scenarios are often based on mathematical models that are difficult to place and too abstract for planning sustainable buildings and suburbs. Only a few companies such as Ove Arup, the leading global interdisciplinary consulting engineers, work with scenarios, systematically record the consequences for users, buildings and suburbs, (drivers of change) and enable specific planning statements. 'Design thinking' offers a methodological approach on how to face the future (Schwehr 2011). 'Perfectly' planned system with trouble-free environment Occasional fragility ǀ Translating adversity into an advantage ǀ Allowing reserve for the unpredictable For specific cases in cities like Hamburg, Lucerne and Olten, the Living Shell project (Sturm & Schwehr, 2013) translates the demand of densification (adversity) into the opportunity of improving the quality of neighbourhoods through the refurbishment of façades and activation of lofts (advantage). Value retention, densification as well as improved living standards are achieved. Urban sprawl is avoided. Specialisation, Optimisation Allowing reserve for the unpredictable ǀ Avoidance of unsustainable optimisation ǀ Avoidance of unilateral specialisation ǀ Adaptability Excess optimisation and specialisation are end phases of a refinement process in which properties such as variety, adaptability, reserves, multi-functionality and redundancy have often been suppressed. Such properties are actually those which can make a system more resistant to change and therefore more antifragile. Artificiality Life-cycle awareness ǀ Working with nature ǀ Passive architecture The more buildings or neighbourhoods work with nature in a passive way, the less the need for artificial support and means. Energy efficient neighbourhoods, for example, use the potential of buildings which produce more energy than they consume (Power Station House) as well as other ecological oriented strategies (Minergie-P, interaction with urban network, mechanical engineering, social aspects, etc.) (Schwehr, 2009). Lack of Fault tolerance System oriented ǀ Occasional fragility ǀ Life-cycle awareness ǀ Epigenetic manoeuvres ǀ Adaptability Strategies can be applied in order to upgrade existing structures and profit from new uses. The Indoor Units project (Schwehr & Bürgin 2012, p. 43-45) researches how to profit from the unused potential (occasional fragility) of existing industrial buildings. A modular indoor-unit is developed which allows



!

P7 S

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permanent or provisional operation. A life-cycle awareness of the building is considered. Epigenetic manoeuvres allow us to activate new uses. The new dynamic revitalises the area and improves its image. Additional occupation of ground is avoided thus contributing to ecology. A participative policy for the new uses is promoted. Neighbourhoods are adapted to new requirements. Lack of holistic approach Using synergies ǀ Seeking cooperation ǀ Promoting collective over individual benefit Using synergies and cooperation can substantially increase the quality of a system. For example, the project Wohnen im Alter in ländlichen Gemeinden im Kanton Zürich with the problematic of elderly people’s housing quality in the countryside. The Canton of Zürich supports small municipalities in increasing the offer and quality of housing for elderly. The following strategies amplifying the intervention radius are implemented: Synergies with nearby facilities, cooperation with institutions, promoting multi-generational apartments, choosing strategic locations, including social aspects (services, networks) (Mayer et al. 2012).



! CASE STUDIES Case studies at the three different levels (process, building and neighbourhood) are presented to illustrate how fragile systems can gain in robustness, resilience or antifragility through the application of precise strategies. Case study 1 - Process level Project/Subject: Office in Motion - Workplace of the future. Need of transforming/adapting office space to new requirements or uses (Amstutz & Schwehr 2012) Problem or characteristic of a fragile system: The way of working has changed. A homogeneous offer of office space does not respond to the manifold need of the market; costs pressure optimises and standardises space; difficulty to combine common space and privacy; challenge of dealing with distance/closeness of workplaces. Diagnosis: Fragile system that leads to empty unused spaces. Employees don't identify with their workplace. Strategies: The Office in Motion project (Amstutz & Schwehr 2012) implements a number of strategies to increase the quality of the office environment: increase of user’s identification with the workplace, providing a controlled freedom; from workplace to taskplace, offering a variety of spaces (to meet, create, concentrate, communicate, socialise, for isolation and celebration); user-friendly technology is used in new office space to communicate and enlarge the concept of office space; promotion of reserve for unpredictable use; high adaptability of spaces for use-flexibility; user-evaluated spaces. Improvement/Achievement: Resilient spaces capable of being rearranged when confronted with new stressors. High user acceptance.

Figure 8: Scheme integrating the complexity of office space requirements (Source: Amstutz & Schwehr 2012).

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! Case study 2 - Building level Project/Subject: SAN-STRAT Refurbishment Strategies (Schwehr & Ehrbar 2012) Problem or characteristic of a fragile system: In Switzerland, one in four apartments (i.e. 890,0000 apartments) are in an apartment block built between the 40s and 70s. Although the majority are not (currently) listed buildings, there is growing interest in their preservation. Clash of public interest between reducing energy consumption and conserving architectural culture often leads to undesirable results so that renovation of these residential buildings and estates are either severely delayed or not carried out at all. Diagnosis: Case A: The residential estate is not renovated. The apartment vacancy rate increases. Buildings are not renovated and fall into disrepair. Case B: Renovation is carried out solely from an energy conservation point of view. Architectural heritage is lost in the process. Strategies: Systemic evaluation. Workshops with everyone involved. Residential buildings and estates are viewed holistically and their entire life cycle is taken into consideration, additive and reversible measures with minor levels of intervention are deployed, and everyone (owners, energy and conservation planners) is involved in developing carefully considered and mutually agreed renovation strategies. Improvement/Achievement: Heating energy requirements of residential buildings and estates built between the 40s and 70s can be reduced by around 50% without compromising on architectural culture. Holistic renovation strategies are relatively easy to implement and are to a large extent able to meet heating demands with renewable energy.

Figure 9: The planning tools, coordination matrix and cloud graphic developed in this project can be used in the strategic planning phase in order to solve complex issues in refurbishment schemes (Source: Schwehr & Ehrbar 2012).

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! Case study 3 – Neighbourhood level Project/Subject: Transferring the qualities of single-family homes (SFH) to multi-family housing (MFH) (Meier & Sturm & Schwehr 2012) Problem or characteristic: Undesired urban sprawl through single-family houses; homogeneity of urban outskirts; top-down originated developments; high repetition of housing without variation; system limitation to 'house'; high optimisation of means; artificiality; closed planned system; 'perfectly planned future'. Diagnosis: Fragile and unsustainable system Strategies: Transfer of SFH qualities to MFH; introduction of variety (e.g. multi-generational apartments); controlled freedom to allow identity (definition of spaces of own design and decision); promotion of collective rather than individual benefit (developments are concentrated in high density areas in order to prevent urban sprawl); increase of adaptability in order to be able to react to changing stressors (new requirements of occupants, changing laws); epigenetic manoeuvres (e.g. addition or suppression of rooms to adapt to new family structure). Improvement/Achievement: MFH neighbourhoods appear attractive and gain acceptance. MFH schemes can be multiplied and successfully host a higher number of population yielding collective benefit. MFHs are not only good, but have even more advantages than SFHs. The system is antifragile. The more MFHs, the better the overall system.

Figure 10: Example of a multifamily house with single-family house qualities (Source: Mayer, Sturm & Schwehr 2012).

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! Case study 4 – Integral case Project/Subject: Housing cooperative Kalkbreite, Zürich, www.anleitung.kalkbreite.net. Architects: Müller Sigrist Problem and challenges: To avoid speculation and achieve collective values, a great effort is made by housing cooperatives in Switzerland to encourage common objectives such as solidarity, democracy, transparency, cooperation, subsidiarity, being locally rooted, as well as ecological and energy awareness. The Kalkbreite Housing Cooperative is offered as the third alternative between ownership and rental. It was founded in Zürich in order to establish a social and ecological pioneering urban development. Diagnosis: The project, which was situated on a challenging site which had to cover the tram parking halls, has been accomplished in 2014. Cooperation between communities, neighbourhoods and the town council was backed by the following strategies. Strategies: Process level – Establishing low interest rates for land procurement, involving all actors in the early planning and decision making stages, providing childcare during community meetings, solidarity financial trust, opening the system to the neighbourhoods and friends, sustainability monitoring, establishing degrees and strategies of conflict management, down-top decision making, strong communication platform, etc. Building level - Innovative and experimental apartment types to cover lifelong changes (living with children, large family, cluster apartments (for young and elderly)), living & working apartments, studio rental (as “granny apartment” or for guests), rental of meeting rooms, collective offices, hobby workshop and music rehearsal room, rental, event kitchen and dining room, community freezer, laundry facilities, indoor and outdoor shared community spaces and services (front desk assistant, library, sauna, etc.). Neighbourhood level – The following services are offered for indoor and outdoor users: cinema, “Bed without Breakfast” hostel, medical practice, café, take away, shops, roof gardens and courtyard. Neighbours and friends are also welcome to community meetings. Improvement/Achievement: Holistic approach combining living, work and culture; high acceptance and community life; this is a scheme which considered all possible scenarios except, maybe, the unpredictable.

Figure 11: An experimental and innovative housing “city part” (Source: Schweizerische Eidgenosenschaft http://www.bafu.admin.ch/dokumentation/umwelt/12360/12369/12404/index.html?lang=de).. CONCLUSION The core element of this document is the thesis that analogue to epigenetic processes in evolution, architecture has to be activated before it can become effective. Two levels of information play a key role in this process: The first level of information is the building as a static object ('hardware', e.g. materials, spatial concepts etc.). It includes the structural-spatial potential. The second is a higher level of information which functions as the 'software' (immaterial aspects, acceptance etc.). Their programmes activate the structuralspatial potential of the object and are responsible for the human-environment interaction.

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! 'In the same way, a building has to start in the immeasurable aura and go through the measurable to be accomplished. It is the only way you can build, the only way you can get it into being is through the measurable. You must follow the laws but in the end when the building becomes part of living it evokes immeasurable qualities. The design involving quantities of brick, method of construction, engineering is over and the spirit of its existence takes over. (…) This interplay is the constant excitement of architecture' (Kahn, 1960). When planning architecture, if one succeeds in consciously taking the interplay between these information levels into consideration, fragile (object oriented) states can be transformed into antifragile states (humanenvironment interaction oriented). Since the aspired level of high human-environment interaction assumes specific consideration of use, building and context and already considers the Unknown as a Basis as a principle in design (Habraken, 1961, p.31). As soon as the building is seen as an isolated (material) object without taking its (immaterial) human-environment interaction into account, the process leads to an undue reduction of complex interrelations and unsatisfactory evaluations of the architectural effect increasing the risk of fragility. This method can be used to classify system states in architecture according to their fragility, and develop strategies for sustainable architecture in relation to antifragility. One of the main challenges for applying such strategies is the lack of influence in private developments that prioritises individual benefit above the collective. Current highly optimised processes in which time and cost, of construction and planning, are reduced to insensible extremes, do not allow the implementation of additional strategies which could redirect systems towards antifragility. One of the most recent successfully completed schemes is the Kalkbreite housing cooperative (http://www.kalkbreite.net/): an exemplary process of high participatory cooperation between members of two former cooperatives and the city of Zürich; an innovative and creative scheme designed by architects Müller Sigrist. It is as a complex mechanism of shared spaces, dwellings and services which can adapt to needs of actual and future users, with a strong interaction with the neighbourhood. Working with possible development scenarios and model variants in view of the aspired humanenvironment interaction is of great importance. “Activating natural relations” is only made possible through interaction (Habraken, 1961, p.29). It is fundamental for developing sustainable architecture.

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! REFERENCES Amstutz, S & Schwehr, P., 2012. Office in Motion, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Engineering & Architecture (Switzerland), Lucerne, viewed 10 March 2014, . Bauer, J., 2008. Das kooperative Gen: Evolution als kreativer Prozess, Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München. Fezer, J., 1980. Politik – Umwelt – Mensch, in L Burckhardt, Wer plant die Planung? Architektur, Politik und Mensch, Martin Schmitz Verlag, Kassel. Habraken, NJ., 2000. Die Träger und die Menschen: Das Ende des Massenwohnungsbaus, Original edition 1961, Arch-Edition, Den Haag. Habraken, NJ., 2008. Eine offene Architektur ist keine neutrale Architektur, interview, viewed 20 August 2013, . Kahn, L., 2003. ‘Form and design’, in R Twonbly (ed.), Essential texts, W.W. Norton & Company, New York. Kegel, B., 2013. Das interaktive Buch des Lebens, in Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Spezial No. 2. Latour, B & Yaneva, A., 2008. ‚Die Analyse der Architektur nach der Actor-Network-Theorie (ANT)‘, in R Geiser (ed), Explorations in Architecture, Birkhäuser-Verlag AG, Basel. Mayer, A, Plagaro, N, Sturm, U & Schwehr, P., 2012. ‘Collective benefit as generator of individual benefit. Resonance based design method and its application in transferring single-family house qualities to cooperative multi-family housing’, in Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of CIB W104 ‘Open Building Implementation, Long Lasting Buildings in Urban Transformation’, CIB W 104, Beijing. Mayer, A, Schwehr, P & Bürgin, M., 2011. Nachhaltige Quartiersentwicklung im Fokus flexibler Strukturen, vdf Hochschulverlag AG ETH Zürich, Zurich. Mayer, A, Sturm, U & Schwehr, P., 2012. Indikatoren-System – zur Messung von EinfamilienhausWohnqualitäten in Mehrfamilienhäusern, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Engineering & Architecture (Switzerland), Lucerne, viewed 10 March 2014, . Mayer, A, Sturm, U & Schwehr, P., 2012. Argumentarium – zu den Vorteilen von Mehrfamilienhäusern mit Einfamilienhaus Wohnqualitäten, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Engineering & Architecture (Switzerland), Lucerne, viewed 10 March 2014, . Mayer, A, Sturm, U & Schwehr, P., 2012. Planungsempfehlungen – zur Entwicklung von Mehrfamilienhäusern mit Einfamilienhaus-Wohnqualitäten, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Engineering & Architecture (Switzerland), Lucerne, viewed 10 March 2014, . Miller, P., 2012. ‘A thing or two…about twins’, National Geographic, Vol. 221, no. 1. Musil, R., 2000. Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften, 11th Edition, Hamburg. Plagaro Cowee, N & Schwehr, P., 2012. Typology of adaptability in building construction, vdf Hochschulverlag AG ETH, Z Urich, Schwehr, P., 2002. ‘Ein entwurfsbezogenes orientierungssystem’, PhD. thesis, Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, University of Stuttgart.

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! Schwehr, P., 2009. Energieeffiziente Quartiere, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Engineering & Architecture (Switzerland), Lucerne, viewed 15 February 2014, . Schwehr, P., 2011. Szenarienmethodik im architektonischen Planungsprozess, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Engineering & Architecture (Switzerland), Lucerne. Schwehr, P., 2010. ‘Evolutionary algorithms in architecture’, Proceedings of the 16th International Conference: ‘Open and Sustainable Building’, CIB W 104, Bilbao. Schwehr, P & Bürgin, M., 2012. Indoor-units – ein symbiotisches produkt als lösung für ein raumplanerisches problem, vdf-Verlag/interact-Verlag, Zurich/Lucerne. Schwehr, P & Bürgin, M., 2013. ‘Turning brownfields green’ Disseminating science, research and technology, no. 1, Research Medial Ltd, Bristol, p. 43. Schwehr, P & Ehrbar, D., 2012. SanStrat – Argumentarium Sanierung, Faktor Verlag AG, Zurich. Schwehr, P & Plagaro Cowee, N., 2011. ‘Learning from evolutionary principles and their key success factor. Resonance based design method for preventive architecture’, Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of CIB W104 ‘Architecture in the fourth dimension’, CIB W104, Boston. Sturm, U & Schwehr, P., 2013. Living shell, Competence Centre Typology & Planning in Architecture (CCTP), Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Engineering & Architecture (Switzerland), Lucerne, viewed 15 February 2014, http://www.hslu.ch/technik-architektur/t-forschung-entwicklung/tforschung_entwicklung_architektur/t-forschung_entwicklung_typologie_planung/t-fat_projekte/tlivingshell.htm. Szyf, M., 2013. ‘Verankerung frühkindlicher Erfahrungen im Erbgut’, in Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Spezial No. 2, p. 32. Taleb, NN., 2012. Antifragile, Things which gain with disorder, Random House Publishing Group, New York. Taleb, NN., 2013. Antifragilität: Anleitung für eine Welt die wir nicht verstehen, Albrecht Knaus Verlag, Munich. Trageser, G., 2013. ‚Das entthronte Genom‘, in Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Spezial No. 2 . Walker, B, Holling, CS, Carpenter, SR & Kinzig, A., 2004. ‘Resilience, adaptability and transformability in socialecological systems', Ecology and Society, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 5, viewed 10 March 2014, . Wohnbaugenossenschaften Schweiz, 2013. Der dritte Weg im Wohnungsbau, Verband der Baugenossenschaften, .

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! OPEN BUILDING IN BRAZIL: IS IT POSSIBLE? Rosamônica da Fonseca Lamounier, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil, [email protected] Denise Morado Nascimento, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil, [email protected] Abstract The provision of social housing in Brazil has been in progress since 2009 carried out by the Program Minha Casa, Minha Vida. The program, sponsored by the Federal Government, has seen little progress in relation to prior housing policies, also in regard to the quality of the dwelling spaces. Its production is quite opposed to the conceptual principles of Open Building, not addressing features such as flexibility, connectivity and efficiency, and offering ready-built, finished, standardised, non-adaptable, obsolete and under-utilised spaces. The context of such formal housing mass production, based on productive capitalist principles, involves [1] agents and institutions of the private and public sectors, their properties and relationships, [2] the condition and the conduct of architects within the scope of their education and cultural heritage [3] and current Brazilian society considering the social, economic and political transformations of recent decades. The logic of practice in this field, as carried out by the private market and legitimised by the State, hinders the participation of dwellers in the decision-making process related to the space where they will live. This contrasts with the prevailing practice of self-construction, and addresses the question, not as an architectural or technological issue, but mainly, as a political, economic and social issue. In other words, the circumstances involve the market, the government, the professional, academia and the population, a context where capital prevails, ruled by consumerism, which in principle or historically, is not interested in developing evolutional spaces that are unlikely to be demolished for the construction of newer dwellings. The text ultimately proposes to challenge and investigate to what extent it would be possible to apply the Open Building methodology to the Brazilian housing production initiatives, in view of the flaws indicated in the logic of this practice, and the effective association of the movement’s principles to contemporary Brazilian housing policy. The present paper is part of a larger Ph.D. study that is in progress, which further investigates this theme. Keywords: Open Building, social housing, public policies, autonomy. INTRODUCTION: THE HOUSING DEFICIT IN BRAZIL The Program Minha Casa, Minha Vida (MCMV), introduced by a 2009 Federal Act, is the current public instrument for the production and acquisition of new dwelling units. By the end of 2010, the program had built approximately 1 million dwelling units. During its second phase (2011-2014), it undertook the construction of over 2 million units. On 9th December, 2013, in the radio program “Café com a Presidenta” (breakfast with the president), President Dilma Rousseff disclosed a figure of 3.75 million units planned, exceeding the goal promised for the two first phases. In addition, she announced the third phase of the program, which is an attempt to eradicate the quantitative housing deficit, which is the main purpose of the MCMV. The concept and the methodology used to appraise and calculate the quantitative housing deficit, adopted by the Ministry of the Cities (MC) in Brazil and by the Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada – IPEA (Applied Economy Research Institute) of the Federal Government, was developed by the state research institute, the João Pinheiro Foundation – FJP. It comprises four components: [1] precarious dwelling; [2] family-shared dwelling; [3] excessive lease burden and [4] excessive dwelling density in leased properties. The total deficit is the sum of the quantitative and qualitative deficits (existing inadequate dwellings). The MCMV does not address the qualitative deficit. In urban areas, the program is divided into three family income brackets for assistance purposes: up to BRL 1,600.00 (Range 1) – approximately USD 718.00

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! up to BRL 3,100.00 (Range 2) – approximately USD 1.392,00 up to BRL 5,000.00 (Range 3) – approximately USD 2.246,00 The registration, selection and recommendation, by means of drawing, of families that apply to participate in the program, and whose income lies within one of these brackets and matches both federal and municipal criteria, are carried out free of charge by the city halls, supported by a financial institution (CAIXA) which executes the process. According to FJP (2011, 2012, 2013), the total Brazilian housing deficit (urban and rural) totalled 5.546.310 domiciles in 2008, 5.998.909 in 2009, and 6.940.691 in 2010. The same study (FJP 2013, pp. 39-41) suggests that in 2010, the largest deficit indicators in Brazil were mainly concentrated in the lower income class, with 62.7% in Range 1, added to 3.9% in the ‘no-income’ bracket, however ranging from 60% to almost 90% depending on the region of Brazil. IPEA (2013, p. 5) also shows that “the largest portion of the deficit still remains on the domiciles that belong to the lower income bracket”. Nevertheless, the MCMV has not been effective in addressing the deficit it was designed to deal with, mainly regarding the lower class, which has an income of up to BRL 1.600.00, approximately 0 to 3 minimum wages in force in Brazil. In addition, the program does not cover two important aspects: [1] a significant part of the qualitative deficit, considering that the solution could also involve the adequacy of existing dwellings, i.e., the program simply regards the solution as a number to be surpassed with the production of new houses; [2] parallel research on property vacancy in the country, showing the number of vacant properties that could potentially be mobilised to resolve the quantitative social housing deficit. The FJP (2013, p. 73) published the number of vacant properties in Brazil in 2010: 6.052.161 units, taking into consideration those properties which were vacant and closed, as well as those used sporadically. Relative increases were observed when assessing the deficit per component, among them, the increase in the surplus lease burden from 1.75 million homes to 2.293 million in 2013, an approximate increase of 30% in five years stands out (IPEA 2013, p. 12). This is precisely the component responsible for the highest deficit percentage. This means that families covered by the MCMV leave leased properties behind (which also occurs with properties that fit into the deficit category due to other factors), and these properties are occupied by new homeless families, causing an endless deficit renewal process, and suggesting the existence of invisible costs of social nature that are not being considered in the program. Ribeiro, Boulos and Szemeta (2014) also suggest that the housing deficit has grown due to a large increase in lease prices, including areas in urban outskirts. That component of the surplus burden is accounted for in the deficit of families whose monthly income is compromised by dwelling lease expenses by 30% or more. In addition to the above-mentioned sources, part of the data analysed here is from ongoing research (20132014) of the PRAXIS group of the School of Architecture of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), involving the characterisation and assessment of the MCMV in the metropolitan area of Belo Horizonte (BHMA), which is part of national network research carried out jointly with other Brazilian universities. This research includes more localised data, reflecting the Brazilian scenario, as the program is carried out all over the country. The study has been investigating 11 occupied areas, in six municipalities of the BHMA, by means of field visits, photographic surveys, interviews with local dwellers, building managers, construction companies and companies that evaluate post-dwelling aspects, including document and report analysis. Due to the flaws in the MCMV, abandonment or unlawful sale of program-sponsored properties is already taking place (reselling or transferring such properties is forbidden during the first 10 years of use) (PRAXISUFMG 2013-2014). This occurs either due to payment default or dissatisfaction with the house. In some cases, the beneficiaries return to their former homes. Housing deficit, the primary purpose of the program, has not met all housing needs of the families. On the contrary, it has created new problems and also a growth in the housing deficit. This results in an imbalance, within a social inequality feedback process, which contrasts with the official discourse (in ‘breakfast with the President’ program on 9th December, 2013) of achieving goals and political gains, of generating new jobs, ultimately of boosting the economy and increasing the GNP (gross national product), favouring economic growth and development. By the end of 2014, the government will have invested approximately BRL 234 billion (USD 99.91 billion) in the productive chain of this industry (IPEA, 2013).

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! Maricato (2013, pp. 38-39) asserts that the MCMV was “[...] designed by developers and real estate entrepreneurs in partnership with the Federal Government. The real estate boom thus began, with a huge impact on big cities. While in 2009, the Brazilian GNP and the civil construction showed negative balances, as opposed to the earlier trend, in 2010 the GNP grew by 7.5% and civil construction grew by 11.6%.” Ribeiro, Boulos and Szemeta (2014) concludes that the program “was developed on-demand to save the real estate industry during the 2008 crisis, and its rules are therefore focused on private interests”. In other words, the housing issue in Brazil is complex and would require studies in several areas. The present article focuses on the issue of architectural typology adopted without being restricted to architectural design, yet considering production as a priority, with all of its economic, political, legal, professional and social influences and implications. In order to achieve this, the concept of field, in Bourdieu (2004), helps to highlight the obstacles that impair other practices, which are co-related here, so that, in the end, considerations that raise more questions than solutions may be proposed. FIELD: AGENTS AND INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN HOUSING PRODUCTION The universe of house building in Brazil comprises agents and institutions that produce, reproduce and reveal the program, by means of instruments (laws, directives, manuals) and mechanisms of its own (capitalist production), with a high degree of autonomy, which Bourdieu (2004) calls field. Therefore, the MCMV is a program developed by the Federal Government (MC), executed by private enterprises (construction companies), in partnership with state or municipal governments and/or other entities, and operated by a bank, Caixa Econômica Federal (CAIXA), a financial institution that functions as a public company of the Federal Government, with its own equity and administrative autonomy. Construction companies of the state of Minas Gerais engaged with the MCMV, income Range 1, declared that they have outsourced their architectural designs (PRAXIS-UFMG 2014). The design guidelines assigned to the architects always include the same, unique standard typology, both in terms of dwelling units and of building layouts (buildings of up to 5 floors). In this process, the architect is only responsible for developing several building sites, calculating the number of units, suggesting a façade pattern, and taking care of bureaucratic approval proceedings for the projects before the competent authorities. Bernis (2008) conducted a study regarding the role assigned to the architect, as developer, façade designer and forwarding agent. This type of practice consolidates a professional pseudo-autonomy at the expense of the heteronomy of the dweller, who will occupy a predefined, standardised space, treated as merchandising. A field (economic and political) of forces and struggles for positions between the dominant (government and market institutions) and the dominated (agents, namely architects, other professionals and particularly the population) is established. Profiting from the boom of the real estate market, with the potential of the MCMV, large Brazilian construction companies went public, offering their shares in the stock market. Since this process is the result of an alliance between the government, the market and the financial institution, which excludes society, leaving it in the passive condition of mere consumer, a structure of relationships is established: [1] the market is the institution that dominates the housing production; [2] the legitimacy of that production granted by the State; [3] the subordination of the architect to both; and [4] the consumption, subordination and misinformation however, with a potential of change by the society (dwellers). A few questions can be raised regarding these relations. The first refers to the role of the State as an intervening authority in favour of the society. Maricato (2013) states that Brazil has “laws, plans, technical knowledge, experience, tried and tested proposals in the areas of transportation, sanitation, drainage, solid residue, housing”, sufficient to change the current practice. Further on, however, “the first required action regarding the current urban policy is a political reform, especially in relation to political campaign funding.” In Brazil, political campaign funding is regulated by law and the use of both public and private resources are allowed, the latter characterised as private donations. Although there are drafts of laws that would define an exclusive public fund for political campaigns, donations made by lucrative companies still prevail. The political campaigns are still funded by large construction companies, among other companies of the private sector, rendering the introduction of an effective regulating policy a difficult task (Rabat 2011).

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! The second question brings about the possibility of equating the production of social housing to the actual benefit to the population and not the construction companies. Currently, the construction companies comply with the minimum parameters required by the program, such as the size of the units, technical specifications, etc., when allocation prices are fixed. Even if the construction company offers a larger apartment, with different and better features, the allocation price is still unchanged reducing, therefore, its profits. This means the legislation in effect stimulates low-quality popular housing, as it favours productivity (Ribeiro, Boulos & Szemeta 2014). This suggests a degree of partnership between State and Capital that ought to be questioned. The third question proposes that architects redefine their own profession and field (Stevens 2003), undertaking the role of collaborators in the process. For Stevens (2003), architects in general are not concerned with social aspects. They design for other architects, considering the user practically as an obstacle to the designing process. The final, and perhaps most important question, considers the fact that Brazilian society nowadays, as it directly suffers the consequences of the program, holds such mobilisation power that it could occupy a different position in this field, in this global social space, which Bourdieu (2009) calls habitus. REGARDING THE ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGY ISSUE Many issues related to the MCMV have been highlighted. Rolnik and Nakano (2009, p. 4) asserted that there is a conflict regarding what a “housing policy with a job creation policy in the construction industry” really is. Arantes and Fix (2009) warn that “the housing package and its huge marketing operation reclaim the “homeowner ideology”, which was strategically promoted in Brazil during the military regime [...].” Maricato (2010) states that the MCMV does not refer to “the urban question, and is not satisfactory in terms of social housing issues (if we consider all advancements conceptually achieved on the theme in Brazil).” Such issues and their serious social implications are incorporated in the specific theme of that study: the issue involving an adopted and widely reproduced architectural typology. Production in MCMV has been the same all over the country. The properties are either apartments organised in H-shaped buildings on plateaus, with up to 5 floors each (Figure 1), or houses (detached, two-story or semi-detached) (Figure 2). Both types are submitted to the same rigid and standardised architectural design, comprising the minimum (required) features, which become the maximum (accomplished) features. The organisation of space within the dwelling unit only changes as the positions of the rooms change; other than that, all properties comprise a combined living and dining room, a kitchen, a micro laundry usually adjacent to the kitchen, two bedrooms and one bathroom, and all these contained within an area of 39 to 44 m2, at most. In other words, there is a starting point of a pre-determined design that merely complies with the functions of a “modern design” with spaces for living, eating, sleeping, washing and cooking, as if no demands could be adapted to different layouts, even by the dwellers themselves.

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The program’s directives are also legitimised by municipal building codes that determine the same rules regarding types, number and dimensions of the premises, as well as the respective furniture.

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The premises cannot be modified, as the walls are self-supporting. The elements are repetitive and standardised, with the purpose of achieving a ‘constructive rationalization’ (industrialised components are employed in a manufactured production). Due to their low income, dwellers are not able to do costly refurbishing work in a recently built and finished space, given the pre-conceived inadaptability of the design. This brings about a hidden crisis, as the dweller cannot adapt the house to meet the immediate family need. With time, the dweller will suffer directly with a problem whose origins they hardly understand, that is, the individual being excluded from a social control process. In addition to the MCMV directives’ predefined criteria, the government, jointly with CAIXA, launched a complementary program ‘Minha Casa Melhor’ for the program’s beneficiaries to improve their homes. It consists of a credit facility of up to BRL 5.000,00 (USD 2.246,00) to purchase furniture and household appliances, restricted to a list that, once again, contributes to a standardised type of occupation, in addition to subjecting the dwellers to a kind of assisted indebtedness. The list of items was certainly based on minimal dimensions as well as on the predetermined layout of a standard typology adopted and illustrated in a previous blueprint. This is evidence of the generalised concept of dwelling needs defined in the program. In a country with continental dimensions and large social and cultural differences, family demands are not identical within the same income bracket or within the same region. In Brazil, architects do not design the vast majority of the buildings, neither are they regulated by the competent authorities, as they are usually built by the dwellers themselves. According to the MC (Brazil 2009), about 70% of households are self-productions. On that issue, Morado Nascimento and Tostes (2011) remind us that “all it takes is to think about spaces that are not planned by architects, where the existing space layouts are commonly more complex, without similar space-activity, and above all activity-industry correspondence, in layouts that are more adequate to the daily practices of the dwellers: the kitchen is, many time, a socialising space, and not only a “service” area for domestic workers, such as the medium-class kitchens. Furthermore, people commonly sleep in spaces that are not specifically bedrooms, since the intended use of each space is not always the reality.” Even in the standardised configuration of the MCMV projects, it is possible to observe appropriations of the spaces different from those defined in the projects (Figure 3). In other words, the legislation does more than simply stimulate and induce: it forces a concept of space grounded in the modernistic ideals of minimum partition of the social-service-private areas of the house. It includes single-purpose spaces based on a single family structure for a couple with children, which is quite diversified, as if all people lived under identical standards. The minimum requirement that becomes the maximum accomplishment in these social-interest dwellings is stricter than the design solutions for higherincome classes. This typology does not vary in size or number of bedrooms, resulting in an almost automatic modus operandi in Brazil, involving the replication of the projects. “The dwelling process, which should assume choices, participation in the decision-making process in several levels and timeframes, is impoverished and reduced to a mere shopping list like any other, emptying and deteriorating its political dimension” (Morado Nascimento & Tostes 2011). The space appropriation and subversion, both in the dwelling units and in the common use areas, in projects visited in the BHMA, provide clues for assessment, clearly showing: [1] lack of space for certain tasks such as drying clothes in the apartments, forcing the dwellers to simply invent different solutions (Figure 4); [2] overlapping function of spaces originally intended for single functions (sleeping in the living room, working in the bedroom or living room), and sometimes conflicting functions (drying clothes in the kitchen)

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! (Figure 3); [3] mixed uses of spaces originally only planned for dwelling (Figure 5); [4] lack of flexibility of the premises and in the opening or closing of spaces, leading to even more improvisation (Figure 6). In addition, the rapid deterioration or depredation of construction elements, lack of safety, the use and traffic of drugs, etc. increase social conflicts. The absolute majority of the dwellers originally lived in houses, even if leased or in precarious conditions, and not in apartments. Therefore, they wish to have privacy and individual space, the possibility of expanding their houses, or external private areas, in order to live as they used to in their former homes. The typology adopted by the MCMV does not offer such options to the dwellers. This assessment could be extended to the common use areas, which present similar issues (Figure 7).

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! OTHER EXPERIENCES, OTHER SCENARIOS While this conventional design method, thoroughly mastered by capitalism, consolidated itself by practice and learning in the architectural field, other experiences have emerged since the beginning of the twentieth century. Some of the experiences derive from the Dutch tradition, from Rietveld, late Hertzberger, Habraken, Koolhaas, Nox, among others, leading to more contemporary experiences, such as the Open Building movement. Other initiatives, from other contexts, include the proposals of Lucien Kroll, Ralph Erskine, Christopher Alexander, Giancarlo di Carlo, Yona Friedman, Cedric Price, John Turner, Walter Segal, members of the Archigram, Jeremy Till, Manuel Gausa, Elemental, etc. Such proposals involve flexible, hybrid, connectable, expandable, easily modifiable or adaptable spaces, which are more efficient and offer the greater possibility of complying with more satisfactory and multiple demands, and generate more autonomy and emancipation for the users. A preliminary comparative analysis between space appropriations and subversions carried out by dwellers of the MCMV projects and their experiences may provide evidence to suggest a new design trend. First, even if the space has been designed and produced without considering certain attributes, the appropriations reveal adaptability, mixed use and individualisation features, among others. That is, even if space usage is difficult, people make arrangements to adapt to their dwelling culture. Second, other characteristics intrinsic to these experiences, such as varying dwelling units and the possibility of definitely expanding premises, are not a reality in the spaces built by the MCMV, but ought to be considered. In other words, the need for dwelling density does not justify the solutions offered by apartments, since it is possible to meet the needs of a dense occupation with different space solutions, other than the plain stacking and repetition of units and typical stories (Morado Nascimento & Tostes 2011). J. N. Habraken’s Supports’ Theory, as well as the principles of Open Building (OB) derived from there are worth highlighting in this study as a possible, but at the same time questionable, alternative to apply to the Brazilian context. Habraken’s theory is essentially based on re-introducing the dweller into the decision-making, professional and political processes related to the design, construction and use of dwelling space. There are two moments in that decision-making process: the collective, equivalent to the support, with collective decisions and, in a certain way, fixed and general; and the individual, which corresponds to infill, the house itself, a decision of each dweller. The theory may apply to several levels of intervention, from furniture and objects to city structuring and planning, including dwelling units, buildings, neighbourhoods, and other uses as well. Furthermore, the theory defends the interface between technical systems allowing for the replacement of one system with another having the same function, with the least disturbance. It also defends that the constructed environment is in constant transformation and the need for change should be acknowledged and studied. Examples may be found in the publications of J. N. Habraken, Stephen Kendall and Jonathan Teicher, as well as on the movement’s website. It is important to highlight that the [re]inclusion of the user into the decision-making process raises the issue of a divorce between common culture and scientific knowledge (Bourdieu 2010). In the past, job site knowledge was replaced by architectural knowledge, commodified knowledge in the form of coded drawings, which placed the architect as a controller of the process, causing symbolic violence. Habraken wishes to rescue the understanding between the specialist and the layman. Such ‘other experiences’ in ‘other scenarios’ could be challenged by both the State and private enterprises in Brazil, for reasons related to costs, which would demand a detailed verification survey. Even if the argument is true, it should be challenged as to the priority of social interests to the detriment of more profits to the private market, as well as against the social issues arising from the standard typology adopted. The conflicts in neighbourhoods are also a consequence of: [1] private demarcations in common-use areas, as the projects do not provide for individualization and privacy; [2] public demarcations in private areas, for example, the implementation of mixed use in an area intended to be exclusively residential; [3] the poor acoustic insulation between the apartments; [4] unlawful abandon or sale of units by those who could not adapt to the typology; among other reasons.

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! The difficulty of our profession, as stated by Habraken (2012) is that we never consider these constraints and relations as part of the design work. We hold onto the ideals of unrestricted freedom in design-related decisions, an ideology that makes us believe that freedom is a primary condition for good architecture, whereas, of course, challenging restrictions drives actual creativity. The author affirms that it is not a technical or architectural issue, but of changing the control among the actors that participate in the process and are aware of the local context. The architect is not supposed to be a genius and an author, nor a forwarding agent. Furthermore, it is not the dwellers participation, in the sense of a referendum, yet in the sense of agreement, consensus, negotiation, autonomy, understanding and sharing involving several actors and agents, as opposed to control, dominance or dependence. It is worth mentioning examples, due to their political-economic nature rather than the architectural issues, such as an Open Building (OB) action in Japan: the Long Life Quality Housing Act. This is an Act approved by the Japanese parliament in 2009, which rewards open architecture designs that emphasise durability and adaptability. The law offers financial and tax incentives, aiming at a high percentage of dwelling stock produced during the past decades with low durability, short useful life, low resistance to earthquakes and low energy efficiency (35% after 1981). These incentives may be a direct subsidy such as income tax rebates, lower individual property taxes or lower real estate market taxes, or favourable conditions for loans used in the purchase of properties with better quality and emphasis in environmental sustainability. This act ensures incentive to properties that present nine features: [1] durable (100 years or more), [2] structurally safety, [3] large enough, [4] adaptable, [5] barrier-free, [6] energy efficient, [7] connection to its surroundings, [8] easy to maintain and [9] regularly maintained (Tomohiro 2012). The government expects 20% of the new properties in 2020 to obtain the Long-lasting housing Certificate. In 2011, more than 235,000 properties were certified. The program is valid for the construction of new properties as well as for retrofits. That is an experience inspired in the prevailing records of open and flexible urban buildings and structures, built in Japan during the past decades (OB). Habraken (2012) admits that he had never thought of the idea of such a law, and that whilst the durability requirement is the mandate of the law, it inevitably allows the personalization of properties to the user’s preferences. The MCMV is producing a significant stock of low-durability and low energy-efficiency dwelling units, a forecast of even worse problems in the near future. OPEN BUILDING IN BRAZIL: IS IT POSSIBLE? The main purpose of this article is to discuss the current scenario of social housing in Brazil, to highlight issues and to consider new possibilities. While other countries progress in the exchange among research, theory and practice, involving processes that share information to develop architectural, political, economic and marketing solutions, Brazil still considers housing merely as merchandise. What are then the actual possibilities for the Brazilian problem to be transformed with regards to this scenario? How could the architects contribute to this, as they are part of the field? Would a solution by means of legislation be more suitable for the Brazilian context? Or would the best solution be via Brazilian society, with its mobilisation and transformation power, its social and economic organisation, creating new [re] production alternatives, as opposed to the prevailing capitalistic methods? How could the traditional knowledge regarding people’s dwelling culture be articulated with the design and production of new houses? We have indeed progressed in terms of urban legislation with the Federal Constitution of 1986, the Statute of the City in 2001, as well as with all the instruments derived therefrom. Regarding construction, there were two recent accomplishments that converge with the topic discussed here: the Brazilian Modular Coordination Standard for Buildings (NBR 15783:2010), one of the hallmarks to actually industrialize construction, bearing in mind that modular coordination is a repetition of measures and not elements; and the Brazilian Building Performance Standard (NBR 15575:2013). Public policies, legal instruments and their effective application must be further advanced. Would a deeper study, considering the OB concepts on the one hand, and the appropriations and subversions of both MCMV projects and self-built spaces and irregular occupations on the other, be a guideline for the provision of housing in Brazil?

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! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful for the institutional and financial support provided by NPGAU/UFMG, CNPq and Fapemig. REFERENCES Arantes, PF & Fix, M., 2009. ‘Como o governo Lula pretende resolver o problema da habitação’, viewed 3 March 2014, http://carosamigos.terra.com.br. Bernis, F., 2008. ‘O arquiteto despachante: a participação do arquiteto na produção habitacional de massa’, Master’s thesis in Architecture and Urbanism, EAUFMG, Belo Horizonte, viewed 8 March 2014, http://www.bibliotecadigital.ufmg.br/dspace/handle/1843/RAAO-7RUHEG. Bourdieu, P., 2009. ‘Estruturas, habitus, práticas and O capital simbólico’, in P Bourdieu, O senso prático, trans. M.Ferreira, Ed. Vozes, Petrópolis, pp. 86-107. Bourdieu, P., 2010. O poder simbólico, trans. F. Tomaz, Editora Bertrand Brasil SA, Rio de Janeiro. Bourdieu, P., 2004. Os usos sociais da ciência. Por uma sociologia clínica do campo científico, trans. DB Catani, Editora UNESP, São Paulo. Brasil, Ministério das Cidades, 2009. ‘Curso a distância: Planos locais de habitação de interesse social, Ministério das Cidades, Brasília, viewed 8 March 2014, http://www.fau.usp.br/cursos/graduacao/arq_urbanismo/disciplinas/aup0278/2014.1_Bibliografia_Comple mentar/Aula_04_texto_02.pdf. Fundação João Pinheiro, 2011. ‘Déficit habitacional no Brasil 2008’, Ministério das Cidades/ Secretaria Nacional da Habitação, Brasília, viewed 3 March 2014, www.fjp.mg.gov.br. Fundação João Pinheiro, 2012. ‘Déficit habitacional no Brasil 2009’, Ministério das Cidades/ Secretaria Nacional da Habitação, Brasília, viewed 3 March 2014, www.fjp.mg.gov.br. Fundação João Pinheiro, 2013. ‘Déficit habitacional no Brasil 2010’, Ministério das Cidades/ Secretaria Nacional da Habitação, Brasília, viewed 3 March 2014, www.fjp.mg.gov.br. Gausa, M., 2010. Total housing: Alternatives to urban sprawl, Actar, Barcelona. Habraken, NJ., 2012. ‘N. J. Habraken explains the potential of the Open Building approach in architectural practice’, Interview D. Morado Nascimento, viewed 3 March 2014, http://www.vitruvius.com.br/revistas/read/entrevista/13.052/4542. Habraken, NJ., 2011. Supports: An alternate to mass housing, reprint, The Urban International Press, UK. IPEA, 2013. ‘Brasil econômico (SP): Minha casa, minha vida será ampliado em 2014’, Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada, Brasilia, viewed 3 March 2014, www.ipea.gov.br. IPEA, 2013. Estimativas do déficit habitacional Brasileiro (PNAD 2007-2012), Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada, Brasilia, viewed 3 March 2014, www.ipea.gov.br. Kendall, S & Teicher, J., 2000. Residential open building, E & FN Spon, London. Maricato, E., 2013. ‘É a questão urbana, estúpido!’, in D Harvey, E Maricato, S Zizek, M Davis et al., Cidades rebeldes: passe livre e as manifestações que tomaram as ruas do Brasil, viewed 8 March 2014, http://ujceara.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/cidadesrebeldespasselivreeasmanifestac3a7c3b5esquetomaramasruasdobrasil.pdf.

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! Maricato, E., 2010. ‘O ‘Minha Casa’ é um avanço, mas segregação urbana fica intocada’, Carta Maior, 27th May 2009, viewed 8 March 2014, http://www.cartamaior.com.br. Morado Nascimento, D & Tostes, SP., 2011. ‘Programa minha casa minha vida: a (mesma) política habitacional no Brasil’, viewed 8 March 2014, http://www.vitruvius.com.br/revistas/read/arquitextos/12.133/3936. PRAXIS-UFMG, 2013-2014. ‘Minha casa, minha vida: estudos avaliativos na Região Metropolitana de Belo Horizonte’, EAUFMG, Belo Horizonte, viewed 8 March 2014, http:// www.arq.ufmg.br/praxis/7_MCMV. Rabat, MN., 2011. ‘O financiamento de campanhas eleitores no Brasil e a proposta de financiamento público exclusivo’, Biblioteca Digital da Câmara dos Vereadores, Brasilia, viewed 8 March 2014, http://www.bd.camara.gov.br. Ribeiro, AP, Boulos, G & Szermeta, N., 2014. ‘Como não fazer política urbana. Após anos do Minha Casa Minha Vida, déficit habitacional aumentou em quase 1,5 milhão de moradias’, Carta Capital, 30th January 2014, viewed 8 March 2014, http://www.cartacapital.com.br/politica/como-nao-fazer-politica-urbana-3066.html. Rolnik, R & Nakano, K., 2009. ‘As armadilhas do pacote habitacional’, Le Monde Diplomatique, 20 March 2009, p.4, viewed 8 March 2014, http://raquelrolnik.wordpress.com/2009/03/16/as-armadilhas-do-pacotehabitacional. Stevens, G., 2003. O círculo privilegiado: Fundamentos sociais da distinção arquitetônica, trans. LGC Barbosa, UNB, Brasília. Tomohiro, H., 2012. ‘Integrating environmental sustainability and disaster resilience in building codes’, viewed 8 March 2014, http://www.unescap.org/esd/suds/buildingcodes/ Final-report/Good-Practice-Japanfiscal-and-financial-incentives.pdf.

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! OPEN EMERGENCY AND URGENT CARE SYSTEMS: EMERGENT PROJECT DESIGN DECISIONS UTILISING SCENARIO PLANNING WITH SYSTEMS SEPARATION ! Philip Astley, The Bartlett School of Construction & Project Management, University College London, England, [email protected] Dr Grant R. Mills, The Bartlett School of Construction & Project Management, University College London, England, [email protected] Richard Hind, The Bartlett School of Construction & Project Management, University College London, England, [email protected] Professor Andrew D.F. Price, School of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, England, [email protected] ABSTRACT An inter-disciplinary project team has a challenging job to design healthcare architecture that is resilient and adaptive to change, whilst ensuring that the system, services and assets fit with a region’s uniqueness. Emergency and urgent care is a microcosm of the wider regional picture and so provides an ideal case study environment to test scenario planning and system separation. What is more this setting is increasingly under pressure and so there is a need for a new approach. For example there is an increase in demand for emergency care services, in UK by some 4% annually (in England a 2014 report by the National Institute for Health Research suggests 11% increase of unplanned attendances between 2008 and 2013), and a need for efficiency savings of £20bn in the healthcare system. This paper identifies the importance of establishing a project design approach that discusses levels of strategic and operational importance with the various stakeholders. In this sense it proposes an approach that goes beyond a traditional view of static space and building definition. It presents state-of the-art hospital design concepts such as operational flow, system separation (from open building), operational whole life, acuity adaptability and scenario planning from a literature review. Finally the application of these concepts from live case studies within the UK National Health Service (NHS) is explored. It was found that a combination of these advanced concepts is a valuable means of considering resilience through adaptable design in emergency care systems. What is more they can support inter-disciplinary team discourse and open principles over an assets whole life. Keywords: open, emergency, acuity, adaptive, design, scenario, system, resilience.

INTRODUCTION Project design strategies for healthcare architecture must acknowledge a wider whole healthcare system and service and must encourage a long-term view of asset use. Scenario planning with systems separation, as it is applied to the design of emergency and urgent care facilities, is presented as a means to emphasise the impact of time, an inevitable change on design and decision-making. The increase in demand for services in emergency care has forced the need to establish new forms of project planning in work flow and practice (Carson et al. 2010, Rechel et al. 2010). Pressures on delivery of the client’s service can push the project team for early fixity in a programme of work by firming up information for validation of the ‘business case’. The early aim will be to articulate quantities of project development (how many rooms, room areas). However, following the scenario studies described, we propose that forms of scenario planning, used as project discussions by inter-disciplinary teams, and when combined with systems separation concepts, allow projects to be organised at decision levels- the strategic (orientation of the whole system) and the operational (fit-out space in the facility) and these allow the facilitation of new concepts of healthcare planning, such as adaptable design, in emergency care departments (ED).

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! Within the context of emergency with urgent care departments, many people are treated with different and in some cases multiple-morbidity conditions, with different cultural backgrounds and expectations for health and social care. The behaviour (and sometimes mis-behaviour) of users can vary widely and be extreme when brought together in one environment. For example, breast-feeding mothers, drug and alcohol dependents, prisoners with communicable disease, those suffering traumatic physical or psychotic episodes, or the frail elderly and those who may have dementia, or those in mourning, are treated in the same ED environment, but move variously around it. This requires an environment that is carefully designed to cater for a variety of relationships that enables clear processes and flows to cope with the varying flux in demand and the increase in use of mobile equipment, particularly from advances in mobile imaging. Today we are facing innovative interventions and new technologies and sensors, such as regenerative medicine, ‘virtual wards’, public health and exercise medicine, rapid response teams and paramedics, and others. For Dooris (2004) health can be delivered across settings from health promoting hospitals to healthy cities, neighbourhoods, schools, workplaces, prisons and universities) and unconstrained by walls and boundaries. Health is therefore achieved through the utilisation of static physical settings to support dynamic social and technological systems that encourage individual health-related behaviour. Adaptability in system, service and asset design is paramount. This paper contributes knowledge to the field of adaptable building design and open building, although is focused on the specific complexities of the healthcare system, service and asset. For Brand (1995) the totality and interdependence between building levels and mechanical and electrical system layers are critical in creating a clear purpose in operational use as buildings are complex and frequently change. Kendall (2002) states that there are a number of situations that contribute to a buildings complexity, these include for example multi-tenant, design process responsibility change, operating and tenant change, real estate sale, and differing fit-out performance expectations. For Ellingham and Fawcett (2006) complexity is increased by whole life development, expansion, switch of use, reconfiguration, refurbishment and new technology options. Healthcare buildings may be one of the most complex building sectors and so requires great attention. Kendall (2002) uses a hospital example to describe the importance of thinking about organisations and systems in buildings over time. Using the Inselspital Hospital, Bern, Switzerland Kendall (2002) noticed that the principle of optimising the constructed whole, at once as a “large lumpy and static object”, and from the beginning around dependencies, lists of technical parts and performance was unachievable, generalising that the “whole” of such complex hospital buildings is organised and comes into existence over time and that artifacts are organised according to the “...distribution of control”. Facing this “evolving rather than static” (p. 5) paradigm, the hospitals administration in 2010 at Bern led by a senior inter-disciplinary team, the Management Office for Public Buildings (OBP) responsible for health, housing and other social infrastructures in partnership with the hospital clinical and education directorate, changed its strategy to a systems separation management and design programme for the Inselspital Hospital, Bern. Many approaches to adaptability such as Fawcett (2011) focus on the quantification and optimisation of space and whole life value. This paper places attention not on the physical spaces, but the design of healthcare assets that respond to changing systems and services. Within the context of emergency and urgent care the whole system view is illustrated by a network of processes (termed ’The Big Front Door’, by the authors published elsewhere (Astley et al. 2011) and subsequently into generic but highly detailed design flow diagrams of the emergency pathway as directed and reviewed by emergency clinicians (DH, 2013) for consideration by the project teams into distinct flows i) Resuscitation, ii) High dependency (HD) to ambulant iii) Low dependency (LU) including new iv) Chair Centric concepts, with support by the ED ward: the Clinical Decision Unit (CDU). The challenge for health planners and designers is how these flows respond to treating a range of patients with varying acuity needs (within an effective staffing ratio). Evidence-based clinical practice suggests acuity adaptive space(s) are needed which meet the needs of patients from high to low dependency, requiring identical and similarly fitted treatment rooms/spaces – giving a definition of acuity adaptable space. The presence of these spaces potentially removes the need to move patients (which has been linked to patient risk) as their acuity changes and provides an opportunity to reappraise strategic whole-hospital process, such as the implication equipping on briefing clinical support services from the increase in use of mobile diagnostics across a suite of acuity adaptable rooms as well as the cost implications of equipping such rooms (refer to Figure 1).

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! DESIGNING A SYSTEM SEPARATED ASSET State-of-the-art debates in the field of open and adaptable building are focused on strategies for response to changing task, space, performance, function, size and location (Schmidt et al., 2009). Other definitions primarily centre around Brand (1995) and the exploration of physical and spatial layers and separated systems as in Maachi (2010, 2011), Kendall (2002, 2007) and Astley et al., (2011). They propose the need to understand project management and building performance at open building levels (against a view of “territorial control” and “time”) for project team procurements. They propose that project management tasks be recast in pre-project exploration that will allow an open, strategic, spatial approach to enable operational change at a building design level as the project begins to be articulated. The close interdependency between open building and ED service and system operation decisions has been made previously by the authors. The design of infrastructure systems to deliver adaptive use of technical systems that operate between building levels is moving to infill systems e.g. demountable partitions, raised floors (enclosing cabling), ceiling systems (made up of acoustic tiles and light fixtures etc.). The move beyond this is to digital wireless and sensor communications and mobile technologies which can move between all health and lifestyle settings and follow the patient in real time. Within the context of ED design, radiology equipment can now be easily replaced and can follow the patient throughout the department and between spaces, although many still require docking points to electricity, water and drainage. Within the field of open building, the importance of systems-separation has received attention as a means to structure the emerging management with design process, rather than the narrow procedure of design fixity (Kendall 2007). The management of tasks against the physical design of the elements alone is not sufficiently ‘open’ in pre-project exploration of the activity scenarios and requirements to enable operational change as the project begins to be articulated. The use of scenario techniques with systems theory is addressed by Gil and Tether (2010). Strategising through alternative scenarios with concepts of flexing changing needs at the front-end of projects over time might affect the project scope and tasks. System infrastructure design could be broken down into an array of components (and as we have seen in ED, the acuity flows) ‘build-in’ flexibility that are able to break systems down into an array of ‘functional components’, a sense of ‘decoupling and standardisation’ to create ‘buffers between interfaces of components’ (Gil 2009). The more rigid the system (or product) the ability to respond to change is reduced (or conversely accommodating possible future changes which may not be of value to funder or the end-user). Gil found that briefs for projects were written on the ‘today and tomorrow’ of current practice, rather than anticipating future change (even when predicted by expert project team stakeholders). SCENARIO PLANNING AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN EMERGENT DESIGN DECISIONS Clinicians are likely to be deeply embedded in current working practice and systems-use. Self awareness of the day-to-day task controls a minutia of detail between tasks, resource, patient safety, equipment use and staff/patient interactions. This is not necessarily conducive to being able to address the changed and changing working environment. Past experiences may not contribute to fresh thinking about future practice or awareness that the briefing process will be changeable through time, that the individual and corporation are open to change, and that to identify adaptability in working practice and space-use will be one of the core principles of the business change. Scenario techniques for healthcare infrastructure have been undertaken at a strategic, whole-systems level to ensure that physical elements are adaptive (Gil 2009, Neufville et al. 2008, Kendall et al. 2012, Astley et al. 2011). Others in the US understand the forces at work in changing the nature of radiology networks, and the uncertain impacts this would have on radiology as a technology, its use in practice in hospitals and impact of change on its professional workforce (Enzmann et al. 2011). The use of the scenario planning process according to Bradfield (2005) is also driven by practitioner’s priorities at a strategic level. Scenario planning has been described as ‘methodological chaos’ (Bradfield et al. (2005) in their review of 30 years of evolving techniques and note a profligacy of ‘scenario development tools’. Originally driven by need to model future environments (in military simulation) the use of scenario planning is a methodological tool for “…decision

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! making in complex and uncertain environments”. For Soetanto et al. (2007) it is used “to extend people’s views of the future through thinking…to navigate and choose an appropriate direction and to support a manager’s decision making capabilities” (Chermack 2004, van der Heijden 1996). Korte and Chermack (2007) have created multiple scenarios based on rigorous analysis, sometimes described as making “mental models” (from Eden and Ackermann 1998), a process which ‘facilitates organisational learning’ with the benefit from undertaking the process not on the outcome of the scenarios themselves but on ‘process experienced by the participants’. The potential of the scenario plan is to create an “agile, adaptive organisation that is responsive to new thinking” (Chermack 2004)”. ACUITY ADAPTABILITY AS THE ORGANISING PRINCIPLE OF SYSTEMS, SERVICES AND ASSETS A property and real estate approach to layering hospital developments was published by the Netherlands Board for Healthcare Institutions (2007). This approach sees ’acuity’ being the most central value concept in organising assets. Different building types are measured by their specificity, cost, flexibility and marketability. Acuity, a measure of the level of health or possible harm (clinical risk), defines the severity of the condition and prioritises the patients’ treatment (what team, what space and what urgency). As such, it is a critical overarching organising principle. Acuity has no bounds, it is organised around patients wherever they are. This layered approach divides the hospital into four building types, referred to as: the hot floor, hotel, office and industry. If acuity can be modelled and understood against open levels, changes in patient acuity must determine spatial adjacency, flow and movement through the system. Technologies are a means of managing acuity and for every change in technology and disruption must be understood. Whether blood clotting drugs that stop stroke, organisation around helicopter access, ambulance based diagnostic technologies or remote tele-care systems; open planning and building must accommodate these changes if it is to deliver value. With organising around the concept of ‘acuity’ and ‘changes in acuity’, health infrastructure will be more open and adaptable to change/refurbishment and so will deliver higher, longterm value. The main emergency service response is located in the buildings of the acute hospital, although increasingly new outreach models of paramedic intervention at the scene of the incident, imaging in primary care (and sometimes co-located to the emergency department) are redefining the ‘front-of-house’ at hospital site level in relation to whole-system network thinking and is beginning to be characterised as a continuous flow process rather than a speciality department. However, the increase in demand for the services in emergency care, whilst introducing new rapid testing and diagnosis techniques, may lack integration with the primary system that deflects minor injuries towards the emergency department. This has forced the need to establish new forms of thinking in work flow and practice (Carson et al. 2010, Rechel et al. 2010). The concept of acuity, where the characteristics of a patient are defined by the severity of their condition, is presented as an organising principle of care impacting on how an organisation defines its assets and operations. The definition of acuity adaptability in the management of clinical operations is described by Brannan et al. (2009) as “the ability to deliver resources (staffing and equipment) quickly and efficiently to care givers, with the ability to multi-skill patient care”. Acuity adaptable design response is a range of rooms/spaces, their numbers related to forecasting acuity demand to support acuity expandability, equipment availability, inter-unit circulation and communication. ED activity is therefore an ‘ebb and flow’ of processes, people and equipment through a demand timeline requiring different capacity responses in the built infrastructure. Patients flow between spaces, between direct urgent access points, referral, discharge etc and these flows inform the use of major diagnostic and imaging facilities as well as the availability of speciality beds behind in the system to which patients may be referred. Whilst ebb and flow is more a reflection of business as usual demands, further design strategies must address how the facility will be resilient to sometimes extreme behaviour (drugs, alcohol, firearms use) and disaster events (biological, environmental, terrorism). The concept of acuity adaptable planning is that the patient remains in their acuity space, (chair, couch, bed, etc) and the care adapts to their need until discharge or referral. Engagement with the patient begins at the front door with assessment (and paramedic communications prior to their arrival) as well as management and monitoring of virtual and community care (if no specialist referral) after discharge. The reorganisation of operations management of patient, staff, equipment etc. in relation to new forms of single

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! clinical support space is potentially huge benefit is savings in more effective asset design and use (Berry et al. 2004 and Sadler et al. 2011). A NEW SCENARIO PLANNING METHOD This study applied scenario planning techniques alongside systems separation as an emergent project design and decision management approach never applied to ED before. The scenario planning workshops promoted interdisciplinary teams to consider their organisations' responsiveness to future emerging trends in emergency care. Principles of system separation were introduced to allow the teams to consider activities and networks 'untied' from their existing ED infrastructure and to explore an (acuity) adaptable principle of planning. The emergent scenario approach was an iterative process developed over 6 interdisciplinary workshops. The workshop process evolved from adaptation of existing techniques of Soetanto et al. (2007) and Chermack (2011), the development of which will not be discussed here, to an approach used in 4 of the sessions: a facilitated scenario process to accommodate multiple values and expert opinions at strategic and operational levels. The techniques were subsequently tested in two multi-interdisciplinary sessions internationally (in the USA and South Africa). The aim was to discover if this planning technique would support project teams to precipitate thinking about services and facilities across the network of the emergency care system and to begin to challenge spatial effectiveness of their (proposed) ED schemes. The scenario workshops developed facilitated sessions as project discussions in moving towards decisions about service transformations with the stated aim to rethink the emergency care network beyond a physical response: to include virtual and community supporting networks of (future) care delivery (see Figure 2). Working with teams in 2 part sessions ranged from a rapid 1-hour to 3-hours, dependent on consultant availability. These studies were limited to immediate feedback and discussion on the usefulness of the workshop sessions. Stakeholders were only a small part of the team, focused at the design & clinical end - no patients, patient groups, cleaning staff or maintenance staff, etc., were included. Researchers used pre-determined prompt questions to channel small group teams to consider events and changes which might impact on future emergency care environments. They were then asked to organize these events into 3 distinct scenario themes for ED. This enabled the groups to consider what were the most important forces for change in their ED. In one case example: Scenario 1: Changing (operational) routines, Scenario 2 Personalised medicine (and information seeking), Scenario 3 Reduced resources (financial, staff recruitment etc). These were then organised into 3 scales of change over defined time periods. And lastly we asked the groups to think about the levels of planning and what the implications of such strategic change may have an at an operational activity level in an ED department. At the end of the session we revisited the purpose with feedback. FINDINGS FROM SCENARIO PLANNING FOR ACUITY ADAPTABLE DESIGN Scenario planning and systems separation (from open building) are now discussed using knowledge gained from case studies in the UK, USA and South Africa. Interdisciplinary workshops were held in 6 English hospital organisations, and two interdisciplinary conference sessions in the USA and South Africa, between 2010 -2012. A new rapid scenario approach was devised and applied. Emergency clinicians rarely have more than one to three hours for workshop activities, and ideally, these need to be located in or near the ED. Preparation of generic data of emergency activity was useful to demonstrate evidence-based measures nationally (and internationally). A targeted literature review of current thinking in strategic space planning, using scenario and systems-separation techniques, was also disseminated prior to the workshops by the facilitators to enable rapid and focussed discussion of key issues around ED service network (re)configuration. Lastly, conceptualisation of the emergency care system by the facilitators at a strategic and operational level, enabled teams to visualise the generic whole –systems approach as well as acuity adaptive concepts within an ED. The scenario workshops enabled the research team to witness, first-hand, a multi-institution and multistream approach (within the emergency care unit context) to the inception of a future asset and network planning process. It was quickly apparent that the usefulness of the approach was initially to facilitate a

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! design discussion on future trends of the service and priorities of a project response where none had taken place previously in an inter-disciplinary forum. Through the workshop process the research design team (with expertise in architecture and project management) created diagrams to visualise initial evidence from data and literature into a conceptualisation of the emergency care system both at a strategic and operational level, published elsewhere (Astley 2011, DH 2013). This iterative conceptualisation, enabled teams to visualise the generic whole-systems approach as well as acuity adaptable concepts of ‘ebb and flow’ within an ED. This proved particularly popular with the clinical team who appreciated the opportunity to appraise an overview of the whole system. Teams focussed on operational change occurring in the 1-5 year period and considered elements that could be useful in an emergent project design process: - Scenario building operational systems through use of statistical data to predict variations (sometimes rapid) increase in demand (volume) and flow between acuities i.e. flexing between HDU/LDU in peak hours and implications for cross-team working. - Rethinking ED front of house organisation flexibility: to enable pre-assessment and information, use of mobile screening, proximity and access to isolation rooms by both ambulance and ambulant patients, location of secure rooms. - Productive use of equipment within acuity multi-functional rooms; rapid assessment and screening, relationship across HDU/LDU acuity spaces. and access to radiology elsewhere in the hospital. - Communication technologies that might enable acuity adaptive use of space. Groups found it difficult to conceptualise implications of e.g. mobile technology on change of operational, space and staff resource. Acuity adaptive working is not a mainstream concept and the benefits to patients and staff and operational risks have rarely been discussed in an inter-disciplinary forum, if at all.

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Figure 1: Source, adapted, Health Building Note 15-01: Accident and emergency departments, planning and design guidance, Ebb and flow: Conceptualisation of flexing operational acuity in ED space between HDU and LDU. Front of house ED pre-assessment and screening for both ambulance and ambulant patients. Mobile diagnostics, x-ray are brought to the patient space and used across acuity, University College London 2014.

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! Developing longer-term 5-20 year timeframe enabled the groups to consider implications of the acute emergency system plan in relation to the impact on the community resource. - Although groups found it difficult to translate strategic forces for change to operational level we found the technique precipitated inter-disciplinary consideration of strategic acute and community asset decisions, such as the operational flow of diagnostics/screening across the system. - We found the impact of ED design on community strategy had rarely been discussed previously and was difficult to conceptualise for the acute teams. The technique did allow translation of locally relevant forces of change and their impact on front of house planning e.g. presentation of multiplemorbidity in the South African context.

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& c Discreet Advice o! pathways-–Primarylines m etc. team ECG-etc E.g.-Elderly m pathway-team u Figure 2: Source, adapted, n Health Building Note 15-01: Accident and emergency departments, planning and design guidance, Flexing the ED through the whole system, suggesting outreaching teams delivering assessment i and acute (diagnostic) with ED primary services within community, University College London 2014 t Limitation in the competencies of the project management and design team for acuity adaptable planning y were apparent. In three of the cases, consultant project managers had tasked architectural layouts for operational solutions, but the strategic implications of system redesign had not been considered.

Systems separation, when combined with scenario planning was seen as a useful tool to increasing awareness of inevitable and unpredictable future change, as well as establishing a potential means to accommodate these changes. At these sessions it was difficult to facilitate a scenario session (even though a prepared planned session) as it was perceived that the process would interrupt the business case progression and validation, however systems separation could benefit design to better manage change. For example, project management methods that fix operational scheduling of accommodation (formed out of existing standard room data and norms early in the briefing process) are not likely to facilitate appraisal of the benefits of acuity adaptable operational in managing the flux of demand between high and low dependency room usage.

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CONCLUSION The aspiration for this paper was that an organisation, specifically within an emergency and urgent care system, can use techniques of scenario planning with system separation to enable interactions between stakeholders for the design of an emergent project. An open interaction between stakeholders is necessary during the emergent process of a project design that is managed according to open (strategic) planning and building (operational fit-out) levels with robust process controls. Constraints of business case delivering too much fixed detail at early stage in design process (and prior to understanding of operational requirements) mean existing systems and standards can quickly become outdated and obsolete against changing environments (such as the impact of ED design on community strategy that was difficult to conceptualise for the acute teams) and customer needs and expectations. Designers are able to communicate new concepts such as acuity adaptable processes at strategic and operational levels to enable the clinical teams through visualisation of the system and sub-system network to recognise the need for adaptability for future change. This is a useful way to reinforce emerging project development, describing systems and processes, as opposed to room layout. REFERENCES Astley, P., 2009. Beyond estates strategy? Beyond Master Planning? Open planning for future healthcare environments, Changing Roles: New Roles, New Challenges. 5–9 October, Hoofdstraat, Noordwijk. Astley, P, Hind, R, Mills, G & Price, A., 2011. Open infrastructure planning for emergency and urgent care, CiB Boston. Open building for healthcare, The Bartlett, University College London, HaCIRIC. Benbya & McKelvey, 2006. Towards a complexity theory of information systems development, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley. Berry, LL, Parker, D, Coile, RC, Hamilton, DK, O'Neill, DD & Sadler, BL., 2004. ‘The business case for better buildings’, Frontiers of Health Services Management vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 3-24. Bradfield, R, Wright, G, Burt, G, Cairns, G & Van Der Heijden, K., 2005. ‘The

origins and evolution of scenario techniques in long range business planning’, Futures, vol. 37, no. 8, pp. 795– 812. Brand, S., 1995. How buildings learn? What happens after they're built?, Penguin Books, London. Capra, F., 1996. The web of life: A new scientific understanding of living systems, Random House, New York. Carson, D, Clay, H & Stern, R., 2010. Primary care and emergency departments, Primary Care Foundation, London. Chermack, T., 2004. Improving decision-making with scenario planning, Elsevier Futures publishing, Cambridge. Chermack, T., 2011. Scenario planning in organizations: How to create, use, and assess scenarios, BerrettKoehler Publishers, San Francisco. DH, 2013. Health Building Note 15-01: Accident and emergency departments, planning and design guidance. Dooris, 2004. ‘Healthy settings: challenges to generating evidence of effectiveness’, Health Promot. Int., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 55-65.

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Eden & Ackermann, 1998. Managerial and organizational cognition: Theory, methods and research, SAGE, New York. Ellingham & Fawcett, 2006. New generation whole-life costing: Property and construction decision-making, Routledge, London. Enzmann, DR, Beauchamp, NJ & Norbash, A., 2011. ‘Scenario planning’, Journal of the American College of Radiology, no. 8, pp. 175-179. Fawcett, W., 2011. ‘The Sustainable schedule of hospital spaces: investigating the ‘duffle coat’ theory of flexibility’, in S Rassia & P Pardalos (eds), Sustainable environmental design in architecture: Impacts on health, springer optimization and its applications. Gil, N., 2009, Evolvable or 'future-proof' infrastructure design: Integrating modularity and safeguards, Open Building Manufacturing: Key Technologies, Applications and Industrial Cases, VTT: Manubuild. Gil, N & Tether, B., 2010. ‘Project risk management and design flexibility: Analysing a case and conditions of complementarity’, Research Policy, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 415-428. Kendall, S., 2002. ‘Performance on levels’, CIB W060 and W096Joint Conference, International Conference on Measurement and Management of Architectural Value in Performance Based Building, CIB, Hong Kong. Kendall, S., 2007. Open building: A systematic approach to designing change-ready hospitals, Healthcare Design Magazine, Healthcare Design. Kendall, S., 2012. Healthcare facility design for flexibility, Final Report, US Department for Defence. Kjellstrom, 2007. ‘Urban environmental health hazards and health equity’, Journal of Urban Health, vol. 84, no. 1, pp. 86-97, Korte and Chermack, 2007. ‘Changing organizational culture with scenario planning’, Futures, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 645–656. Maachi, G., 2010. The INO and Inselspital masterplan, Presentation to postgraduate group, Office Public Buildings, not published. Maachi, G., 2011. System separation, strategy for high-utility values, Sustainable Human(E) Settlements, conference presentation, Johannesburg University. Mills, GRW, Erskine, J, Price, ADF, Ricks, E, Phiri, M & Sellars, P., 2012. ‘Developing a world-leading and smart regulatory design quality framework for healthcare estates in England’, HaCIRIC International Conference, Transforming Healthcare Infrastructure and Services in an Age of Austerity, HaCIRIC, Cardiff. Morris, P., 2013. Reconstructing project management, Wiley Blackwell Mills, Oxford. Netherlands Board for Healthcare Institutions, 2007. Building differentiation of hospitals: Layers approach, Netherlands Board for Healthcare Institutions, Rotterdam, pp. 1-54. Neufville, G., 2008. Flexibility in engineering design, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Perminova, O, Gustafsson, M & Wikström, K., 2008. ‘Defining uncertainty in projects – a new perspective’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 73–79. Rechel, B, Wright, S, Barlow, J & McKee, M., 2010. Hospital capacity planning: From measuring stocks to modelling flows, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, no. 88, pp. 632-636.

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Sadler, BL, Berry LL, Guenther, R, Hamilton, DK, Hessler, FA, Merritt, C & Parker, D., 2011. ‘Fable Hospital 2.0: The business case for building better health care facilities’, in GIO Technology, (ed), The Hastings Center report, Healthcare Leadership, The Center for Health Design, Georgia. Schmidt, R, Eguchi, T, Austin, S & Gibb, A., 2009. Adaptable futures: A 21st century challenge, changing roles, new challenges, Noordwijk AAN ZEE, The Netherlands. Soetanto, R, Goodier, C, Simon, AA, Dainty, ARJ & Price, A., 2007. ‘Scenario planning for construction companies’, in W Hughes (ed.), CME 2005 Conference: Proceedings of the Inaugural Construction Management and Economics ‘Past, Present and Future’ conference: 16th-18th July 2007, University of Reading, UK. Van der Heijden, 1996. Scenarios: The art of strategic conversation, 2nd edn, Wiley New York.

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THE IDEA OF NATURE: SELF-DEFENSE SENSITIVE PATCH! Ms. Sebnem Cakalogulları, Gebze Institute of Technology, Turkey, [email protected] Abstract Every day the environment changes, and every day we change as well. The way some genes are expressed is determined by how the environment interacts and helps the genes become noticeable. External factors such as light, chemicals, or temperature are the factors that affect us in the simplest ways. This project is mainly based on an adaption to the environmental parameter by getting inspiration from nature. When we look into wildlife with this question, the solution or way of being alive in wild circumstances is clearly seen. This is what Himalayan Rabbits do. The unique characteristic of these rabbits is to protect themselves against dramatically changing weather conditions on their skins. The adaption is directly related to the sun. The system is ordered giving reaction, also a means of creating self-defense, against the two certain factors which are cold and hot. This project seeks to translate this logic into sustainability and it is used for new energy of life. The idea is using commonly found materials and providing a connection between the known working principals on the creation of a sun-sensitive system in the easily agglutinate and pluggable patch. In this article, according to the weather conditions, four scenarios are specified. Throughout, the scenarios are observed and for each circumstance, the adaption of the patch is explained. The designed patches directly aim to reduce heat escaping from the transparent surface by benefiting from the advantages of optical transmittance, to support the interior thermal comfort by creating an isolation layer on the transparent substance of the face and to find a solution for the problematic side of using transparent surface on the building facades. Keywords: absorption, adaption, color energy, isolation, pluggable. INTRODUCTION From the creation of the World between man and nature, there is a strong connection. The experience and developing of skills, people were required to imitate and use the potentiality of nature. According to Vitruvius, the discovery of architecture is important as the discovery of fire. It is the first indication that gathered mankind into community life. As a result of living in a community, sheltering became a necessity for keeping thermal comfort and privacy. In pre-historic times using the source that only comes from the nature made mankind to take examples from their environment consciously, unconsciously or instinctively. In the history of architecture at some decisive moment man stopped benefiting from their habitat. At the beginning of the 17th century man began to look for new ways to put distance between the outside world and the activities which are taken indoors. With the incontestable help of technology that is the only notion keeps renewing itself in every phase, same act as in architecture, the dominance of the mechanized world creates a barely seen separation between man and its origin. It means that man lives in the newly designed indoor habitat which is totally made independently of outdoor potentiality. While the control was in the hands of nature before, today the control of nature is in the hands of machines. At the beginning of industrialization engines or machines were counted as the symbol of productivity, progress, strength and lately the new man-made power has brought the comparison between artificial and living things. This very analytical approach has resulted in many plus on the machine side in terms of making life easier and stable. And man started to live in the strong division of living and artificial things. The systemized machine, which does its work properly and orderly, was put as the center image of unlimited power unlike humans and other livings in the earth. In that way the machine has gone one step further from nature. It has started to condition man’s life. It has given the direction to life by reducing the possibilities of spontaneously occurring conditions. Order and clear system, which are set by the machines over the fact of nature for reducing randomness in every field, make an idealization and stabilization in experimented environmental parameters. This is because there is a link between nature and accidentalness. The separation between nature and fully equipped technological surroundings may be seen as a tight race between civilization and primitivity. Searching orderliness for living in ideal circumstances reminds of the modern discourse. The ideal solution for the construction and building archetypes resulted in degradation of environmental inputs and psychological states. As saying of Henry Adams from The Education of Henry Adams book, “Chaos was the law of nature; Order was the dream of man.”1

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Adams H., 2009.The Education of Henry Adams, Wildside Press.!

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Nature is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes so the prediction about it is currently limited to only a few days like weather broadcasting. The small differences in this chaotic system yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems and the rendering long term prediction is impossible in general. Today the chaotic attitude of our origins is vanished through the direction of “the dream of man”. This unavoidable alteration removing us from understanding what local culture and climate offers. As the manifestation from Le Corbusier, “House was machine for living in” is explained clearly the condition that we live in. As a result, the uniqueness of place began to gradually disappear. With the absent of local properties, the necessities of men and priorities are given direction in the one ideal circumstance. The quotation of Marshall McLuhan, “we shape our tools and therefore our tools shape us” articulates how the interaction between man and man-made things dissolves each other. In this century according to different perception, the city that we live in is understood as a chaos, machine, community and the creation of the human over nature. Behind these approaches city itself describes the system 2 . Whether it can be called eco-system or not but the pluses and minuses on this perceived environment identify the area consists of organism that make the system livable. This system has inputs of energy, materials and habitants. The main issue is related to increased demand for the inputs and as a result uncontrolled outputs. This flow is just going in one direction and there is no way that supports each other. So the existence of this system has slowly lost its strength and gravely poisoned its habitants. Nowadays many ways are searched with the emergency need for the energy to sustain life on earth. One of the reasons increased the consumption is the acclimatization of dwellings, which aims to create ideal circumstances for habitants who live on, taking any reference to natural potentials. In that way, the dwelling dense and the population have direct relation. At the same time the dwellings in the city system create the conditioned spaces. The conditioned spaces and natural climate results in the rough separation that brings the over consumption of energy from the point of acclimatization. The interaction between construction and its environment has the inversely correlated relation with energy consumption. The more beneficial acts are done without giving harm to the nature, the less energy is used more efficiently. In that moment the nature itself contains many answers for this crisis. So the solution may be inspiring from “what nature do”. For why, since time immemorial nature has been struggling with many of the same problems and somehow succeed in its methods. We now face the structure, coloring, heating and cooling problem and the energy, new materials, and efficient design solutions are needed to be developed in order to survive whether we are designing or specifying building materials or building systems and processes. Then the continuity of the living together with artificial and natural elements in one way is achieved by taking inspiration from the nature. The issue that sustains itself is the key point. The term sustain means strengthen or support physically or mentally and sustainability is the ability that provides support mentally and physically. In the city system the supporters are human, nature resources, technology, economy, and any other parameters that create effects on the condition that we live. Then it is impossible to evaluate all supporters separately. That is why beside the preservation of nature and managing our environment, managing ourselves is an important issue for taking part in sustainability (Sherman 1990). In this point, bio mimicry is a new way of viewing and valuing nature. It introduces an era based not only what we can extract from the natural world, but also what we can learn from it (Benyus 1997). The term bio mimicry was first embodied in the book called “Bio mimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature” by Janine Benyus, and refers to the bio mimicry as “a conscious emulation of nature’s genius” (Benyus 1997). The meaning of bio mimicry from the Oxford Dictionary is, “From the Greek bios, life, and mimesis, imitation]. Nature as a model. Bio mimicry is a new science that studies nature’s models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs and processes to solve human problems, e.g., a solar cell”. In bio mimicry as the area of research the organisms are not used. The blue print or the recipes from organism is the inspiration and taking interest for developments3.Actually a framework for the application of bio mimicry is divided into mainly three levels by Pedersen Zari. These are organism level, behavior level and ecosystem level and each level contains five possibilities that are seen in the mimicry. The physical appearance referring to the form, materiality referring to the substance, the way of making referring to the construction, the way of working referring to the function and process (Zari 2007). Bio-mimetic technologies often do more than one job at a time. As the saying of Iganasi Perez about the effects of globalization, less transforming and interaction in the architecture brings the question that “Why does a buildings product have only one function?” The answer is hidden in the material itself. According to

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Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat Council report / Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Taylor& Francis e-library, Lynn Beadle CRC Press, 2002. 3 http://www.biomimicryguild.com/guild_biomimicry.html

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him material must be efficient and it involves the process that creates multi functionality. The material may be associated with genes. At this point materiality comes into prominence in the story of surviving in nature, any system or in a city because it gives the idea about identity, process and the working system of whole like genes of the organism. Material or materiality should be in direct relation with the environment. Therefore the sun, source of the earth, has the dominant impact on parameters. How the materials should be thought:

Figure 1: The concept of material. The temperature issue is the greatest effect on the ecosystem. It has infinite and unpredicted combinations and all the livings know instinctively how to benefit from it and give something to it. In this point taking care of the environment or taking decisions according to the environment set up a relation by adaption and modification, as an inference. The adaptation ability to the environment is related to the phenotypic plasticity4, which is ability of changing its phenotype5 according to environmental factors. Actually this term describes the positive effect that is not only permanent but also temporary features throughout creatures’ life spans, on morphological properties. This phenomenon comprises of the interactions of genes and circumstances around the habitants. The features are revealed on the physical appearance of the living being. The modification brings the urgent adaptation to the condition. Modifications are dependent on the plenty of the substrate and environmental factors, light, warmth etc.., causes a change in the physical appearance of an organism (phenotype). Modifications are not hereditary as they do not affect the genes but are controlled by genes. Actually this phenomenon, phenotypic plasticity, has a vital part for the organism. Very basically, the organisms can be divided into two sections such as an immobile (plants) and mobile (have the ability of moving, animal) organism. The phenotypic plasticity is more important for immobile ones6. Being mobile and portable brings about moving away from inconvenient surroundings to convenient ones. That is why, animals clearly show less plasticity. Nevertheless the extreme and rapid developmental stage of the heat, nourishments and other parameters that affect the organism are resulted with modification. It supports to the survival of the living being via creating its temporary ‘self-defense’. The modification can be assumed as reactions against the actions. So these actions are ever-changing environmental circumstances. Reaction formation is occurred by the genes to benefit the condition in a higher rate. So as in the previous explanation materiality of the non-living things and the genes of the organism should have similarities in terms of the identification of the whole. The important point is materialized changing on the physical appearance and adopting the momentary conditions via modification. THE MODIFICATION EXAMPLE: “HIMALAYAN RABBIT CASE”

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4

Phenotypic plasticity: In response to the environmental changing, it is the ability of changing of organism observable appearance (Price, Qvarnström, Irwin 2003). 5 Phenotype: A phenotype (from Greek phainein, 'to show' + typos, 'type') is the composite of an organism's observable characteristics or traits, such as itsmorphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties etc. 6 The Evolution of Phenotypic Plasticity in Plants Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1986, vol. 17, pp. 667-693.

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Biological explanation of the gene expression One of the much known modification example according to ambient temperature is Himalayans Rabbits case. Under dramatically changing outside heat, this process can be counted as the management of the crisis via using potential of the energy absorption of the color. “Reaction against the action” Temperature and light are external environmental factors that may influence gene expression in certain organisms. Himalayan Rabbits carry “temperature sensitive tyrosine genes” which control fur pigmentation. This gene is required for the development of pigments in the fur, skin, and eyes, and its expression is regulated by temperature (Sturtevant 1913). Specifically, the temperature regulation of gene expression is characteristic of these rabbits that produces distinctive coat coloring. In the warm conditions, the gene in which stays at the central parts of the rabbit's body, is inactive and color pigments are not produced. Therefore its fur color is white (Figure 2). Meanwhile, in opposite conditions, that the temperature is much lower than the body warmth, this gene is activated because of that their fur color is turn black (Figure 3) (Stockard 1907). The observed physical changing of the fur color, from white to black and black to white, sets a direct relation with color energy. The explanation of this phenomenon is explained via color energy theory. Black fur absorbs the light and solar heat to keep that part of the rabbit warmer in the cold weather. Due to less blood flow the extremities are usually coldest; therefore the heat-sensitive gene is activated for these areas, producing a darker fur. This would have helped keeping their bodies and extremities warmer (Bradley, Lawler 2011).

Figure.2, Figure.3: The changing of the physical appearance of Himalayan rabbit. Thinking the concept of modification with structures The modification is the process that an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat (Dobzhansky 1956). Although we are not living in wild nature, the city is a symbol of system that consists of living and non-living elements and it is assumed that it has an order unlike the accidentalness of nature. But the distinction between nature and the city we live in is set so decisively by man-made constructions. The man who experienced the physical characteristic of each building and their spatial features loses the diversity of its experimentations. Then this material centric environment gradually turns to concrete surrounding. On the other hand at least we live in changing weather conditions. Every day conditions change and we change as well. The translation of the idea of modification aims to support the thermal comfort by benefiting from the temperature changing and beside the comfort issue, the much known critics of 20th century, standardization, globalization and mechanization of the living environment, are heeded by associating with the identity in buildings. In conjunction with adaptation to the factors, the new locality concept is predicted over today’s constructions by the variety of modifications. In this point this heat modification example is put as an interpretation about how to develop this kind of skin reaction on the fixed facade over today’s constructions with the frame of bio mimicry. The transformability of the substance over stabile construction is linked with the idea of mobility and pluggable abilities. This behavioral concept of material that has a strong relation with its environment brings the idea which has the necessity of creating a new pluggable skin for the transparent surface area of construction by thinking as a supporter of cooling and heating facilities. The needed tools for these new patches are external factors which are light, chemicals, or temperature. This project does not make or deal with organic live cells. It is recreated by using the easily found materials and different working principles which are well known from the physic rules. While bringing forward proposals about adaptable features of new facades, the properties of being mobile, pluggable, flexible, addable and removable is an important point of adaptability. Although this new proposal takes interest in the environmental parameters, there is a strong relation with the human as a control mechanism in terms of specifying amount and applied places. For that matter, the dimension should be decided with reference to the human scale in order to implement momentary conditions. Then this is the modification of new skin and the human motions.

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How the dimension and the shape is formed (Figure 4)

Figure 4:Organizing the patch for better handling and applying. What makes the pluggable skin adaptable to exterior conditions? What makes the pluggable skin supportive for interior conditions? (Figure 5) The physics rules that are combined for recreation of pluggable skin: - The thermo chromic pigment - The elasticity of material - The state of matter/ gaseous state/ its behavior under the heat.

Figure 5:The design proposal for the pluggable self defense patch. Besides the thermal comfort issue, it suggests a new locality pattern over today’s constructions according to thermal changing. It means that this pluggable heat sensitive patch creates the new locality icons by setting an interaction between interior of the buildings and the outside climate (Figure 6). In addition to texture that appears on the facade, it also effects the interior ambient as a shade. The new pattern that is occurred by the shade of bubbles in the pluggable patches, vary according to heat factor. Each bubbles volume depends on the thermal variations. Some predicted example over the transparent substance face of the buildings.

Figure 6: Predicted surface pattern that is formed by the patches over constructions.

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CONCLUSION The idea of taking inspiration from nature has a very strong impact and whatever is taken, there has been the potentiality of manifesting its surroundings same as the natural changing that affects the living via creating links between several parameters. In that point, the great effects of thermal variation has strong impacts for manifesting our mental and physical behaviors. One idea results in several effects. At the same time they are not an end effect. They recreate itself under the control of an ever changing environment. The monotonous is broken via usage of environmental potentials. That is why while searching for solutions, observing nature makes the possibilities more resistant, variable and flexible, not standard. As a result, today’s global world far from climate and culture, constructions began to look similar and they took the feature of mass production and buildings that are placed in different parts of the world share the same indoor climate control. While creating conditioned places, we have started to separate roughly outside, environment, and the inside ambient of the buildings, therefore the potentiality of environments gradually moves away from the human. In that point, one of the significant intentions of this paper is breaking the sharp comfort differentiation between building and its surroundings, weather and energy crisis. In addition to that matters looking for the reason and combine the idea with architecture under the modification topic in terms of color, materiality and mobility. With the idea of being adapted to changes causes modification examples in the organisms. In that perspective, bio mimesis, using nature’s design principles as inspiration, gives hope for the sustainable future and more creative, innovative products. Examples may include changing of skin color or patterns to allow for efficient thermoregulation, or a change in body appearance. With interpreting the idea of modification in the bio mimesis perspective, the conformity of dwellings and uniqueness of the physical appearance of facades is aimed via the pluggable patches. This proposed tool that turns the regular façade into a changeable façade is just one option for the recreation of modification over the transparent substance. With the idea of these pluggable patches which create a flexible and movable skin over the transparent surface of the available buildings, it turns self-defense sensitive patch and while defending against negative effects of the outside climate interior, they bring different surface patterns. All in all, instead of being globalized by the standard machine that works for acclimatization of the interior, the buildings are localized by the modification with respect to the environmental parameters via the tool that is designed by thinking the organism in wild nature for managing this thermo crisis in the building as a skin project which is changing according to heat potential of each space. As the quotation of Benyus: "The more our world functions like the natural world, the more likely we are to endure on this home that is ours, but not ours alone" (Benyus 1997). Nature is used to create hybrid physical environment. Nature puts its locality logics Nature should give the idea for the new design proposals.

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REFERENCES Adams, H., 2009. The education of Henry Adams, Wildside Press, New York. Arslan, S & Sorguc, AG., 2004. Similarities between “structures in nature” and “man-made structures”: Biomimesis in architecture, design and nature II, MW Collins & CA Brebbia (ed), WIT Press, Southampton, UK, pp. 45-54. Beadle, L., 2002. Tall buildings and urban habitat, CRC Press. Benyus, J., 1997. Biomimicry - innovation inspired by nature, Harper Collins Publishers, New York.Bradley, BJ & Lawler, RR., 2011. ‘Linking genotypes, phenotypes, and fitness in wild primate populations’, Evolutionary Anthropology, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 104–119. Brundtland, GH., 1987. The world commission on environment and development, Oxford University Press, England. Dobzhansky, T., 1956. ‘Genetics of naturalpopulations XXV. Geneticchanges in populations of Drosophilapseudoobscura and Drosphilapersimilis in some locations in California’, Evolution, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 82–92. Dobzhansky, T., 1968. On some fundamental concepts of evolutionary biology, vol. 2, 1st Edn, pp. 1–34, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York. Pedersen, ZM., 2007. ‘Biomimetic approaches to architecture’, Toronto Sustainable Building Conference, Toronto/Canada. Price, TD, Qvarnström, A & Irwin, DE., 2003. ‘The role of phenotypic plasticity in driving genetic evolution’, Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Science, 270, pp. 1433-40. Schlichting, DC., 1986. ‘Evolution of phenotypic plasticity in plants’, Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol. 17, pp. 667-693. Sherman, R., 1990. The meaning and ethics of sustainability, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 1-8.Stockard, CR., 1907. ‘The influence of external factors, chemical and physical, on the development of Fundulusheteroclitus’, Journal of Experimental Zoology, no. 4, pp. 165–201. Sturtevant, H., 1913. ‘The Himalayan rabbit case, with some considerations on multiple allelomorphs’, American Naturalist, no. 47, pp. 234–238.

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THREE-DIMENSIONAL ‘SITES’ – AN INVESTIGATION INTO SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF EMPTY BUILDINGS IN CITY CENTRES! Philip du Toit, Mathews & Associates Architects, South Africa, [email protected] Abstract What can we do with empty buildings? It appears that in most cases, only the surface is redesigned – new walls, new floor plan layouts, new ceilings – for offices or apartments or whatever suits the project. However, is it perhaps time to redesign deeper? Is it time to look into the existing elements and use everything – structure, volume, services – as tools that can be re-shaped, cut away or added and re-used? Is it perhaps time to question what ‘site’ really is? This paper will discuss a possible way of re-using existing, empty buildings. Similar concepts and ideas will be discussed and examples of existing empty buildings in Pretoria’s CBD will be shown (like the controversial Kruger Park and Schubart Park). The author’s own thesis will also be touched on as an illustration of a solution and as starting point for the theoretical discussion. The concept of three-dimensional ‘sites’ will be explored, together with theories and examples of international projects where this principle can be seen. Along the lines of the conference themes, ideas and concepts will be investigated that will include: resilience – a new system or way of thinking about re-using existing structures; ecology – open-building and designing for change; values – questioning traditional concepts of ‘site’. Advantages like speed and cost saving, amongst others, will also be discussed, together with the disadvantages and possible foreseeable problems. Even for new buildings these principles will be applicable and also examined (designing for change). South African cities are diverse and full of potential, not just within the streets, the users or the cultures, but even within existing structures. This paper will ask: what if ‘site’ was not restricted to physical ground, but was rather something three-dimensional, higher up, creating new possibilities? Keywords: re-use, site, open-building, adaptability, change. INTRODUCTION Throughout past decades (and perhaps even centuries), empty buildings have always been part of any urban area. This is still the case, with the on-going prevalence of empty buildings in various numbers, depending on the city and the country. Mostly these buildings are old, but even new structures are sometimes left empty after completion, as can be seen in the rapid explosion of (what one can call) complete new cities in China (Tarantola 2013, Figure 2). Many an architect has been involved in the re-fitting of an office block, where the surface is re-done, ‘touched-up’ and in some cases additions and alterations are executed. This paper, however, asks whether we should not be designing deeper, looking at more than just the paint colour or façade detail.

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Figure 1: Empty floor in Die Meent building (Source: du Toit 2009).

Figure 2: Empty street in new city in China (Tarantola, 2014). Pretoria CBD Currently, there are a number of empty buildings in the Pretoria CBD (Gauteng, South Africa). Some of the most controversial ones include Schubart Park (SAPA 2012) and Kruger Park (Figure 3). People were illegally living in them just before they were evicted – this is also an indication of the current housing shortage, especially in cities. Lesser known examples of empty buildings include old residential towers on UNISA’s Sunnyside Campus. Some empty and many times dilapidated buildings are even of high heritage value, like the Old Government Museum (Boomstreet, next to the zoo, Figure 4) and the well-known Old Synagogue (Paul Kruger Street, Figure 5), both being Provincial Heritage sites (see SAHRA’s website). There are many

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reasons for buildings being abandoned, ranging from restrictive design and unsuccessful management (du Toit 2009, p. 1), to larger social issues.

Figure 3: Kruger Park (Source: du Toit 2014).

Figure 4: Old Government Museum, Boom Street, Pretoria (Source: http://able.wiki.up.ac.za/images/2/22/Staatsmuseum_FACADE.jpg).

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Figure 5: Old Synagogue, Paul Kruger Street, Pretoria (Purnell 2014). The thesis ‘Abandoned spaces, abandoned design’ (du Toit 2009), investigates empty spaces in the Pretoria CBD and then proposes a new way of seeing these buildings. The example used is the City Centre Building, with empty spaces in the neighbouring Die Meent Building also included. A new system is developed whereby each individual floor is subdivided into ‘sites’ (or ‘stands’) which can be sold to individual owners, who in turn can then construct their ‘buildings’ thereon. All the usual principles of ‘stands’ could apply, e.g. zoning, ownership, services and perhaps even building lines (depending on the specific design). Each new ‘site’ is then sold off, with new owners being able to build anything thereon (according to the zoning and regulations), including shops, housing units, offices and any other type of function or space. The concept is shown clearly in Figure 6, a simple slab-column structure that is divided into more ‘sites’.

Figure 6: Concept of ‘sites’ on floors (Source: du Toit 2009, p. 5). This system also proposes certain codes according to which the city and these specific spaces should be managed and designed (du Toit 2009, p. 60). Many of these rules and regulations should still be investigated extensively, especially with regards to each urban and social context (e.g. practical implications and legal matters). These regulations, specific to the Pretoria CBD, are as follows:

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Name Legislation

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Street edge

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Costs

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Open space between sites

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Horizontal boundaries

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Vertical circulation

Principles


Description Legislation and regulations must be changed where necessary. This will include acts affecting sectional title ownership (e.g. how services are distributed and paid for), regulations regarding municipal space above streets (e.g. in the case of proposed pedestrian bridges) and building regulations (e.g. building permission). Any new stands on the first, second, third and/or fourth floor may not protrude more than 700 mm from the ground floor site boundary between the neighbouring street and the site under question. Any of these protrusions (beyond the ground floor site boundary) may not be enclosed spaces, i.e. these spaces are restricted to balconies and other similar elements. Stands on higher levels should not protrude beyond the existing structure. It is not allowed to build beyond the other ground floor site boundaries on any storey. Levies must be paid on a monthly basis. This will be used to maintain all shared space, i.e. open space (with finances divided according to the same structure as above), ablutions, vertical circulation areas and other services. In the event of one person/company owning two or more stands with a demarcated open space between two or more of them, the owner may construct any structure over this space up to a maximum of 25% of the area on plan, as long as any public pedestrian movement is not restricted in any way (in the case of a thoroughfare). Structures can include walkways (e.g. in double volume open spaces), overhead beams/bulkheads, extensions of interior spaces, etc. Any of these proposals are to be approved by the development’s body-corporate. New structures may not exceed the given horizontal boundaries (with regard to neighbouring stands below and above); each sites’ boundaries with regard to height are restricted to the bottom plane of the structure below and above. New vertical circulation spaces must be provided in such a way that free movement is possible for all users. Where it is possible these spaces should be on the façade of the building, providing direct access at street level. If this is not feasible, existing or new spaces further within the structure should be designed in such a way as to celebrate the connection with the ground plane (e.g. a large open area) and so that these spaces have an open atmosphere (so as not to restrict the movement of users, both physically and psychologically).

Table 1: Principles to use in developing empty spaces in the Pretoria CBD (Source: duToit, 2009, p. 62). THEORY Questioning ‘site’ We live in a three-dimensional world. When thinking of the term ‘site’, one usually thinks of the ground plane on which the project will be built. Even though this plane is not really flat (or two-dimensional), with aspects like contours and relevant contextual parameters (including, amongst many others, social, economic and ecological factors), it is mostly still seen as a two-dimensional starting point. Du Toit (2009, pp. 27-34) uses deconstruction as the base theory for developing the new system of seeing ‘sites’. He defines deconstruction as “the theory by which norms and ideas are questioned and restructured from within to form new ways of thinking and new products” (2009, pp. 30-31). Relating to this theory, new ‘sites’ are created within existing structures, though they have always been there, but only now “released” (ibid, p. 31). The Cartesian x-y-z axes are thus questioned, leading to a new positioning of ‘site’, where buildings can “intersect with each other in all three directions” (ibid.).

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As discussed above, ‘site’ can also mean something with the aspect of height added to it. This leads to the principle that a ‘site’ can now be higher up, on top of or even within a building. Besides the normal sectional title units (e.g. flats), one can go further, designing and setting out three-dimensional sites on higher levels than just the ground plane. These new ‘sites’ can then be sold, consolidated and even subdivided in certain instances, all based on the new system (Figure 7). Walkways and arcades can also become threedimensional, with the public being allowed to move through the three-dimensional ‘sites’ along ‘streets’ that are vertical and high above the ground plane; this can even include public open spaces on higher levels (squares, gardens, amphitheatres, etc.).

Figure 7: Buildings on various levels (Source: du Toit 2009, p. 30). Advantages The main advantage of this system is the large amount of adaptability that these ‘sites’ will have. With only the circulation spaces, services and main structural components being unchangeable, the possibilities of what could happen in between these parameters are endless (depending on zoning and other similar restrictions). Time- and cost-savings are also notable: in existing buildings that are re-used, they can be prepared (unnecessary elements removed, services adapted, circulation altered and/or added, double volumes created, etc.) relatively quickly and without actually ‘completing’ the building. This means the actual conversion uses a lot less time and materials for the developer, also meaning that the new ‘sites’ can be sold off quicker. The new owners will also save time and money, due to the fact that in most instances, they won’t have to construct the foundations or even the roof for their ‘buildings’, with the bottom and top slabs already providing that. For complete new buildings, the advantages also include time and money, both for the developer and the people that the new ‘sites’ are sold to. On a social and spatial level, advantages include denser cities, though, if designed and implemented correctly, these denser cities will not create unhealthy spaces, but rather, for example, each person will still have the option to own a ‘garden’. Denser cities have many advantages, including more open public space, less travelling for the users and less horizontal expansion of services. Re-using existing structures obviously has the big advantage of being a sustainable solution, seeing that a greenfield site is not being used. A new structure is also not necessary, saving materials and all other ecological expenses that would have been spent in creating a completely new building. Again, time comes into play: less construction means less time on site and less damaging actions to the environment. New employment might even be created with new ways of building being developed. This list can easily be expanded.

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Disadvantages and possible issues Not having the right amount of control over the system might lead to chaotic-looking ‘buildings’ (Figure 8). However, with the right mix of functions, users and aesthetics, these systems might especially showcase the cultural diversity of a city.

Figure 8: Slum-like façade, Kowloon, Hong Kong (Source: ).

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As can be seen in some of the examples discussed below, many of these highly adaptable situations can lead to slum-like spaces, thus not necessarily increasing the lifestyle(s) of the users (as one would think should be one of the ideals). Together with this, conflicting functions and users might be juxtaposed, in more confined spaces than the usual next-door-neighbour setting, which might lead to its own set of social conditions and problems. The legal implications might also be a problem. Though the ownership, zoning, use, etc. of each ‘site’ can be based on the current sectional title act (Act no. 95 of 1986), there are marked differences, seeing that new ‘sites’ can actually be full title ‘stands’. Much investigation should be done by legal property experts and attorneys, together with town and regional planners, urban designers and architects, to develop the detail of this system. EXAMPLES Though it is believed that the system itself has not been implemented somewhere, many similar (even though just yet superficial) examples exist that indicate what these new ‘sites’ might look like. Wine’s drawing of the Residence Antilia (showing what looks to be a vertical suburb, Figure 9) might be the closest concept of the principle behind the system, even though the actual programme and final product of this design came to something completely different (Figure 10).

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Figure 9: Sketch of the Residence Antilia (Source: ).

Figure 10: Residence Antilia, by Perkins + Will (Source: Namrata Nesarikar ). Visual examples Ryue Nishizawa designed a house in Tokyo, Japan (Figure 11) which consists mainly of floor slabs, with wholes cut out, and numerous plants growing in pots (Grieco 2011). Spaces are divided by means of curtains

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(ibid.), exposing the simple structure. Though only consisting of a single house, this project shows the principle of vertical living.

Figure 11: Street elevation of house & garden, by Ryue Nishizawa (Source: Iwan Baan, ). The Tower Apartment (Figure 12) in Paris, France, by Agence SML, is a 25m² apartment that is spread over four storeys. The strange layout is a result of the owner buying different sections of the building over a few years, creating this vertical living unit (ArchDaily). It shows how left-over spaces in (or even between) existing buildings can be re-appropriated to create alternative forms of living, working or any other activity.

Figure 12: Three-dimensional sections of the Tower Apartment, by Agence SML (Source: ). Though the principle of three-dimensional ‘sites’ includes many different uses and types of spaces, there are numerous other examples where especially gardens were used vertically. These included concept submissions for the new World Trade Centre competition (e.g. SOM’s submission which included sky

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gardens, Figure 13; Czarnecki 2003, p. 35), LYCS architecture’s ‘Writhing Tower’ (Furuto 2012, Figure 14) and ‘Supernature’ by Carl Turner Architects (2013, Figure 15).

Figure 13: Sky Garden proposal for the World Trade Centre, by SOM (Source: ).

Figure 14: Writhing Tower, by LYCS Architecture (Source: ).

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Figure 15: Supernature, by Carl Turner Architects (Source: ). Theoretical examples In Le Corbusier’s ‘Towards a New Architecture’ (1931, pp. 59-61), he suggests that cities should be made up of large planes, with the services running below, and residential towers above with social spaces and bridges on top (Figure 16). This design has many similarities with some of the original sketches of the Rockefeller Centre in New York City (Figure 17).

Figure 16: Section of city on columns, by Le Corbusier (from ‘Towards a New Architecture’ 1931).

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Figure 17: Roof garden concept for the Rockefeller Centre, New York, by J. Wenrich (from ‘Rockefeller Centre’ 1978). The Open Building concept proposes designing for change and accepting that not everything is planned before the construction of a building (Kendall). It goes on to suggest that users should make decisions as well, not just the professional team (ibid.), leading to buildings that can be adapted throughout their existence to meet as many needs as possible. Du Toit (2009), after describing the new system of re-use (as set out above), illustrates how the system can work by designing a gallery for art, architecture and design (Figure 18). This is a hypothetical project whereby the client (MINI Space) buys a number of ‘sites’ on the third, fourth and fifth storeys and then consolidates them. This gallery building thus cuts through existing buildings on a higher level, with its own enclosed and open spaces, illustrating a three-dimensional use of ‘site’.

Figure 18: MINI Space gallery and new ‘sites’ collage with context (also showing vertical circulation on the street façade) (du Toit 2009, pp. 162-163). Social example Iwan Baan (2013) describes a few examples of cultures creating imaginative homes when forced by their circumstances. He mentions Torre David in Venezuela (Figure 19), where people have re-appropriated an unfinished structure, creating their own small-scale vertical city, with commercial functions mixed with residential spaces and even farming activities. This is perhaps the closest real-world example to the proposed system of three-dimensional ‘sites’.

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Figure 19: Torre David, Caracas, Venezuela (Source: Iwan Baan, ). CONCLUSION There is no single solution to empty, abandoned buildings in cities. This global issue certainly has an impact on the experience and perception of each affected city. This paper suggests a solution where the principle of ‘site’ is re-imagined three-dimensionally. It shows resilience - a new way of thinking about building re-use; ecology - designing with future adaptation in mind, creating sustainable architecture and cities; and values questioning what we as architects believe about ‘site’. Maybe it is time to ‘stack’ different functions, typologies and buildings vertically. Maybe it is time to exhibit the diverse cultures that make up the ‘global city’ truly three-dimensionally. REFERENCES Baan, I., 2013. Ingenious homes in unexpected places, online video, viewed 3 March 2014, . Czarnecki, JE., 2003. ‘Rebuilding lower Manhattan: Architects at the forefront as they show Ground Zero aspirations’, Architectural Record, vol. 191, no. 2, pp. 31-45. du Toit, P., 2009. ‘Abandoned spaces, abandoned design’, Masters Dissertation, University of Pretoria. Furuto, A., 2012. ‘Writhing Tower / LYCS Architecture’, ArchDaily, 17 June 2012, viewed 17 March 2014, . Grieco, L., 2011. ‘Ryue nishizawa: House & garden’, Designboom, viewed 17 March 2014, .

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Kendall, S., ‘Open Building Concepts’, CIB W104 Open Building Implementation, viewed 17 March 2014, . Krinsky, CH., 1978. Rockefeller Centre, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Le Corbusier., 1923. Towards a new architecture, 1931 edition, trans. F. Etchells, Dover, New York. SAPA, 2012. ‘ConCourt victory for Schubart Park’, iol News, viewed 30 October 2013, . Tarantola, A., 2013. ‘China’s building cities so fast, people don’t have time to move in’, Gizmodo, viewed 16 March 2014, .

‘Tower Apartment / Agence SML’, 2014. ArchDaily, viewed 11 June 2014, . Turner Architects., 2013. ‘Supernature wins RIBA’s housing competition’, viewed 6 December 2013, < http://www.ct-architects.co.uk/supernature-wins-ribas-housing-competition/>.

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STRATEGIES FOR ALLOGRAPHIC URBANISM ! Marecella del Signore,Tulane University, School of Architecture, New Orleans, LA, USA,[email protected] Mona el Khafif, University of Waterloo, School of Architecture, Cambridge - Ontario, Canada, [email protected] Abstract In a time in which city-wide planning strategies are failing due to a lack of city governance and the widespread bankruptcy of communities, bottom-up models present themselves as an alternative approach to balancing public-private partnerships governed by corporate bodies. Even European cities with relatively functional administrations are moving away from top-down planning models, and therefore it would seem that the counter posed bottom-up strategy is taking its place. Characterized as deploying ad-hoc maneuvers stretching from guerrilla urbanism to DIY, these strategies are not an adequate response to the widespread need for city-wide design strategies. However, bottom-up approaches do possess a potentiality for rapid change, and this potentiality can be actualized if adequate notations and design frameworks are set in place that can capitalize on open source participation while simultaneously regulating the large-scale outcome. This paper examines strategies that take advantage of small-scale networked design implementations as a method of addressing issues of large-scale transformation. These projects navigate top-down and bottom-up strategies, combining the best of both and abandoning scenarios that are rigid, generic, or ad hoc. These projects utilize interim design as a testing ground for user participation, while mediating the simultaneously embeddedness of dynamic urban notations that address larger urban issues of long-term integration. The notion of multiplicity, replication and directed participation becomes a critical part of these game changing strategies. Keywords: allographic urbanism, do-it-yourself, guerilla, pop-up, tactical urbanism, bottom-up and topdown urban strategies.

DO IT YOURSELF URBANISM AND THE DESPERATE NEED FOR MORE IMPACT DIY, Pop-Up, Guerrilla, and Tactical Urbanism are terms describing an urbanism that is nurtured through a spirit of “I can change the world”. This hacker mentality allows citizens to take back their city and to shape their environment through direct involvement, very often without the help of an expert or designer (Quirk 20120). The power of this variety of thinking about urbanism lies in its massive mobilization of citizens (a potentially beneficial situation), but it also establishes an anti-architect attitude that unfortunately undermines any widespread change addressing citywide needs. While technology seems to be an excellent tool for getting people involved and encouraged, there is still a lack of application with regard to citywide effects. As Alexandra Lange (Lange 2012) recently stated, technology is not a “magic wand,” and crowdsourcing initiatives simply fall short in the large-scale, long-term urban project. These mechanisms can be observed in the uprising of Facebook, utilizing political movements within the political arena. The emerging rapid distribution and accessibility of the Internet as a new virtual space to exchange ideas and to create communities had an unprecedented effect on the generation that produced the Arab Spring. Facebook and Twitter mobilized masses and connected people (Kneuer & Demmelhuber 2012). However, these techniques do not write political ideologies or replace administrative infrastructures necessary for a new society. Both DIY and user-generated urbanism need to be understood as tools to support and direct participation. Yet, they should not replace design and still cannot facilitate more impactful action on a larger scale. While cities are struggling with the disappearance of their governing powers, bottom-up strategies that are invested into urban frameworks and small-scale design development carry the potential to effect change by facilitating distributed participation in their large-scale application. This approach capitalizes on open source access and the development of design frameworks that secure the quality of the final output. THE SITUATIONIST CITY AND CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES FOR ACTIVATION

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The urban utopia that serves as the most historically referenced model for emerging urban actionism is most likely the Situationist City, today reread as a contemporary Temporary City. The concept of the Temporary City, as recently published by Peter Bishop and Lesley Williams (Bishop & Williams 2012) unfolds out of an understanding that the city, as our social, economic, and ecological environment, is rooted in a fourdimensional, highly dynamic scenography: a space that changes on a daily or hourly basis even when it also consists of more permanent elements. Bishop and Williams state that the Temporary City today has its own legitimation. They write: “In an era of increasing pressure on scarce resources, we cannot wait for long-term solutions for vacancy or dereliction. Instead, we need to view temporary uses as increasingly legitimate and important in their own right. They can be a powerful tool through which we can drip-feed initiatives for incremental change — as and when we have the resources — while being guided by a loose-fit vision” (Bishop & Williams 2012). As such, urban space, viewed as a cultural artefact seems to be the materialization of its events, which often stand in contrast to static master plans and technocratic top-down strategies that are still the traditional professional practice of urban planning and urban design. It is a space permanently in the making and therefore it cannot be disconnected from its interim character or transformation over time. The new model of the Temporary City needs to be a space for strategic thinkers devising temporal, ecological and interim uses in the socio-spatial fabric. While the Situationist City of the 1960s might be understood as a utopian and even revolutionary approach to counter the technocratic top-down understanding of society, contemporary design approaches are becoming more and more founded on participation as well as cooperation models and an understanding of an infrastructural space that captures temporal change and socio-spatial interaction as a dominant condition. Archigram’s work from the Living City exhibition of 1963, for example, focused on the definition of space through interaction rather than demarcation and boundaries. In this manifesto, Archigram declared the city to be a “sum of its atmospheres” (Shepard 2011). Beginning in the 1960s, architectural, urban, and artistic interventions conceptualized temporary architecture as a means of moving away from objectification, and generated claims about a notion of space-environment. In this context, Archigram’s Instant City can be read as a transient event in which the type of material space created was not relevant. Its dynamic relations with people, and the functioning of the whole being comprised of many sub-parts were a real non-spatial condition that prioritized action above form. Contemporary approaches, however, dispatch hybridized and overlapping patterns of resource consumption and tend to foster a diverse and resilient social ecology. Designers, artists and more recently, city planners are exploring temporary tactics to fulfill a variety of social, political and spatial objectives. These design strategies and tactics are often deployed into/onto vacant resources in order to use “Waiting Lands” during its transitional phase (Christiansen 2006). Another strategy applies within existing cities’ fabrics and public spaces urban activation techniques that attempt to transform underutilized local urban space. “Waiting Lands”, as coined by Kees Christiansen, is the utilization of underused spatial resources that demand of the designer that they shift their thinking from explicit knowledge that feeds into form to complex interactive and responsive processing that identifies the role of the designer as a curator, negotiator and collaborator. In contrast to the Situationist City, this new understanding encourages a nascent practice within the design profession to understand the Temporary City as an ongoing part of the Permanent City, and this demands design strategies that allow the integration of multiple actors and the negotiation of top-down and bottom-up processes. In Drosscape: Wasting Land Urban America, Alan Berger (Berger 2006) points out how relevant the resources trapped in urban wastelands are. He identifies categories of wasteland among those lands of transition: empty real estate properties and urban infrastructures that should be understood as territories of opportunity rather than wasted land. Strategies for a temporary urbanism that moves beyond DIY allow for the testing of urban scenarios in the form of a living urban laboratory. While addressing the large-scale problems of contemporary urban landscapes, they capitalize on the resources of abandoned and vacant urban territories. A main challenge of the contemporary Temporary City, however, is the difficulty of designing using social interaction and participation: terminologies born in the discipline of spatial sociology describing activities of undirected activities by a diverse set of unforeseeable users. As a response to those challenges, temporary strategies need to be designed for spatial flexibility, indeterminacy, and multiplicity.

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Stan Allen (Allen, 2011) describes this phenomenon as “directed indeterminacy”: a condition that requests clearly articulated design implementations that are not open-ended but are specific precisely because they need to support the undirected participation of a wide range of users. While the theories and approaches of the Situationist City were made possible by the political condition of the 1960’s, articulating urban utopias based on non-design as a reaction to executed top-down bureaucracy, today’s strategies need to move beyond the paradigm of the solely tactical. Design in this new context works toward the development of small scape design, directed notations and tool-kits that capitalize on the potential impact of bottom-up user participation but simultaneously addresses a need for large-scale design strategies. ALLOGRAPHIC

URBANISM

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In Mapping the Unmappable, Stan Allen (Allen 2000) describes the difference between an ‘autobiographic’ practice that depends on the author’s original production (for example, a painter) and an “allographic” practice. In the latter, Allen refers to notations and scripts as a form of representation to allow others to follow the design instructions. A symphony written by Schubert, was never meant to be solely directed by Schubert but by other conductors who would use his original instructions as a guide. Manipulations and mutations might be possible in this process, but the originality of the outcome is embedded in the script written by Schubert himself. According to Allen, the contemporary city must be understood as a complex dynamic condition that desperately needs notational representation. While Allen highlights the significance of anticipation; time-based thinking; and the potential of the allographic notation to map the invisible forces of the city; he also stresses that this practice allows for a collective. A score is not a private language but it works instrumentally to coordinate the actions of multiple participants: “The use of notations marks a shift from the production of space to the performance of space”. While Allen specifically refers to the notation as a form of representation that describes urban events and programs, the technique of allographic practice carries an even more powerful potentiality when combined with the rapid evolution and implementation of open-source practice. An allographic notation that is based on small-scale design while addressing large-scale urban issues and inviting the general public to act upon the script has an incredible power to be a significant means of change. Even the development of the original design instructions put out into the world through open source enables a rapid evolution of the product. The rationale for open-source in this context is that a larger group of users and agents - if directed strategically - will produce a more useful and faster result than a single designer. URBAN PROTOTYPING In fall 2012, the Gray Area Foundation in San Francisco initiated an Urban Prototyping event that precisely tried to benefit from the development of open-source accessible design that addresses the undiscovered potentials of cities. The event can be understood as one of the many initiatives centered around creative projects for the public realm. While the event still honored the mindset of tactical urbanism, it also addressed the need for long-term conversations and changes. To direct this need, the initiators developed an approach that consisted of 3 steps: prototyping, replication and adoption. The Process of prototyping: Long-term solutions, so the competition brief, can often be jump-started by building and refining quick working models. Due to their public and temporal nature, prototypes are meant to test out new ideas while the format of the event generates visibility and dialog. Within this context, prototypes can be developed and displayed to solicit feedback from residents, city officials and stakeholders. This type of approach reflected tactical urbanism but included a critical review of prototypes. Simultaneously, every prototype needed to utilize digital tools and Internet platforms. The requirement to replicate: One discovered requirement for prototype development was the potential for nuanced replication in a variety of environments capable of ensuring that these designs are adaptable and applicable to many different contexts. By opening up the designs, source code, materials, instructions, and other resources necessary to recreate each project, UP aimed to catalyze a new global community for sharing urban design and technology work. All prototypes that had been selected during an open call needed to address the potential for replication, and, after the event were submitted to an online opensource archive for direct access for others.

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Cities adopting ideas: The event also tried to create a real and lasting path for projects to develop and be implemented. The core team of UP San Francisco is comprised of nonprofits dedicated to design, technology, urbanism, and the arts. In attendance were private firms that are on the forefront of design thinking as well as municipal agencies that are open to participation models, and who have the ambition to formally integrate projects into the city’s landscape. The San Francisco Mayor’s Office of Civic Innovation and the San Francisco Planning Department have been looking closely at opportunities to implement selected UP projects across the city (UPSF 2012). While events featuring pop-up urban projects are commonly known, UP San Francisco tried to operate as a catalyst event to structure and organize the potential power of temporary design that needed to address urban conditions not unique to San Francisco or the festival neighborhood. In addition, the production of prototypes was meant to feed into long-term transformations that were set up in cooperation with the official city administrations. The requirement for open-source access for all selected prototypes was an unusual scenario for designers: while the design of the prototype was credited, the future application and implementation was donated to the public. In what follows, we present a series of projects that combined the development of small-scale design objects, all of which address large-scale layers of underutilized infrastructures, networked systems and/or land resources. URBANecology//THE 10 MILE GARDEN Urban context: In 2009, the San Francisco Planning Department started to initiate tactics to create a new set of public spaces under the ‘Pavement to Parks Program’. Utilizing underused portions of the public right of way - about 25% of San Francisco's land area - each P2P project operated as a public laboratory where the city can work with various communities to test strategies to reclaim selected locations as permanent public open space. A new site category identified as a potential new site was suggested for the UP event and consisted of a proposal regarding the network of fire hydrants, which spreads throughout American cities at an average maximum spacing of 500 feet. Per vehicle code Section 22514, parking in front of fire hydrants is forbidden in order to protect them and to maintain street access in emergencies. However, there is no policy in San Francisco or any other American city that requires this access area on the street or on the sidewalk be paved. At the scale of the City of San Francisco, the network of more than 9000 fire hydrants has the potential to create an additional ecological green footprint of 10 miles: programmed and implemented in small plots at the community and neighborhood level, without violating fire department regulations. Every square foot of this territory could be a bio-swale, a public pocket space, or a low planting bed. On a citywide level, this could initiate a new Flower-Power movement in which resistance is understood as a productive reinterpretation of existing [unnecessary] codes in support of the urban ecology. Prototype notation: THE 10 MILE GARDEN, proposed for the Urban Prototyping event in October 2012, was understood as a catalyst project in which the fire hydrant sites of the neighborhood were activated on a temporary basis. The project consisted of three components: a) Physical intervention in order to identify the sites and to create a new mental map; b) A grasshopper-driven design toolkit that defined planting patterns and allowed user participation through the defined design instructions; and, c) A digital interface and QR code strategy that organized the adoption of fire hydrant sites through citizens and neighborhood organizations. The power of the notation lies in its potential to engage multiple citizens simultaneously while that participation is highly directed through a framework that keeps the large-scale effects in mind. Citizen participation fosters the development of responsibility and identity and the design script (here defined as a grasshopper script), ensures a spatial quality, and constrains of the existing code defined as an overarching design strategy. Large-scale relevance and global replication: Every American city consists of infrastructural layers, among which a network of fire hydrants that in total articulate an impressive footprint in those cities. Though the footprint (which, depending on city code, is limited to 6x6 or 8x8 feet) is of small-scale, its repetition and networked character carries the potential for a new ecologically-active layer.

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Potential infrastructural application: While budgetary reasons may limit the retrofit mode of reproduction for this innovation, appropriation of this site category might be adopted by a new zoning code of the fire hydrant sites integrated early into the design process. This would foster a new green infrastructure. The biggest potential for THE 10 MILE GARDEN is its implementation in new master plans. Fire hydrant sites could operate as a network of connected bio-swales or mini gardens that not only add green spaces to the city but also create a new water system in support of the urban ecology.

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Figure 1: The 10 Mile Garden (Site Strategy, SF Fire Hydrant Footprint, Notational Toolkit, Prototype). URBANplay// The INSTANT[play]GROUND Urban Context: INSTANT[play]GROUND is a portable instant game that can fit in a suitcase and travel to different sites to activate forgotten, unused or misused parts of the city. The game takes no longer than an hour to install and users can start playing and after several games, IpG is placed back into the suitcase and can travel to another site. The area is instantly transformed into a play-zone. Within the context of the Urban

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Prototyping event in San Francisco in October 2012, a series of sites were identified (corridor areas, alleys and residual spaces between buildings); the traveling project was tested as an instant activator to engage the players and the public audience. The project has a great potential to be used by a wide range of user groups, be mass-produced therefore globally replicated, and to be a portable urban catalyst to instigate and support civic engagement and participation. Prototype notation: The INSTANT[play]GROUND as developed for the UP event was a portable tool and catalytic agent in which a series of sites could be activated by the instant deployment of the urban game. The project was developed through three main components: a) The instant game had to be capable of fitting in a suitcase and to travel from one site to another. b) A tool-kit composed by the playground (constructed and existing urban floor), a game board (inscribed actions), and micro-canopy (interim and instant) with a Rule Set able to choreograph the user’s interaction with the game. c) A Digital interface acting as a permanent repository of the temporary (play)scapes produces game travel to different sites enabling contact with different players and audiences. The strategies embedded in the notation, identified in the tool-kit and rule set, open up to the strong potential of allowing users to build their own playground within the given framework of instructions. Due to the games portability and its instant deployment, every time the game is activated a new scenario is produced (different site and/or different users). The strong potential of the notation process of the project lies in the capacity of engaging all kinds of user groups and urban sites waiting to be temporarily re-written. Large-scale relevance and global replication: The IpG project has the potential of transforming many urban sites in different and diverse cities without any preparatory infrastructure. The game can be adopted by any type of user (from the individual to the collective organizations to the city officials) inherently setting up the potential for its replication and open source participation. When IpG occurs the site fostering the game is immediately generating a transitory public node and aggregation. Potential infrastructural application: The project could become a permanent activator for already existing or new urban playgrounds or in general for sites that have been neglected, unused or misused. Also city officials might adopt the IpG as an instant tool to generate a public node; it can also potentially layer over any type of existing urban-play site to open up possibilities of long-term master plan implementations.

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Figure 2: The Instant[play]Ground (Site Strategy, Notational Toolkit, Prototype).

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URBANappropriation// Networked Parklets iLOUNGE Urban context: Within the San Francisco's Pavement to Parks Program, the Parklet Program provides a platform to repurpose and transform a part of the streetscape, usually comprised by few existing parking spaces, into a space for the people. One of the key components in the program’s policy is that the space must remain open and accessible to the public. The iLOUNGE project is developed within this framework and capitalizes on the parklet program to create a physical network throughout the city that also connects with the digital space. Prototype notation: iLOUNGE as proposed for the Urban Prototyping event is understood as a new parklet typology. Using a modular system, the project can break down into multiple units and be disseminated throughout the city creating a distributed physical and digital network. The project is consisted of three components: a) A physical modular infrastructure acting as an anchor platform. b) A set of instructions given by material systems that trigger a specific type of programmatic and human occupation. c) A set of multimedia devices hacking into the existing wi-fi system of the city in order to generate forms of distributed network communication. The power of instructions embedded in the modular system lies in the continuous exchange between the analog strategies (material systems and narratives) and the digital-hacking strategy. Each module-parklet, although being physically dislocated, is able to communicate and feed with the others, creating a responsive-aware network. The project harvests from the existing underused infrastructures of the city, nesting within the urban fabric and feeding into digital relational systems. The project emphasizes the concept of networked technologies and their ability to connect people thus creating cyber-hacked communities. Large-scale relevance and global replication: The potential of global replication lies in the capacity of the modular system that supports dislocation throughout the city. Different forms of aggregations can serve different site typologies while the space articulates a new form of public space. Equipped with wi-fi sensors that hack into open networks and media screens with which users of this public space can not only interact with their direct neighbors but with online communities. Potential infrastructural application: Its potential infrastructural application lies in the potential of transforming identified territories of parking zones into an interactive network of digital and physical spaces. The mobility and flexibility of the project allows for the search of ‘fertile’ urban ground where these units can be anchored to hack existing systems and foster new communities. iLOUNGE is a highly equipped aggregation public furniture that can be rented by anyone, connecting users on multiple levels.

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Figure 3: The networked iLOUNGE (Site Strategy, Sections, Notational Diagram, Prototype).

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CONCLUSION The Urban Prototyping event offered an approach that is unique in the administrative realities of our cities. Defined through the 3 step model - prototyping, replicating and adopting - we were able foster direct bottom-up participation while the design strategies addressed replicable large scale and long-term implementation. Though these projects dealt with the recycling of underused territories for social appropriation the largest potential of Allographic Urbanism lies in the strategic choreography of bottom-up participation through the design of networked systems, big data collection and widely distributed smallscale designs that manipulate and improve the intelligence of our cities. This approach capitalizes on the notational practice as a direct and powerful agent of change that is able to embody open source strategies as an instrument of collective empowerment. A series of projects have been developed within this framework - harvesting a fertile ground for future change representing solutions and possibilities for defining operational parameters. Local Code (Nicholas de Monchaux) is developed as a software tool that scripts multiple vacant sites as a network within the city according to their environmental capacities. Smart phone applications like Local Data (Alicia Rouault, Matt Hampel. Prashant Singh) are digital toolkits that allow communities to collect and manage place-based data production. Urban Sensing FutureSF (German Aparicio) on the other hand invests into the development of a sensor kit that is available through open source and that can be built and mounted on house facades by every citizen. The collected data feed into a database that tracks microclimates and allows designers to understand the complexity of our environment. This knowledge can be used to design building envelopes that harvest sun and wind energy. What these approaches all have in common is the utilization of bottom-up power, to take advantage of open-source and to employ digital technology in order to act faster than top-down administration. A common denominator is the development of a strategic framework that directs participation and finally serves the large-scale, longterm urban project. REFERENCES Allen, S., 2011. Landform building, discussion Stan Allen, Kenneth Frampton, Hashim Sarkins, Lars Müller Publishers, Princeton. p. 257. Allen, S., 2000. Mapping the unmappable, Practice: Architecture, technique and representation, G+B Arts International, The Netherlands. Berger, A., 2006. Drosscape. Wasting land in urban America, Princeton Architectural Press, New York. Bishop, P & Williams, L., 2012. The temporary city, Routledge, London. Christiaansen, K, van den Born, H, Gietema, R & van Oort, I., 2006. Situation, KCAP, waiting land, Birkhaeuser, Rotterdam. Del Signore M & El Khafif, M., 2012. ‘Appropriation of the city. Architecture as a tool for the re-appropriation of the contemporary city’, TAW Conference. Kneuer, M & Demmelhuber, T., 2012. ‘The role of new media for democratization processes’, Information for Political Education, no. 35, Innsbruck, Wien. Lange, A., 2012. Against kickstarter urbanism, Design http://observatory.designobserver.com/feature/against-kickstarter-urbanism/34008/ Lefebvre, H., 1970. La revolution urbaine, Gallimand, Collection Idées, Paris. Quirk, V., 2012. ‘Can you crowdsource a city?’, Arch Daily, 2012 http://www.archdaily.com/tag/diy-urbanism/ Rafkin, J., 2006. ‘Preface’, in S Lahman, Absolutely public, Images Publishing Group Mulgrave. Shepard M., 2011. Toward the sentient city, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.

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HEALTHCARE FACILITIES DESIGNED FOR FLEXIBILITY: THE CHALLENGE OF CULTURE CHANGE IN A LARGE US PUBLIC AGENCY Stephen Kendall, Emeritus Professor of Architecture, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana. Thom Kurmel, TDK Consulting, LLC, Lorton, Virginia. Karel Dekker, KD Consulting, Voorburg, the Netherlands. John Becker, Director of Facilities, Defense Health Agency, Washington DC. Abstract The US Department of Defense Health Agency (DHA) has an international network of healthcare facilities to serve personnel serving in the armed forces. The DHA has a budget approximating $3 billion per year for the acquisition of new facilities and the maintenance and upgrading of existing facilities. Recently, the DHA – driven by a US government-wide mandate - has made a commitment to a policy of sustainable facilities. DHA leadership recognized that a key element of a sustainable asset portfolio is that the facilities must be flexible – planned for the likelihood of expansion, contraction, alteration or change of function or a combination of these – and thus capable of meeting the challenges of changing missions, patient demographics, medical practices, and medical technology. This paper discusses the work being done to introduce flexibility as a high level principle in the DHA policies, practices and criteria. The paper discusses the recommendations being made to implement flexibility by the insertion of flexibility requirements in the key guidance documents used by architects and engineers in designing new and renovating existing DHA facilities. Because many of these are recommended to be mandatory (not simply incentives), their adoption is expected to require a change in the culture of DHA and in the entire decisionmaking chain for the acquisition and management of DHA healthcare facilities. This paper reports on the recommended flexibility requirements and the culture change required for their full implementation. Keywords: Healthcare facilities, flexibility, whole-life performance, sustainability, open building.

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INTRODUCTION This paper reports on the second of two research contracts with the National Institute of Building Sciences one of whose clients - the United States Department of Defense Health Agency (DHA) – asked for a.) Recommendations on introducing flexibility as a high level principle in their policy documents; b.) Assistance in writing flexibility requirements in acquiring healthcare facilities; and c.) Recommendations for tracking how their facilities transform over time for the purpose of assessing the merits of mandated flexibility requirements. DHA’s goal is to assure the long-term value of their facilities portfolio and to assure the wise investment of approximately $3 billion per year expended in acquiring new and maintaining and renovating existing facilities worldwide. The recommendations recognize that the DHA has already adopted measures that lead positively toward a more flexible portfolio. The effort reported on here has therefore been aimed at several things: a. Defining the term flexibility as having both technical and decision-making dimensions; b. Clarification of current developments within the DHA and in the building industry at large toward flexibility, with particular reference to newly adopted patterns of decision-making; c. Formulating and describing these developments in a larger conceptual framework (Open Building), and d. Making recommendations of mandatory flexibility requirements in the acquisition and management of the DHA facilities portfolio with the goal of high performance under conditions of change in medical practices, demographics and building technology. The recommendations in this (and the first report) are based on four fundamental premises: • DHA facility design for flexibility in the short, middle and long term (both new construction and upgrading existing facilities) is best accomplished by the systematic decoupling of decisions according to life-cycle principles, and by implementation of serial decision-making in acquisition, facilities upgrading and management processes; • Acquisition teams should explicitly document capacity for change in submittal documents for each decision level (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary) supported by scenario planning and cost modeling tools; • DHA is responsible for monitoring and holding acquisition teams accountable for compliance with flexibility requirements and to monitor and assess the return-on-investment of implemented flexibility requirements; • Implementation of these principles requires a paradigm shift in the DHA towards a life-cycle management culture, the outcome of which should be improved facility performance and improved healthcare outcomes. The Phase II research - undertaken between August 2013 and April 2014 - drew upon insights and data gained from: 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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The Phase I FLEX report included a literature survey of 70+ books, reports and technical papers covering more than 30 years; an extensive questionnaire of DHA, Department of Veterans Affairs and private sector healthcare facilities subject-matter-experts. That report proposed a definition of flexibility and a recommendation for introduction of a classification and implementation scheme for implementing flexibility in DHA decision-making. (http://facilities.health.mil/repository/getFile/10796) A systematic audit of key DHA requirements documents and the World Class Facilities Check List to identify and critique existing flexibility criteria; Examination of literature on performance requirements in the building industry; Examination of relevant literature on flexibility requirements; Meetings with key DHA leadership and personnel; Developing new and augmenting existing flexibility requirements in the Uniform Facilities Criteria for Medical Facilities and in the World Class Check List



FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE FOR ACHIEVING FLEXIBILITY Acquisition of assets expected to have a long use-value can only come out of decision-making processes based on a recognition that the built environment is never finished, and that continuous transformation must be recognized and planned for. Use-value itself is not only a technical term when associated with health care facilities: the concepts of use and value exist in a social body that understands that the value of the physical environment is not a static phenomenon but is evolving on the time axis. Flexibility – like sustainability - is fundamental to a facilities life-cycle (whole-building life) agenda. Even though flexibility is not an industry standard, it should be a DHA requirement, like LEED and building codes, and should appear in all design guidance documents, cutting across lines of authority and decision-making. BACKGROUND Too often, the term flexibility is used to describe only technical performance or physical characteristics, such as added floor-to-floor height; or standardization of spaces to enable multiple uses of the same space; and so on. While technical solutions can be helpful to assure long-lasting (flexible and sustainable) assets, our studies demonstrate that technical matters alone are insufficient to achieving a flexible building stock, and sometimes actually thwart long-term utility of facilities if poorly employed. If clients retain decision-making patterns that result in physical facilities that lack the capacity to adapt, improved technical solutions offered by product manufacturers, architects and engineers will prove to be insufficient remedies. Even before commissioning is complete, healthcare facilities are being adjusted and continue to be transformed in small and large ways, over many years, because of changing priorities, practices and policies. The concept of “continuum of care” therefore applies not only to people whose health these facilities are designed to recover and enhance, but to facilities themselves. This suggests that the current focus on nearterm planning, budgeting, funding, design, construction, commissioning and outfitting of facilities must be supplanted by a longer view of continuous transformation. This long view must be supported by scenario planning and cost modeling (as outlined in the Phase I Flexibility Report – pgs. 153-174 http://facilities.health.mil/repository/getFile/10796) and by data collection necessary for evaluating the return on investment of flexibility strategies. “Facilities maintenance” may not be an adequate concept or term of reference for the realities facing MHS assets. More “open ended” and “continuous improvement” attitudes and methods of accounting and management are needed, if the DHA expects its facilities to be sustainable and to provide continuous world-class operational and physical performance. To support the flexibility principle outlined above, the Phase I Flexibility report recommended adoption of a serial decision-making model for managing uncertainty and change. Adoption of this model will enable greater transparency and more effective and rapid corrective policy and acquisition measures. This model is based on the principle of decoupling parts of a facility having long term utility from the parts having shorterterm utility (System Separation). This model is partly in use in the DHA with the Initial Outfitting and Transition contract (IO&T) as a separate acquisition activity, and with the use of “incremental funding waivers” in fast-track projects, allowing, for example, funding for an early “foundation package” before design of the rest of the building in detail is completed. The model is conventional in the commercial real estate markets in the United States and internationally. This may seem unusual because commercial real estate decision-makers are considered to have very shortterm interests: quick profits and turn-around and aversion to risk. Perhaps because of these tendencies investors have learned to be very “agile” (another word for flexible). The principle of decoupling is also evident in large infrastructure planning and operations, such as highways (highways are decoupled from the vehicles using them) and utility systems (electrical power transmission lines are designed with the capacity to accommodate a range of (changing) downstream user demands controlled by independent agents). The serial model has three “system levels:” • PRIMARY SYSTEM (Base Building - an “open building:” structure, skin and primary mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems) • SECONDARY SYSTEM (Fit-out – all components and spaces directly supporting functionality, including the parts of the overall mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems specific to a given program of functions)

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• TERTIARY SYSTEM (Furnishings, fixtures and equipment – short-term investments such as equipment, furnishings, consumables)

Figure 1: (source: Office of Properties and Buildings, Canton Bern, Switzerland). Translating the principle in Figure 1 into an acquisition-sequencing model, the recommended sequence (bottom sequence Figure 2 below) is actually an evolution from the recently implemented separation of IO&T (Initial Outfitting and Transition) contracts (as shown in the middle diagram in Figure 2 below).

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Figure 2: Evolution from a parallel to a serial decision-making process. The “old” procurement model may be suitable for simple projects. But the greater the project size and complexity, the longer the critical path to realization is, and the greater the chance that the investment will undergo significant transformation later, the more important decoupling and sequencing of decisions becomes. The principle understanding embodied in this decision-making sequence (for new construction and for comprehensive reactivation of existing facilities) is that all facts and requirements cannot be known at once at the beginning of a many-decades-long process from decision-to-build/renovate, through appropriations, commissioning, move-in and later adaptation to new requirements. Decisions are inescapably made sequentially during initial acquisition and then continuously over the life of the facility. How could it be otherwise? Design decision-making for facilities should be decoupled based on the expected lifecycle (use-value) of the system “level” concerned. That is, the tertiary system can change without excessive disruption of the

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secondary system; and the secondary system (representing evolving DHA mission, functional and space requirements) can change with minimal disruption of the primary system, an investment designed to be useful over a long period of time. ANALYZING DHA DOCUMENTS IN PREPARATION FOR WRITING NEW FLEXIBILITY REQUIREMENTS Two DHA documents were analyzed in preparation for making recommendations for flexibility requirements. First was the UFC 4-510-01 (Uniform Facilities Criteria for Medical Facilities). Hundreds of pages long, it is periodically updated and has been the principle vehicle by which facility design requirements are promulgated. The second was the World Class Facilities Check-list, a public access website which undergoes continuous updating. UFC 4-510-01 requirements were analyzed and an assessment made as to how pertinent existing requirements are to flexibility. An Excel chart was used to: 1) Indicate relevance of existing requirements to flexibility by assigning them numbers 1, 2 and 3: 1 means no relevance; 2 means moderate relevance and 3 means high relevance; 2) Introduce the distinction between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary systems, and with an "X" depict the relevance of the UFC paragraph to one or more of these levels. This analysis led to recommendations to augment the text of current UFC Flexibility Requirements. ANALYZING THE UFC DESIGN SUBMITTALS The Design Submittals contained in the UFC 4-510-01 are instrumental because they instruct architects and engineers in the preparation of drawings and specifications at each mandated design submission: Conceptual, Schematic, Design Development and so on. Because implementing flexibility necessities that architects and engineers explicitly demonstrate how they are complying with the requirements, and the client must monitor compliance, the Design Submittal requirements are – and will be – an essential instrument in implementing flexibility. Because a direct relationship exists between the thirteen recommended UFC flexibility requirements (discussed later) and the UFC Appendix C Design Submittals requirements, it is important to make an explicit link between these as well. If flexibility is to be implemented successfully across the DHA portfolio, the Design Submittals required of architects and engineers must be periodically assessed and revised. The client (DHA) must develop the methods, skills and culture to update these requirements as experience is gained and maintain vigilance of compliance over time. The work of adjusting the Design Submittals was not part of the research contract and is therefore not reported on in this paper but is recommended for further study. However, the full analysis on the basis of which such development can be done was included in the final report. THIRTEEN RECOMMENDED AMENDMENTS AND ADDITIONS TO THE FLEXIBILITY REQUIREMENTS IN THE WORLD CLASS CHECK LIST A comprehensive examination of the World Class Facilities checklist revealed several flexibility requirements, indicated in BOLD/ITALICS in the full list of recommendations below. - Site Capacity - BUILDING EXPANSION FLEXIBILITY - GEOMETRY OF THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM - NATURAL LIGHT - Floor-to-Floor Height Requirement - Loading Capacity of Floors - Minimal Internal Structural Walls - Flexible Facades - Separate Systems - Layout and MEP flexibility for the Secondary System

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Opportunity for Vertical Mechanical Equipment in the Future MULTIFUNCTIONAL USE OF ROOMS Capacity for Variable Inpatient Bedroom Sizes

Based on extensive review of best practices in the industry worldwide, and following the principles enunciated in the official report, the existing requirements (BOLD) were augmented and additional requirements were added, as listed above. All of these were provided in the final report, following the World Class Facilities Check-List format. Because of the importance placed on System Separation in implementing sequential decision-making, one of the World Class Flexibility Requirements focuses on and offers examples for architects and engineers in adhering to the principle of System Separation. This is given below. SYSTEM SEPARATION Strategy information Technical separation of systems (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary) is a question for the design team and the client. In general, decisions about Tertiary system elements (i.e. IO&T) should be de-coupled from decisions about the Secondary system, and decisions about functional layout and departmental adjacencies (Secondary system) should be decoupled from decisions about the Primary system to the greatest extent possible. Among other capabilities, this must result in a building enabling work on one floor (reconfiguration, change of spatial layout, change of equipment and fixtures) to be accomplished rapidly with no or minimal disturbance to activities on other floors. MHS GUIDING PRINCIPLES

CORE DIMENSIONS

4 Improve Operational Effectiveness 6 Provide high value and be good stewards of taxpayer money 8 Design for maximum flexibility, standardization and growth

16 Adaptability, Flexibility and Future Planning 17 Building System Performance and Maintainability

RESEARCH SUMMARY [+]

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20 Cost effectiveness and reduction



This flexibility strategy calls for adoption of a basic management and decision-making principle corresponding to the reality that healthcare facilities, once built and commissioned, inevitably face physical transformation over time to allow them to maintain value. The key to the acquisition of assets with long-term value is decoupling decisions based on three "systems:" Primary System (75 year asset value); Secondary System (20 year asset value) and Tertiary System (3-10 year asset value). To assure that the Primary system is not dependent on the Secondary system, and the Secondary system is not dependent on the Tertiary system (i.e. IO&T), the implementation of a serial decision-making process is recommended, replacing the “decide everything-at-once” decision-making process that is fast being replaced by smart clients around the world who value a long-term, life-cycle ROI. This is a fundamental principle of any built environment that lasts; that continues to transform over time. The key is well-organized decision deferment, to enable timely decisions about and acquisition of the most current functional layout, medical technology and design knowledge – but not before it is needed. For budget authorization, whole building budgets can be established based on accurate estimates of the Primary System, while cost estimates for the Secondary and Tertiary systems – to be specified and acquired in later stages - are based on benchmarked estimates. Flexibility must be an established criterion as part of decision-making in all phases of the life cycle and specifically in planning, programming, design, acquisition, construction quality control and in operation. Approaching project planning this way enables control over smaller and more executable scopes of work, resulting in more flexibility (and accountability) in programming and budgeting. The same principle should guide the partial or total renovation of older facilities to "reset them" for a long and useful ROI.

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DESIGN IMPLICATIONS [+] Primary System: Known as the "base building" or "core and shell" in the commercial market, this decision level consists of ph elements with the longest utility value (75+ years) for the project at hand. Generally, this includes building access; the b (possibly planned for vertical and/or horizontal expansion); the building facade; primary vertical MEP shafts and sleeves a future MEP shafts, and primary vertical egress stairs and elevator shafts (or shafts for their eventual installation). The decisio the total MEP systems are in the Primary System is decided for each project, but in general, facility flexibility necessitates that elements are in the Secondary System, while space is assured for them in the Primary System design. This decision, like othe decisions, is finalized after completing the capacity analysis (called "test fits" in the commercial market) and cost modelin exercises. In general, flexibility requires that MEP systems serving a given space be accessible to and from that space, to r other primary functions when changes are made. The most difficult is drainage piping which is usually positioned in the ceilin space below the space served. Not only does this add complexity to the plenum space but it is a violation of the basic princ Therefore, every effort should be made to avoid floor penetrations for drainage piping except at locations planned-in to the The principle goal is to assure that the Primary System can accommodate a variety of floor plan and equipment layouts ove function (e.g. cluster or linear surgical suite layouts, not just one or the other), as well as changes of function (surgery to labo Primary System (like a highway) is not dependent on the secondary system (like the design of the highway is not dependen vehicle), but offers space for variable and changing secondary systems.

Secondary System: Known as "tenant work" or "fit-out" in the commercial market (with their associated depreciation schedu level consists of physical and spatial elements tied directly to functional requirements. Detailed programming for the sec undertaken after the Primary System is under construction, within the constraints of the Primary System (understood as the first or subsequently installed secondary systems, on one or severall floors). Generally, this decision level includes partitioni layer, and all MEP components supporting the secondary system being installed. (see design implications) Special attention the provision of secondary system components that can be rapidly removed, repositioned or replaced with minimal disruptio processes in adjacent areas (beside, or above or below). It is also critical that the secondary system design demonstrate that w made to the tertiary system (e.g. medical equipment), the replacement or upgrading of the equipment can be done disturbance to the Secondary System.

Tertiary System: Known as FF&E (fixtures, furnishings and equipment) in the commercial market or, generally, the IO&T (Init Transition) in DHA contracts, this decision level consists of "movable" components that have no permanent connection primary or secondary systems or their utilities. NOTE: the boundary between Secondary and Tertiary Systems is evolving. S combine Secondary and Tertiary system components in one proprietary "product line;" others deliver "open" systems that are components from a variety of manufacturers. Therefore, decisions regarding the separation of Secondary and Tertiary Syste extent project specific, and depend on cost, service provider value and long-term return-on-investment. This issue is projec the most significant in reducing cost of healthcare facilities, in reducing "down-time," and in improving healthcare facility o future.

IMAGES [+]

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Primary

Primary for variable Secondary System layouts (e.g. Surgery, Labs, Intensive Care

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The MATRIX TILE is a solid material (e.g. medium density polystyrene) applied on top of the leveled base building floor. Th approximately 4” (four inches). Grooves of various sizes and located in several horizontal “zones” allow the secure pla interference, of lines or conduits for various services, such as hot and cold water lines, gray-water drain lines (0-slope), hydro to radiators, floor heating, flat ventilation ducts, gas pipes and so on. This “tile” is covered by a 1” (one inch thick) fireproof lines and conduits are installed. Metal stud partitions are erected on this floor covering and any finish floor covering can be in

Just-in-Time planning SERIAL DECISION MAKING: Transitioning from a process that produces rigid buildings to a process that sets up a facility for inevitable change.

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Primary/se systems

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A given floor of the Primary System has the capacity for many secondary system layouts METRICS [+] 1: ROI Evaluation (Potential costs, Cost savings, & ROI)

Few published studies exist on the ROI of system Canton Bern Office of Properties and Buildings public agency) has implemented more th separation" projects. In the UK, a healthcar University of Bath hospital using system sepa (under construction April-Sept 2014) is projecte 15% and construction time by 30%.

2. Design Review Considerations:

Design review considerations for system significant. Design submittals by the A/E servic include drawings up to (if not beyond) 1 demonstrating that the Primary System can variety of Secondary System solutions - includin showing capacity/alternatives. These must be driven scenario planning. Similar demonstrati necessary also for the Secondary System (sho accommodate changing equipment over time disturbance to the primary activities of the facili

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3. Potential Mockup/Prototype/Simulations:

4. Post Occupancy Information Collections:

5. Focused Research Options: REFERENCES [+] Year, Authors,Title 1993, Iselin, D, et al. The Fourth Dimension in Building: Sgtrategies for Minimizing Obsolescence. Washington DC. National Academy Press. 2008, Astley, P and Robinson, H. Future Adaptation of NHS Buildings and Procurement Reform: System Separation Concepts. London: HaCIRIC, Imperial College London. 2008, Kendall, Stephen. Open Building: Healthcare Architecture on the Time Axis: A New Approach. In Guenther, R. and Vittori, G. (eds). Sustainable Healthcare Architecture, New York, Wiley. 1990, Prins, M., Bax, Carp,Templemans Plat. A Decision Support System for Building Flexibility and Costs. Design and Decision Support Systems in Architecture. Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands. 1990, Templemans Plat, H. Towards a Flexibile Stock of Buildings: The Provlem of Cost Calculations for buildings in the Long Run. Proceedings, CIB World Congress, New Zealand. 2012, Kendall, Kurmel, Dekker, HEALTHCARE FACILITIES DESIGN FOR FLEXIBILITY: http://facilities.health.mil/repository/getFile/10796

Simulations can be useful, as long as it is und point is not to choose ONE alternative but to system level for a variety of changing configura lower level. Leading companies already provi prototype capability, particularly for secondar solutions.

POE studies have not yet incorporated mediu studies of how buildings change, but perhaps th DHA should have a research unit or sh continuing research into the long-term effi flexibility strategies, and to draw lessons from sectors and other countries. Summary

The MHS has made a commitment to cond healthcare facilities design for flexibility, w identifying methods to improve the proce healthcare facilities to assure that they produce and continue to serve the evolving MHS core m

2002, Kendall, Stephen. "Performance on Levels." in Measurement and Management of Architectural Value in Performance Based Building. Proceedings of the CIB W60/W96 Joint Conference on Performance Concept in Building and Architectural Management. Hong Kong. CIB Publication 283.

RECOMMENDED AMENDMENT TO CURRENT TEXT IN THE UFC 1-200-01 – HIGH PERFORMANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY REQUIREMENTS The DHA asked for recommendations in linking flexibility to the existing principle mandated across all Federal Government agencies of achieving High Performance and Sustainable infrastructure and facilities. Our report recommended the following language:

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“Achieving high performance and sustainable – i.e. long lasting – installations and facilities necessitates their continued optimum functionality over time – that is, they must be flexible. This extends UFC 1-200-01’s mandate to include the economic benefits and human satisfaction needed for long-lasting facilities. The tenet of flexibility in the UFC 4-510-01 and the flexibility requirements recommended for inclusion in the World Class Facilities Check List must be met for all DHA installations and facilities, newly constructed or acquired, or already in service. Installations and facilities constructed prior to the introduction of current and recommended high performance, sustainable and flexibility criteria must undergo strategic, systemic upgrades, preparing them for long-term value under conditions of change.”

It should be noted that the LEED v4 for Building Design and Construction (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) includes a section pertaining to “design for flexibility” applied to healthcare facilities with the following intent: “Conserve resources associated with the construction and management of buildings by designing for flexibility and ease of future adaptation and for the service life of components and assemblies.” 7V4 also includes LEED BD+C: Core and Shell, which is equivalent generally speaking to Primary System. LINKING FLEXIBILITY TO PRINCIPLES OF RESILIENCY AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE We were also asked to link flexibility to the principles of resiliency. Discussions with leading experts and by reviewing recent literature lead to the following assessment. Both resiliency – the ability to withstand and recover from extreme natural and human-caused events – and capacity to adapt to climate change relate strongly to flexibility. While the causes of facility change differ (evolving functional and satisfaction factors over time drive the need for flexibility) the required facility performance common to all has to do with reducing the ripple effects of change in one part of a facility to all parts of that facility or installation. In decision-making for flexibility, an economic and political (social/organizational/behavioral) assessment is required to evaluate the efficacy and return on investment of implementing a given flexibility strategy from a portfolio of candidate strategies. The same assessment is needed in preparing a facility for resiliency and capacity to adapt to climate change. That is, if flexibility is achieved, resilience and capacity to adapt to climate change are easier to achieve. That said, some of the recommended flexibility strategies are demonstrably more relevant in achieving resiliency and climate change adaptability than others. A thorough analysis of and elaboration of these points of convergence is needed. As an example, Cambridge University and Loughborough University in the UK are engaged in developing strategies for upgrading existing healthcare facilities to accommodate climate change (e.g. rising ambient temperature), focusing on energy systems upgrades that will not increase energy budgets. A flexible building implementing several of the strategies we recommend would go a long way to supporting such upgrading. LINKING FLEXIBILITY AND SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS – MOVING BEYOND TECHNIQUE Up to now, the discourse on high performance and sustainable buildings - in published technical reports, academic and industry conferences, in client organizations and among service providers - has been largely devoid of a fundamental rethinking of decision-making patterns. The discourse has focused on technique, not control (who decides what, when). Discussion about technique is preferred because of its presumed objectivity and purported grounding in technical rationality.

!

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(http://www.usgbc.org/sites/default/files/LEED%20v4%20ballot%20version%20(BDC)%20%2013%2011%2013.pdf).

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Discussions about control, on the other hand, inevitably encounter questions of the distribution of control (no single person can control everything), for which there are no “right” answers that can be justified by technical rationality. The literature also calls this “task partitioning.” Organizations steeped in the culture of technical rationality, but who also must inescapably operate in complex patterns of distributed control, do not have good theory on which to establish policy and practices linking technique and control: thus the avoidance of systematic restructuring of decision-making. This difficulty is particularly evident in a large governmental organization such as the DHA which have grown larger over time and which accumulate patterns of decision making with few opportunities for a thorough overhaul. Based on the above observation, a high-level tenet is important to include in the introduction section of the newly published UFC 1-200-01 (Uniform Facilities Criteria High Performance and Sustainable Building Requirements). In the interim, these principles can be implemented in the medical facilities infrastructure by including them in the UFC 4-510-01and in the World Class Checklist. CONCLUSIONS: ADJUSTMENTS IN THE CLIENT ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE To successfully implant a flexible (and high performance and sustainable) facility methodology as a normal way of doing business, DHA must develop the needed expertise and tools, as well as clear requirements to monitor and enforce a key principle: facility changes should have minimal consequences for the primary processes of the facility in adjacent areas, or above or below the affected floor area of the facility. This principle is relevant for new construction and for the reactivation or renovation of existing buildings. Therefore, building elements and spaces with an expected long life should be strictly and explicitly decoupled from building elements and spaces with shorter expected use lives. This decoupling must be implemented in all phases including the planning, budgeting, design and construction (and renovation) processes. The reason for decoupling is to assure that the change of a building element with a short life (e.g. an element serving a specific function) does not require disruption or change (or only minimal change quickly accomplished) of an element with an expected long life (i.e. an element or configuration that supports many building functions). For example, changing a wall with an expected short life should not require demolishing the structure; changing an electrical outlet should not require demolishing the wall it follows. Within each of the three “systems levels” (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary), it is possible to find “fixed” and “variable” parts. For instance, the façade is assigned to the primary system. But within the “façade” category, some parts may need to be replaced or upgraded more frequently than other parts (e.g. windows may need to be replaced before the entire building cladding comes due for replacement; in that case, the building envelope as such is “fixed” and the windows are “variable”). There is no precise or scientific basis for decoupling or for deciding what should have a long asset life and what should have a short (or shorter) useful life. Part of the reasoning is certainly technical. But an equally if not more important set of criteria has to do with what could be called “interests.” Decentralized interests may not be as easily discernable in a top-down organization such as DHA or other large, centralized organizations, as compared to large private healthcare systems with many geographically disbursed, semiautonomous facilities such as, for example, Sutter, St. Joseph or Ascension Health Care Systems. What is common across these cases is that a hierarchy of interests exists. At the highest level are interests in the long-term survival and maintenance of the asset base. In the case of the DHA, it is the US Congress. They are in the game for the very long haul. On the other end of the hierarchy of interests are the doctors and other caregivers. They are the direct service providers and are ethically and professionally committed to offering the best care with the best medicine, technology and personnel. A model may explain, in which system levels are paired with “interests”: PRIMARY SYSTEM

Central Organization (Agency, Governing Board)

SECONDARY SYSTEM

Local Healthcare Facility Management Group

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TERTIARY SYSTEM

Doctors and Nurses

Needless to say, this practice of linking physical systems with “interests” has become conventional best practice in the bulk of commercial property development in much of the world and is increasingly found in other use types such as laboratories, institutional and multi-family residential properties. This model, when adopted for use in DHA facilities, will enable not only a positive return on investment, but also a more effective and fluid transfer of knowledge, experience and innovation between the private sector and the DHA, despite inevitable and important differences. IT IS OF THE UTMOST IMPORTANCE TO GET THE PRIMARY SYSTEM RIGHT This imperative is not unlike the necessary importance placed on getting the urban transportation and public space structure “right,” because it sets the stage for 100+ years of evolution of the urban fabric. In that case, the street corridors and public parks together constitute a “fixed” configuration, while the public utilities that circulate in or under these public spaces, and the various and changing uses of these spaces, are “variable.” For similar reasons, the greatest emphasis must be placed on primary system longevity (and energy efficiency) in the face of inevitable functional and operational evolution in healthcare. The primary system should be built to offer long-term utility value to society, the client and the character of the urban fabric it is part of. This means that the primary system planning cannot be allowed to be dependent only on current knowledge, preferences and data. This is the first and most important decoupling and is the most difficult to implement in an organizational culture used to operating with a model of unified top-down control in which all parts are equally dependent on all other parts. Therefore, most of the recommended flexibility requirements focus on getting the primary system “right,” and getting it decoupled from the secondary system. FLUIDITY OF THE SECONDARY AND TERTIARY SYSTEMS International research shows that the state-of-the-art in secondary systems (mirroring evolving functional requirements, medical practices, etc.) and tertiary systems (constituting the movable equipment now undergoing the most rapid evolution and miniaturization) for medical facilities is already well on its way to the needed flexibility (decoupling). For example, comprehensive healthcare “systems” offered by large vendors such as Herman Miller and Steelcase (to name just two) illustrate the extent to which the boundary between secondary and tertiary systems is being blurred: walls, equipment and some MEP systems components are being bundled, with interfaces resolved within the “product” of one provider – often patent protected. These interfaces are not as well understood, when different companies deliver and install elements of attempted “integrated” solutions. In the “open market,” the interfaces between secondary and tertiary systems that must be solved on-site are very much in flux, as evidenced by a careful reading of IO&T contracts (Initial Outfitting and Transition – equivalent in large measure to the Tertiary System). In these contracts, interdependencies between these two levels are repeatedly indicated and are repeatedly the source of problems: quality control, re-work, and litigation over the locus of responsibility. Further work is needed to develop smart flexibility requirements for the secondary and tertiary systems. This will also require further consideration of interfaces “on” and “between” system levels in products and components offered in the “open” market (now international). An example of an interface “on” a level is the interface between electrical cable distribution and walls “on” the secondary system level is quite problematic and needs work. New solutions are available but their introduction can be disruptive to conventional arrangements between stakeholders who do not want to change their habits or supply chain relationships. An example of an interface “between” levels is the electrical cabling at the primary system level and the secondary system, and between secondary system (walls) and tertiary system (equipment).

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The development of performance-based flexibility requirements for such interfaces (and there are many) requires a separate research effort.

A SHIFT OF PERSPECTIVE IS REQUIRED FROM

TO

•Assets understood as static

•Assets understood as subject to transformation •Decision making focused on the •Decision making over time (assets initial acquisition of an asset will be transformed over time) •Flexibility focused on technology •Flexibility focused on sequenced decisionmaking over the life of the facility •Flexibility separated from sustainability •Flexibility ENABLING sustainability •Flexibility as an option •Flexibility as a requirement

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER ACTIONS The recommendations made in the final report subject to review by the client organization along with a number of recommendations for further action, outlined here. 1. AUDIT and REVISE EXISTING CRITERIA: (to de-conflict and improve the workability of existing and improved criteria) 1.1 REVIEW EXISTING DOCUMENTS: Complete a thorough review of all existing criteria documents (UFC’s, WCC, MDI, SEPS, 1691, etc.), to identify and if needed delete, synchronize and/or augment existing flexibility requirements in those documents. 1.2 UPDATE SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS: Review and revise the Design Submission requirements in Appendix C of the UFC 5-410-01 to align with new flexibility requirements, and develop a compliance check list. 1.3 DEVELOP METHODS TO PRICE AND ACQUIRE SECONDARY AND TERTIARY SYSTEMS. Implementation of serial decision-making as recommended in this report necessitates development of pricing (e.g. benchmarking) and acquisition methods for the Secondary and Tertiary systems, separated from the Primary System. This is necessary to establish total budget requests for appropriation purposes. 2. FLEXIBILITY OF EXISTING FACILITIES (Demonstrating efficacy of implemented flexibility strategies and developing criteria for improving the performance of existing buildings) 2.1 AUDIT EXISTING ASSETS: Conduct an analysis of several existing DHA facilities in which flexibility strategies were implemented, and to which additions and/or adjustments have been made, to assess the extent to which the additions and/or adjustments diverged from implemented flexibility strategies. For example, we recommend an analysis of several DOD Integrated Building System or other so-called flexible projects and their additions and/or adjustments. 2.2 DEVELOP AUDIT METHODS AND CRITERIA FOR UPGRADING EXISTING FACILITIES FOR LIFECYCLE PERFORMANCE: Flexibility requirements for EXISTING FACILITIES should be developed and inserted into the UFC and WC Check-list. This is critical to the DHA asset portfolio in the coming decades as more resources are applied to upgrading the existing building stock to meet changing requirements. Such criteria should include measures such as “selective surgery” and installation of “strategic implants” to set up existing facilities for future flexible performance. This could be called “Activation of Existing Assets” and may be part of DODI 6015.17. 2.3 DEVELOP A PERFORMANCE-BASED METRIC FOR CHANGE OF FUNCTIONS OVER TIME: This system should set performance criteria for implemented flexibility STRATEGIES, defining the time allowed for several kinds of facility adjustments/upgrades. This includes a matrix of hospital functions and defines

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three classes of transformation – e.g. change of function (more to less complexity), setting out performance requirements based on the time needed to implement them. 3.

METHODS FOR TRACKING FACILITY TRANSFORMATION

3.1 DEVELOP A SCENARIO PLANNING TEMPLATE BASED ON USE: Such a TEMPLATE should be part of all DHA facilities processes, to be used by architect/engineering teams, working with clients in planning facility upgrades, additions or alterations. The goals are: 1) to assure that facility planning avoids use of only one “program of requirements” as the basis for its design; and 2) to assure appropriate uniformity of assumptions and criteria across the portfolio. 3.2 CREATE AN INFORMATION COLLECTION AND TRACKING TOOL: Given current efforts on DMLSS, “BUILDER” (i.e. Medical BUILDER), should be augmented or a new procedure developed to track the facility upgrades, additions or alterations and the impact of the already implemented flexibility measures in that buildings. 4. INITIATE A PERIODIC SHARED LEARNING FORUM: Establish an industry forum to engage the private sector in improving acquisition (design and construction) and long-term asset management (adaptation and facility renewal) methods and tools. An example is the Strategic Roadmap Webinar Series conducted in 2012-2013).

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DEFINING FORMS OF COLLABORATIVE LIVING IN MODERN CHINA Yiwei LIU, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China, [email protected] Beisi JIA, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China, [email protected] Abstract The increase in social and environmental problems caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization has prompted the Chinese government to seek sustainable and affordable approaches to social housing. Collaborative housing has been regarded as a spontaneous form of social housing since the early 20th century. This study identifies the forms and characteristics of collaborative living in urban China since around 1949 and considers the role of social housing construction. The study analyzes various scenarios of collaborative living in different periods in modern urban China and points out that collaborative housing used to be the chief housing provision for residents who were unable to access the housing market. These scenarios of collaborative living are examined in terms of motivation and original intention, community plan and design, physical form and scale, the residents’ role and structure, and financing and ownership to determine the reasons that motivate short-lived experiments of collaborative housing in China. Collaborative housing in Denmark, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United States, and Australia are also investigated to determine how collaborative housing can be applied in different contexts and how collaborative housing is capable of spatially balancing privacy and community. Suggestions for future collaborative housing are generated from this comparison. The findings of the study emphasize that collaborative housing is capable of providing an alternative approach to high-quality and lowprice social housing in China. Keywords: forms of collaborative living, collaborative housing, social housing, cohousing model, sustainable low-price community. INTRODUCTION Chinese modern urban housing emerged in the late 19th century after the Opium War (Lv et al. 2001). The rise of capitalism accelerated the growth and highly centralized population in open port cities and colonial settlements, and the large and urgent urban housing requirement gave rise to an early form of real estate in China. Thereafter, urban housing construction was gradually transformed from traditional family constructed housing to modern commercial construction. The People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949, and since then, the socialist ideology stipulated the transference of almost all forms of urban housing into state ownership. A welfare housing system and the household registration system Hukou were established in urban areas under a planned economy. As in the urban housing crises in Europe in the 18th century, the rapid urbanization and industrialization of China in the past three decades have led to an increase in serious environmental and social problems. The issue of urban housing is the most severe problem that which must be solved imminently. China’s economic reforms, which were begun in 1979, solved the serious urban housing shortage in the 1970s. The majority of ordinary Chinese citizens experienced significant improvements in housing conditions and living standards after the marketization and privatization of urban housing (Zhang 1998). China’s real estate market became a key integral component of the institutional transition from a planned economy to a socialist market-oriented economy in the late 1980s, and it boomed and evolved in the 1990s. Scholars note that the marketization of housing in China successfully brought about huge economic and social benefits (Zhang 2000, Lee & Zhu 2006, Man 2011, Shaw 1997, Wang & Murie 1996). However, this marketization has rapidly accelerated in terms of both transaction volume and housing price since 1995. As a result, the capacity of residents for adequate payment has become a crucial issue and has aroused wide public concern. The unpredictable high housing costs and housing inequality are attributable to the overemphasis of the housing market on profit-making, which exacerbates the inability of the majority of the urban population, particularly the urban poor, to access housing. In the late 1990s, affordable social housing (Baozhang fang) emerged in China as a form of social security for urban low-income families and as a solution to the crisis of urban housing inequality. However, the benefits that were supposed to be reaped from affordable housing are still not obvious until today. Instead, the tightly fit functional housing design

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has resulted in unsuitable housing plans for present living conditions and serious housing obsolescence (Jia 1998), which in turn results in huge resource waste and environment pollution. The increase in social and environmental requirements of urban housing has prompted the Chinese government to seek housing approaches that are more sustainable and affordable than previous approaches. A series of policies was issued in 2005 to regulate the real estate and control the rise in housing price. Non-profit housing activities were also encouraged to further diversify the forms of housing provision. Collaborative housing is a form of non-profit housing that has provided housing to urban low-income residents since the early 20th century. However, this type of housing is rarely mentioned in discussions of the present social housing context of China. In the late 2000s, a wave of grassroots-funded housing in some Chinese cities aroused much public attention. Almost all such attempts failed, but they called attention to the expectation and demand of the public for collaborative housing. Many researchers and scholars have identified the following social, environmental, and economic benefits of collaborative form of housings, which make them attractive to the public and the government (Williams 2005b, Vestbro 2012, Scanzoni 1999, Brenton 2013, Bamford 2005, Garciano 2009, Pretty & Ward 2001, Torres-Antonini 2001, Meltzer 2000, Marcus & Dovey 1991, Williams 2005a): !

! !

The empowerment of residents improves the social networks and cohesion in communities and causes various social benefits of cohousing. Such benefits include the following: overcoming the exclusion of women and single parents from the workforce, improving the quality of leisure time of families and children, providing a solution to the alienation of modern neighborhoods and suburban communities, providing affordable accommodation, and offering an additional option for the informal care of elderly or disabled people. For young people or low-income residents, the resident-led nature of collaborative housing provides opportunities to acquire life skills and to practice working in groups. Collaborative neighborhoods are environment-friendly and reduce consumption because of the mixed use of space and the sharing of various resources, such as communal facilities or services. The potential of collaborative housing to deliver local services or facilities contributes to a reduction in local funds for public facilities and services.

Unlike traditional forms of accommodation in communal spaces and facilities, collaborative housing is distinctive for its provision of independent private living within a cohesive community through nonhierarchical social structures, residential self-management, and separate income. The balance between private homes and communal spaces, between work outside the community and activities inside the community, between individual finance and community management enables residents to balance their private living requirements and social needs. This study investigates previous forms of collaborative housing in modern urban China. Various scenarios of shared living in different periods are illustrated and evaluated to establish the line evolution that the collaborative housing practices in the country have taken. These forms of collaborative housing are then analyzed and compared in terms of motivation and original intention, community plan and design, physical form and scale, residents’ role and structure, and financing and ownership to determine the factors behind the country’s failure to develop a mature form of collaborative housing. The study then focuses on the successful and unique forms of collaborative housing in Denmark, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United States, and Australia to raise suggestions for reactivating collaborative housing as an effective part of social housing in China. By identifying the forms of collaborative living in modern urban China and by comparing them with other collaborative housing experiences in the world, this paper determines the role of collaborative living in the housing provision for urban low-income Chinese families in the past and future. FORMS OF COLLABORATIVE LIVING IN MODERN URBAN CHINA As an indispensable part of Chinese residential culture, collaborative and shared living based on kinship and geographical relationship used to be the common living style of the agrarian age. The Opium War broke the self-contained nature of Chinese society and gave birth to an extensive industrialization, which accelerated the rapid growth of Chinese cities and gave rise to various urban housing problems for the first time (Zhang 1998). The evolution of modern urban housing in China can be divided into three parts (Lv et al. 2001): the early period before 1949, the socialist-planned housing from 1949 to 1978, and the marketization of the housing market beginning in 1979.

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The early period before 1949 In the early 20th century, Chinese cities suffered from poor housing conditions because of the continuing wars and rapid increase of the urban population. Serious shortages of land and housing also reduced the size of urban families (Qiao 1992). Since the 1920s, a large number of shared courtyard houses emerged in some northern boomtowns as housing provision for immigrant workers and low-income families. The courtyard house was the fundamental vernacular housing type in northern China. Under this arrangement, the original one-family courtyard house was occupied by several families, sometimes even by a dozen or several dozens of families (Lv et al. 2001). This type of shared courtyard house was therefore named the ‘compound house’ (Da Zayuan or Juzhu Dayuan). It usually consisted of two or three floors with open corridors and was located around the original central courtyard (Figure 1). The courtyard was a multifunctional space for the residents’ communal lives. The shared toilet, water pipe, sewers, and staircases were located inside the courtyard. Although the thermal comfort, sanitary conditions, and physical conditions were bad, this type of housing remained popular in that period because of the quick construction and low price it afforded to a huge number of workers.

Figure 1: Layout and daily life in a typical compound house (Source: http://chinaneast.xinhuanet.com).

Aside from the shared courtyard house, collaborative living among unrelated individual families in rural areas also led to the rise of Tulou, an important vernacular form of housing in southern China. Built after 1949, Tulou settlements embodied the concept of joint-equity ownership and the habitants’ participation in modern collaborative housing in urban China (Zheng 2011). The socialist-planned housing from 1949 to 1978 The socialist and communist ideology has remodeled Chinese thought, including the form of housing since 1949. Rampant speculative and profiteering activities in the housing and land markets led to unreasonably high rents and worsened the living conditions of the working class. To solve this housing issue and guarantee the general interest of the whole society, the housing market was removed, and the ownership of a large proportion of private rental housing was gradually transferred to the state from 1956 to 1966 (Mathey 1990, Zhang 1998). Under a planned economy, governmental departments, companies, and factories had the authority to build social housing for staff and workers. The lives of employees were organized by the state-owned or collectively owned work units, and their houses were also financed, built, owned, and managed by the work units (Danwei). In a general sense, Chinese people in urban areas began to enjoy a comprehensive social housing system in terms of state ownership, housing affordability, and equality, whereas collaborative housing became the main form of housing. Despite the poor housing conditions, people were relatively satisfied with collective work and living style in the work units (Zhang 1998). The huge floating population from the countryside was excluded from the welfare housing system because of their hukou status, but the low labor costs enabled a huge number of rural migrants work and live in urban areas. Shared living was the only form of housing for the floating population, because they had to share houses with local residents or live together in dormitories. Other forms of collaborative housing or shared living emerged during this period, including residential areas in urban people’s communes (Renmin Gongshe), new villages in the work units, and tube-shaped apartments for temporary workers (Tongzi Lou). The large canteen in the people’s communes, the isolated bedrooms and shared kitchens and toilets in the

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work units, and mixed use of inner corridors in the tube-shaped apartments constituted the architectonics of collaborative living. Figure 2 shows the plan of residential areas in rural (left) and urban (right) people’s communes. The black-colored blocks represent the shared spaces and facilities in the community. In this village plan, housing clusters are identified by separate community canteens and storehouses, and the main common house is located at the center of the entire residential area. In urban people’s communes, Hong Shunli, the multi-story housing is filled with all types of common spaces and shared facilities, such as canteens, guest rooms, shared toilets, nursery rooms, rooms for the elderly, shops, banks, and even lactation rooms.

Figure 2: Plan of the residential area in the people’s communes: a new village in rural Shanghai (Wang 1958) (left) and the ground floor plan of the urban people’s commune of Hong Shunli in Tianjing (Xu 1958) (right).

Figure 3: Floor plan of a workers’ dormitory (left) and tube-shaped apartments (right) (Source: drawn by the author and adapted from the author’s study on her own housing experience (Ye, 2009).

Figure 4: Collaborative life inside the corridor

(Source: http://www.langya.cn). Figure 3 illustrates the layout of a workers’ dormitory in Beijing and a typical tube-shaped apartment. Each family occupied one or two isolated bedrooms and shared a very small toilet with three or four other families. Given the severe housing shortage, some obsolete office building or student dormitory was reoccupied as workers’ housing. The building did not have a kitchen, and the inner corridor served as the public and

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cooking space, although the residents did not share meals. The corridor was usually filled with utensils and sundry objects (Figure 4), and the usable space for each family was therefore defined by the cookers and the distance to the door. They were called tube-shaped apartments because the inner corridor was the most important space for living and socializing, and daylight from the two windows at both ends of the corridor made it look like a tube. The period of housing reform begun in 1979 The open reform begun in 1979 saw new changes, such as the loosening of state control over the work units, privatization of housing allocation (Wu & Treiman 2004), and the liberalization of housing prices in the 1990s. The majority of the migrant and low-income population began to live in urban villages in a collaborative way. To find a good approach to reduce the pressure of state-led social housing construction and to attract investment from various individuals, Chinese housing cooperatives emerged in 1980 and then experienced a rapid growth in the 1990s. Until 2000, more than 5,000 housing cooperatives operated in China and offered 1,500,000 units for low-income workers (Bao 2005). These cooperatives took the form of three types: government-organized, civil society-organized, and work unit-based cooperatives (Zhang 1998). The price of the units in these housing cooperatives was low because individual members were required to pay only for the partial cost of a housing unit and not for the cost of common facilities. The government also provided support through tax exemption and provision of low-price land and building materials. These housing cooperatives contributed to the non-profit housing movement in the country and effectively encouraged collaborative living and self-built houses. However, the majority of the urban poor encountered difficulties in participating in these cooperatives, particularly in the work unit-based and government-organized cooperatives. The real beneficiaries of such housing cooperatives consisted of civil servants and workers employed in large companies, instead of the low-income people who were in dire need of housing. The conflict worsened after the marketization of housing. As a result, the development of housing cooperatives gradually declined, and only a few civil society-organized cooperatives continued operating after 1998. The attempts at urban collaborative living in China did not stop. Since around 2000, fund-raising self-built housing movements emerged in some major cities, such as Shanghai, Beijing, Chongqing, and Shenzhen. Unfortunately, almost all these experiments failed in their early stages (Zhu & Xiao 2012). For example, the Shenzhen group obtained properties through auction, but still failed because of management problems (Liang 2007). Property developers also focused on the collaborative housing market. Wanke attempted to improve neighborhood cohesion by building a community canteen and began an experiment called Wanhui building to provide housing for low-income people in collaborative housing communities (Yang 2011). Although the results of the project were not positive and the project itself has been incurring losses since 2007, it remains an example of great efforts toward affordable collaborative housing in China. THE SHORT-LIVED EXPERIMENTS OF CHINESE COLLABORATIVE LIVING The review above allows us to identify the peculiarity of Chinese collaborative housing from two perspectives. On the one hand, collaborative housing has always existed as part of the social housing for low-income families. On the other hand, almost all these cases are temporary housing solutions that work only over a short period of time in coping with special housing requirements and then disappear or are replaced by other forms. Comparing the previous forms of collaborative living in China in terms of motivation, community plan, building design and residents’ role, which distinguishes collaborative housing from ordinary living forms, will allow us to determine the reasons behind the short-lived experiments of Chinese collaborative housing (Figure 5).

Before!1949!

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From!1949!to!1978!

After!1979!



To!make!the!task!of! leadership!easy,!it! combines!industry,! agriculture,! commerce,! education,!and! military!affairs!

Work!unit!is!the! basic!social!element! under!a!planned! economy;!workers’! living!space!is!built! and!assigned!in! limited!conditions!

To!reduce!the! pressure!of!the! construction!of!stateJ owned!social!housing! and!attract! investment!from! individuals!

Unintentional! neighborhoods;!the! main!space!and! facilities!in!the!inner! courtyard!were! shared!by!a!dozen!or! several!dozens!of! families!together.!

StateJcontrolled! intentional! community;!residents! live!in!residential! areas!and!work!in! centralized!farmlands! and!factories! together!

Two!or!three!floors! with!open!corridors;! located!around!an! original!courtyard;! poor!physical! environment!

Low!or!multiJstory;! isolated!community! in!urban!area;! canteen,!washroom,! shop,!and!other! shared!rooms!are! incorporated!in!the! building!

Independent! buildings!or! intentional! neighborhoods;! shared!large!canteens! and!entertainment! space;!the!size! depends!on!the! factory’s!scale! Mostly!slabJtype!and! multiJstory! apartment;!usually! small!private! bedrooms!and! shared!kitchens!and! toilets!

Large!intentional! neighborhoods;! includes!public! buildings,!such!as! hospitals,!nursing! homes,!and!schools;!the! private!unit!is! integrated!and! independent! MultiJstory!or!highJ rise!residential! building;!medium!or! high!density;! common!house!is! built!independently! and!gradually!!

Heterogeneous! community;!lowJ income!and!migrant! families;!residents!take! care!of!their!own!unit! construction;!no! formal!residents’! organization!!

Homogenous! community;!residents! participated!in!design;! Hierarchical!structure! of!responsibility!and! management;!shared! economy!and!meals!

Workers!barely! participate!and!share! activities!in!the! dormitory;!household! type!is!diverse!but! homogenous!in!race,! tenure,!and!income! !

Homogenous! community!in! governmentJorganized! and!work!unitJbased! communities;!residents! selfJmanage!the! community!based!on! cooperatives!

Residents!build!their! own!units;!private! ownership!

Housing!built!and! managed!by!peoples’! communes!or!work!units;! collective!ownership!

Residents!pay!lowJ rent!or!free;!collective! ownership!

Residents!pay!partial! cost!of!a!housing!unit;! collective!or!partial! ownership!

Residents!gathered! because!of!poverty,! and!the!house!was! quickly!built!at!a!low! cost!

Figure 5: Comparison of Chinese forms of collaborative living in terms of motivation, community plan, building design, residents’ role, and financing.

In the shared courtyard house, residents gathered and shared a public living space because of limited economic conditions and had no sense of organization and management. Habitants cared only about their own private lives and lacked effective means of communicating and negotiating public issues. The serious problem was the poor physical environment and public facilities, which affected the residential quality and also isolated the settlements from surrounding neighborhoods. Therefore, for the government, this type of collaborative housing was a problematic living area as notorious as slums and was remedied immediately. However, to a general extent, this form of collaborative living style with the consensus of low-income and migrant people changed constantly but never disappeared in urban China. Improving this form of collaborative housing may then be more profitable than eliminating it.

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The government has had a decisive role in the forms of collaborative living under the period of the planned economy. The advantages of residential area in people’s communes and workers’ dormitories in work units are obvious. The collective housing ownership provides each family equal access to a unit, and a high quality of social interaction is fostered by the adequate public space and shared facilities. Residents are familiar with one another, so that the children and elderly live in a safe and supportive environment. However, the demand of an ample private life is neglected, which in turn causes serious problems and conflicts in daily life. The barely improved living quality makes people realize that a harmonious collaborative life can be achieved only on the basis of a complete and independent personal life, which means the collective canteens and bathhouses cannot replace the role of private kitchens and washrooms in a physical sense. The emergence of housing cooperatives paved the way for low-priced and high-quality social housing in China, although such housing lasted for only about 20 years. Collaborative housing consensually built by non-profit associations was what really alleviated the problem for urban low-income families in the 1990s. Many researchers have pointed out that the main reason that led to the discontinuation of housing cooperatives in China is the inadequacy of policies and institutions (Wang & Jin 2011, Zhang et al. 2007, Zhu & Xiao 2012). The type of cooperative is too limited, so that only the civil society-organized cooperatives were effective. Most of the cooperatives were built by government and work units, which soon evolved into a type of mandatory housing and thereby gradually lost its basic function. Moreover, cooperative housing in China focused only on the institutional features of ownership and management. Cooperative housing neglected the characteristics of physical space, such as the appropriate size of the community, the building layout, the position and proportion of the public space, and the relationship with surrounding neighborhoods, all of which not only influence the quality of private and community live but also assist in implementing policies and institutions. Unlike the development of effective collaborative urban housing in Europe and the United States, collaborative living experiences in China have not led to a mature collaborative housing type. To reactivate collaborative housing as an effective social form of housing in China, the successful model of cohousing in Europe, the United States, and other regions can provide us with a perspective and inspire feasible suggestions. DISCUSSION ON COLLABORATIVE LIVING FORMS IN THE HOUSING LITERATURE Shared and cooperative housing emerged with the purpose of promoting the physical, social, and emotional wellbeing of neighborhoods. The concept of collaborative housing has its roots in the notion of a utopian community, feminist agenda, and commune movements in the 19th century (Meltzer 2001, Sargisson 2012, Williams 2005b), but strong differences marked collaborative housing and other intentional communities. Residents wished to live within the existing society rather than build a new society and new forms of family, with the privacy and autonomy of the household secure (Fromm 1991). Meltzer (2005) pointed out the two features that distinguish collaborative housing from many other intentional communities: the balance between privacy and community life through individual dwellings and a wellused common house and the close relationship of cohousing residents to the society at large. The common characteristics of collaborative housing in Europe and American Collaborative living in Europe took the form of a typical collaborative housing, particularly in Denmark, Sweden, and the Netherlands. This form had a significant role in providing affordable housing and maintaining the sustainability of the community. Collaborative housing in Denmark was first established in 1972 as a reaction to the isolation and expensiveness of unintentional communities. Danish families joined together and designed new neighborhoods with shared courtyards, gardens, play spaces, community dining rooms, and kitchens. These intentional communities were named bofallesskaber, which means living communities (Meadows 1997). In Sweden, housing is for non-selected categories of people who eat or cook together in communal rooms. These communal rooms are connected to private apartments through indoor access called Kollektivhus or collective housing unit in English (Vestbro 1992). In the Netherlands, a similar living style was called the centraal Wonen (Fromm 1991, Meltzer 2005). Although no single English term exists for the distinctive collaborative housing in different regions, the term cohousing was adopted by Charles Durrett and Kathryn McCamant in 1988 to introduce this desirable living style in the United States and inspired the foundation of cohousing waves in other countries (McCamant &

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Durrett 1988). Cohousing is therefore defined as a form of collaborative housing in which residents participate in the process of developing, designing, and managing their own neighborhoods (The Cohousing Association of the United States 2013). Cohousing emphasizes the sharing of physical space and responsibility in communities. The Encyclopedia of Housing (Carswell 2012) defines the term as part of a community-based housing together with other shared housing, such as cooperative, company, and nonprofit. In this sense, cohousing is an intentional, planned community designed by local residents to encourage a collaborative neighborhood setting. Cohousing developments vary in terms of community size, plan and design, financing options, and mode of ownership. However, previous studies have found that cohousing can still be identified by virtue of some common characteristics (McCamant et al. 1994, Scotthanson & Scotthanson 2005, Fromm 1991, Meltzer 2005, Garciano 2009). In terms of community plan and architecture design, cohousing is an intentional pedestrian-oriented neighborhood, whose aim is to achieve a physical design that encourages a high level of social interaction without sacrificing private individual space (Williams 2005a). The private homes are smaller in size but contain all functional rooms and are independent. Each home has access to all shared spaces and facilities, such as the communal kitchen and dining room, laundry, gym, guestrooms, garden, storage, and entertainment room. As the social center of a cohousing community, the common house is usually equipped with a community kitchen and dining room, children’s play room, and other necessary facilities (McCamant et al. 1994). Cohousing residents design, finance, and manage their own communities in different ways. Some professionals may be hired by cohousing communities, but all the residents participate in the community development and take complete and equal responsibility in making decisions, solving problems, and organizing cooperatively to address changing needs. Members and households do not pool their capital or financial resources, and no shared community economy is formed. In their daily life, the cohousing groups usually choose to share several evening meals together each week in their common house, which effectively brings residents together for a convenient and pleasurable time of sharing and meeting (Scotthanson & Scotthanson 2005). Collaborative housing in different social contexts Collaborative housing in the Western world has experienced about a half century of development. Williams (2005b) identified several phases in the evolution of collaborative housing: the assimilation phase in Europe, the growth phase in the United States, and the pioneering phase in the Pacific Rim. Collaborative housing projects differ in their responses to their specific cultural and economic environments (Davis 2001, Meltzer 2001, Williams 2005b, Fromm 1991). Figure 6 illustrates the similarities and differences among collaborative forms of housing in different periods and regions in terms of their original intention, community and architecture, and socio-economic characteristics, which reveal various approaches to collaborative housing and provide a model for Chinese housing.

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Denmark!!

Sweden!

The!Netherlands!!

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The!USA!

Pacific!Rim!

Since&1980s&

Since&2000s&

Motivation(and(original(intention( Create!a! strong!social! network!for! the!nuclear! family!

! LowJrise,! mediumJ density,!neoJ vernacular! houses!

Reduce!the! burdensome! housework!of! working!women!

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Create!a!socially! supportive! community!

Demonstrate! sustainable!! human! settlements!

Physical(form(and(scale(( HighJrise! apartments,! common!houses! incorporated! into!the!building!

LowJrise,!larger,! denser!and!more! urban,!physically! divides! households!into! clusters!

LowJrise,! attached! dwellings!with! centralized! common!houses! !

!

!!

Green! architecture,! ecoJdesign! principles!!

!

!

Heterogeneou s!community,! wellJeducated! middleJclass! families!! !

! Residents’(structure! ! More!single! About!93%!of!the! More!diverse!in! parents,!elderly,! dwellings!are! household!type,! and!lowJincome! rentals,!a!wide! tenure,!income,! families! range!of! age,!and! households! religion,!but! homogenous!in! race!

Encourages! mixed! income,! household! types,!and! ethnicity!

Figure 6: Comparison of collaborative housing projects in different geopolitical contexts (Source: Davis 2001, Williams 2005, Meltzer 2001, Fromm 1991). Unlike in Chinese forms of collaborative living, the original intention of collaborative housing in the west is more focused on social and environmental requirements, which are determined bottom-up. In both China and Europe, the original way of collaborative living in the urban area is self-built collaborative housing, whereas in China, the top-down strength of the government has a significant effect on state-built collaborative living. In both China and the West, the development of the physical form of the housing, from reconstruction based on vernacular houses to high-rise and dense modern residential buildings, is the same. However, the scale of collaborative communities is much larger in China than in the Western cases, which may be attributed to the high efficiency of political management but impeded communication among family members. Residents collaborate because of the will of the state or because they are driven by selfinterest; therefore, a majority of collaborative communities are homogenous, resulting in isolated and exclusive neighborhoods. In terms of housing ownership, collaborative housing in China is usually collectively owned, whereas in the Western world, various modes of ownership are current, including private, common-interest, and non-profit ownerships, partnerships, and other mixed tenures. The level of participation in collaborative housing takes diverse forms, such as homeowners’ association, government, housing cooperative, nonprofit corporation, and tenants’ association (Fromm 1991).

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Figure 7: Diversified site and floor plan in collaborative housing (Source: Meltzer 2005, Fromm 1991).

The residents’ participation in collaborative housing gives rise to a flexible housing design and diversified planning according to the residents’ particular requirements, in contrast to the fixed functional design in ordinary urban housing (Figure 7). Personalized indoor space, such as the area, layout, and room orientation, is determined by the residents; public areas and facilities can also be adjusted through efficient communication among all collaborative housing members. The life span of the building and community is relatively long, which contributes to savings in resources and protection of the urban environment to a great extent. CONCLUSION On the basis of the housing experience of China, Europe, and the United States, collaborative living proves to be an ideal form of living for urban low-income families. In the face of the imperative requirements of the Chinese social housing and complex housing problems, collaborative living has the potential to provide an effective alternative. Today, the construction of cooperative housing in China has reached an impasse. Chinese employees no longer rely on their factories or companies to deal with housing requirements, but some of them are incapable of obtaining a decent house in the housing market. The aspiration of living collaboratively has recently been intensified. Collaborative housing is still necessary given the skyrocketing urban housing prices. However, the previous collaborative form of housing has been unable to meet the needs of the present Chinese society. The existing policy on collaborative housing construction in China was issued in 1992, but more detailed and comprehensive policies are necessary to guide and offer institutional, financial, and social support. The European experience of cohousing provides a mature example of collaborative living, which shows various development processes and diversified financing methods in the construction of collaborative housing as part of social housing. The aim of architecture design in collaborative housing is to balance the private and collective life, control the cost, and provide decent living conditions to low-income families. In China, the physical design, which merely serves to facilitate social interaction and community sustainability, has always been neglected. Based on previous lessons and past experiences, two aspects should be considered seriously in the design process: appropriate community size and residents’ participation in planning a flexible architecture design. To ensure effective communication among the families, the size of each basic cluster must not be too small or too large, and the organization of space must be suited to different community factors, such as location and density. The architecture design should meet the personalized needs of each family and seriously consider

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changes in living requirements. With the purpose of balancing private and collective spaces and adapting the living space to the changing requirements of residents, the ‘open building’ proposed by Habraken provides an alternative to community design and architectural plan. In the context of China, comprehensive research is needed to develop an applicable methodology of promoting collaborative housing development. In summary, collaborative living has had a significant role in the urbanization of China and will continue to do so in the future. The social housing issues must not be viewed as a challenge facing only the government but a complex task for the entire society that requires the willpower and collaboration of each individual. Collaborative housing may provide an approach to high-quality and low-price housing in urban China. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Graduate School of University of Hong Kong for providing a comprehensive research platform and various literature materials. The idea of the paper was partially generated from the research project “Architectural Identity in Asian Cities: A Comparative Study on Housing Morphology” funded by the Conference and Research Grant Committee of the University of Hong Kong 2010. REFERENCES Bamford, G., 2005. Cohousing for older people: housing innovation in the Netherlands and Denmark. Australasian Journal on Ageing, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 44–46. Bao, Z., 2005. Chinese housing cooperatives in past 50 years construction , no. 7, pp. 55–56.

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Brenton, M., 2013. Senior cohousing communities–an alternative approach for the UK?, Discussion Paper. Better Life in Later Life, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York. Carswell, A.T., 2012. The Encyclopedia of Housing, Second edn, Sage, New York. Davis, A.P., 2001. Creating community: Development and design alternatives in cohousing, University of Washington, Washington DC. Fromm, D., 1991. Collaborative communities: Cohousing, central living, and other new forms of housing with shared facilities, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Garciano, J.L., 2009. Affordable cohousing: Challenges and opportunities for supportive relational networks in mixed-income housing, New York Times. Jia, B., 1998. 'Component strategies for adaptable housing in China', Open House International, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 4–11. Lee, J & Zhu, Y., 2006. 'Urban governance, neoliberalism and housing reform in China', The Pacific Review, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 39–61. Liang, J., 2007. 'Shenzhen individual housing cooperation group bidding two residential buildings', Shenzhen news, http://www.sznews.com/tqbhome/content/2007-04/03/content_1008325.htm. Lv, J, Rowe, PG & Zhang, J., 2001. Modern urban housing in China, 1840-2000, Prestel Verlag, Munich, Germany. Man, J.Y., 2011. China’s housing reform and outcomes, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge.

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Marcus, CC & Dovey, K., 1991. 'Cohousing, an option for the 1990s', Progressive Architecture, no. 6, pp. 112– 113. Mathey, K., 1990. Housing policies in the socialist Third World, Mansell, London. McCamant, K et al., 1994. Cohousing: A contemporary approach to housing ourselves, Revised Edn, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. McCamant, K & Durrett, C., 1988. Cohousing: A contemporary approach to housing ourselves, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. Meadows, D., 1997. 'Co-housing: Somewhere between Neighborhood and Commune', The Global Citizen. Meltzer, G., 2001. 'Co-housing bringing communalism to the World? Communal living on the threshold of a new millennium: Lessons and perspectives', The Seventh International Communal Studies Conference, Belzig, Germany. Meltzer, G., 2000. Cohousing: Towards social and environmental sustainability, The University of Queensland, Brisbane. Meltzer, G., 2005. Sustainable community: Learning from the cohousing model, Trafford Publishing, Canada. Qiao, Z., 1992. The modern history of chinese society, People’s publishing house, Beijing. Sargisson, L., 2012. 'Second-wave cohousing: A modern utopia?', Utopian Studies, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 28–56. Scanzoni, J., 1999. Designing families: The search for self and community in the information age, Pine Forge Press, Thousand Oaks, CA:. Scotthanson, C & Scotthanson, K., 2005. The cohousing handbook: Building a place for community (revised edn), New society publishers, Canada. Shaw, VN., 1997. 'Urban housing reform in China', Habitat International, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 199–212. The Cohousing Association of the https://www.cohousing.org/what_is_cohousing.

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Vestbro, DU., 1992. 'From central kitchen to community co-operation - Development of Collective Housing in Sweden', Open House International, pp. 1–9. Vestbro, DU., 2012. 'Saving by sharing – collective housing for sustainable lifestyles in the Swedish context. The Tullstugan cohouse', The 3rd International Conference on Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity, pp. 1–13. Wang, H., 1958. 'The plan and architecture design of the first people’s commune new village in Shanghai', Architecture journal, no. 10. Wang, S & Jin, J., 2011. 'The development of China’s housing cooperatives and realistic thinking' , Journal of Socialist Theory Guide, no. 9, pp. 73–75. Wang, YP & Murie, A., 1996. 'The process of commercialisation of urban housing in China', Urban Studies, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 971–989.

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Williams, J., 2005a. 'Designing neighborhoods for social interaction: The case of cohousing', Journal of Urban Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 195–227. Williams, J., 2005b. 'Sun, surf and sustainable housing—cohousing, the Californian experience', International Planning Studies, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 145–177. Wu, X & Treiman, DJ., 2004. 'The household registration system and social stratification in China: 1955–1996', Demography, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 363–384. Xu, T., 1958. 'Introduction to architecture design of Hong shunli urban people’s commune in Tianjing', Architecture journal, no. 10. Yang, J., 2011. 'Wanhui building: the experiment of three years', The new letters, Golden sheep network, http://www.ycwb.com/ePaper/xkb/html/2011-07/29/content_1172721.htm. Zhang, R, Zhang, Y & Zhao, J., 2007. Cooperative housing——Learning from foreign experience and improving related system —— . Tianjin University, China. Zhang, XQ., 1998. Privatisation: a study of housing policy in urban China, Nova Science Publishers, New York. Zhang, XQ., 2000. 'The restructuring of the housing finance system in Urban China', Cities, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 339–348. Zheng, J., 2011. Joint-equity vernacular house and housing cooperatives: Tulou built after 1949 1949 , Architecture journal , no. 11, pp. 1–5. Zhu, Y & Xiao, L., 2012. 'Characteristics and logic of China’s cohousing movement' , Social Science Front, no. 10, pp. 177–184.

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UR FREESTYLE HOUSE (PART 1): REACTIVATION PROJECT BY DIY RENOVATION FOR EXISTING RENTAL DWELLING UNITS IN KOZOJI NEWTOWN JAPAN Mr. Nobuyuki Nomura, Division of Business Administration, The NUCB Graduate School, Japan, [email protected] Mr. Masanao Hattori, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya Univ., Japan, [email protected] Mr. Eisuke Tabata, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya Univ., Japan, [email protected] Mr. Kazuhisa Tsunekawa, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya Univ., Japan, [email protected] Ms. Norie Kawano, Sc. of Life Studies, Sugiyama Jogakuen Univ., Japan, [email protected] Mr. Shin Murakami, Sc. of Life Studies, Sugiyama Jogakuen Univ., Japan, [email protected] Abstract Kozoji Newtown Study Group with participants from universities in Aichi Prefecture and Nonprofit Organizations (NPOs) has studied future urban development for Kozoji Newtown where residents are rapidly aging. Meanwhile, the Urban Renaissance (UR) Agency, having many rental dwelling units in the Newtown, faces the problem that young people have moved out of the Newtown. For this reason, the Study Group in collaboration with the UR Agency planned a project ‘UR Free Style House’ to encourage young people to move to the Newtown. One of the characteristics of the project is that the obligation to restore a room to their original state, which is usually imposed on a resident, was removed from contracts so that the resident could change the room according to his preference. Also the following three steps were taken to suppress the expense for both the owner UR Agency and the resident. Step 1 As a primary construction, the owner, i.e. the UR Agency, renovates the dwelling unit that has a dining room, kitchen and two other rooms, to a single-room dwelling unit so that a resident would be able to renovate the room more freely. Step 2 The UR Agency sets up open room days so that visitors can actually see the rooms, and the Study Group sets up panel exhibition in the rooms to show DIY renovation examples and raise visitor interest. Step 3 After receiving an application, the UR Agency and resident make a lease agreement where the resident is allowed to do ‘Do it yourself’ (DIY) renovation and will not be charged for the first three months stay. Keywords: DIY, rental dwelling unit, infill or fill-out, renovation. INTRODUCTION Project background Due to the aging of the rental dwelling units and buildings in Kozoji Newtown (hereafter referred to as NT), which was developed in the 1960s and 1970s, NT cannot meet the current housing requirements. The rapid aging of residents and the decreasing number of young people living in NT is also a problem. It is therefore necessary not only to take measures for comfortable living of the old residents but also to provide young people with attractive living spaces and encourage them to move to NT. However, due to a lack of budget for public rental dwelling units, the owner company, the UR Agency (hereafter referred to as UR) that has owned about 770 thousand public rental dwelling units in Japan, can conduct restoration work only for repairs and cannot facilitate a modern lifestyle for young people. It is also difficult for UR to obtain a renovation budget by raising the rent since old or low-income people live in the old dwelling units. One possible dwelling units renovation on a larger scale than simple repair work is DIY renovation. DIY renovation means that a resident prepares some tools and materials and then renovates his rental dwelling unit by himself. Under the current rental dwelling units rules, residents have to restore their rooms to the original state when they move out. However if the residents or NPOs were allowed to renovate the rooms at their cost in a more active manner, the dwelling units could be restored at a relatively moderate cost to a form that meets their own living needs

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Position and aim of project In previous studies on DIY, Ohno conducted a questionnaire survey and clarified the experience, motivation, labor hours, and cost (Ohno 2002). Yamazaki also conducted a questionnaire survey to identify what could be done, how DIY skills were learned, and where tools and materials were bought (Yamazaki 2001). These studies were based on the questionnaire surveys, while this study focused on actual construction to identify and analyze the conditions (cost and labor hours) and problems of the construction and to collect opinions about the construction results from actual residents. A renovation experiment was conducted in FY2010 for terrace houses of UR Nakamiya Daiichi Apartment Complex in Hirakata City, Osaka Prefecture (Otsubo 2007.). Students from 8 departments of 7 universities in Kansai area led the renovation experiment project of the existing dwelling units. The demolition of the apartment complex was already decided before the renovation experiment, and actually conducted about one month after the renovation experiment. Unlike the project in 2010, this project target is a rental apartment complex where people are still living. This project is also characteristic in that it aims to attract people’s attention to DIY renovation of the existing rental dwelling units by inviting them, as well as the residents, to the open rooms and that this project is followed by a residential experiment. Based on the analysis on the above previous studies, this study conducted a UR Free Style House (US-FSH) project in collaboration with UR to achieve the following goals: (1) A rental contract method that this project can be implemented is developed and a questionnaire survey about this project is conducted to collect opinions and evaluation data from the residents in surrounding areas and young people. (2) DIY renovation is conducted and the number of labor days, renovation cost, and renovation method are recorded. (3) After the renovation work, the rental dwelling units are opened to the public to collect opinions from the residents in the surrounding areas and the young people. Then a residential experiment is conducted. (4) From the above (1), (2) and (3) and through the process from the planning, designing, and renovation to the actual residential experiment, comprehensive knowledge about hardware and software problems and the feasibility of the project is acquired. Project method In this paper, the feasibility and problems of this project will be analyzed and evaluated in the following four stages. (1) UR Free Style House 1: Development of project plan -One rental dwelling unit in NT is selected after consultation with UR. Students make DIY renovation proposals suitable for the rental dwelling units for young people. -The rental dwelling units are opened to the public to collect new residents. Also, student proposals are exhibited on panels in the dwelling units to advertise the advantages of DIY to visitors. (2) UR Free Style House 2: Evaluation of the project plan -In order to identify any problems and determine the feasibility of the project, a questionnaire survey is conducted on visitors to the open rooms and to young people to collect information about their interest in UR-FSH and their evaluation. (3) UR Free Style House 3: Analysis of design and construction results -Based on the analysis of the above questionnaire survey results, we design the renovation of the dwelling units provided by UR for the experiments. -Under the advice and guidance of local builders, the students actually renovate the dwelling units. Details of the number of labor days, renovation cost, and construction method are recorded and problems are identified. (4) UR Free Style House 4: Evaluation of project results and residential experiment -The renovated dwelling units are opened to the public and the number of labor days, renovation cost, and renovation method are presented. A questionnaire survey and interview were conducted on young people and people living in surrounding areas to collect their opinions. -A residential experiment is conducted to collect opinions about the residential environment of the renovated dwelling units. Figure 1 shows the organizations and groups involved in this project research. Kozoji Newtown Regeneration Committee was established in April 2011 by university researches in Aichi Prefecture and surrounding areas who were Association of Urban Housing Sciences members of Chubu Branch, Association

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of Urban Housing Sciences. The Committee has held workshop meetings periodically (once in two weeks) with UR, Kasugai City government, youth group of Kasugai Chamber of Commerce, and NPOs. These study groups shared the research based on frequent discussions on the problems and future prospects of Kozoji NT.

Figure 1: Diagram about the organizations and associations related to this project. SYSTEM OF UR-FSH Location: Kozoji NT This project focuses on Kozoji NT located on a hill in Kasugai City, northeastern Nagoya City, the third most populated government-ordinance-designated city in Japan. Through the urbanization and rapid population inflow to cities in the postwar high economic growth in Japan, the population in Nagoya City area increased by 54% in 1950s and 1960s. In 1960, Japan Housing Corporation (currently UR Agency) planned Kozoji NT development to accept the population inflow and started a large-scale public town development. There is Kozoji Station of JR Chuo Honsen Line in the southern end of NT and National Route 19 on the northern side. The most characteristic part of the master plan is One Center System that consists of the city functions concentrated in a central area and the major streets along valleys. The number of dwelling units and houses in NT as of March 2010 was 21,838. Single-family houses occupied 42% and UR-owned rental dwelling units occupied 36%. Overview of UR-FSH UR-FSH is a project where students, the members of Kozoji NT Study Group, propose and realize living environments for young people by applying DIY to rental dwelling units provided by UR. DIY stands for Do it yourself. Namely, DIY encourages residents to make things or renovate rooms by themselves to change the residential environment in accordance with their own taste. Therefore, DIY renovation can meet the various needs of residents. In Japan, rental agreements for dwelling units usually contain an obligation to restore the dwelling unit to their original state. If this system is employed, residents in DIY renovated dwelling units will need to restore the rooms to their original state. So we eliminated this obligation from the rental agreements so that the residents could renovate their dwelling units by themselves in accordance with their taste. This project started by surveying the needs of young people and extracting keywords. Proposals made by the students based on the extracted keywords were carefully discussed with UR and finally seven proposals were chosen. At the same time, target dwelling units were looked for. In the early stage of the project, two residential buildings, one in Takakuradai and the other in Chuodai, were considered. Since the questionnaire survey made by Noumura et al., (Nomura 2013) showed that the youth placed greater importance on

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convenience in shopping and transportation, the residential building in Chuodai in the center where a shopping mall and elementary school were located was chosen as the target (Figure 2, Photo 1).

Figure 2: Position of residential building with the dwelling unit Photo 1: Appearance of the residential building. UR-FSH PROCESS This project took the following three steps to lower the expense for both the owner UR and the residents (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Flow of the project. STEP1: Primary construction for renovation from a dwelling unit with small rooms to a single-room dwelling unit UR conducts primary construction where the old dwelling unit with a dining room, kitchen and two other rooms were renovated to single-room dwelling units (Figures 4 and 5, and Photos 2 and 3). In this primarystage construction, the following renovation and repair works were performed. -Renovation of floors -Repair of bathrooms and restrooms -Transfer of intercoms and power outlet in the restrooms -Installation of hot water pipes in sink cabinet and rest rooms and use of water-stop caps

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-Wall, ceiling, sink cabinet, and room walls were not renovated but just cleaned. The concrete walls where there used to be a closet were left untouched.

Figure 4: Plan of the unit before renovation .

Photo 2: Interior photo before renovation .

Figure 5: Plan of the unit after renovation.

Photo 3: Interior photo after renovation.

STEP2: Open room and collection of DIY renovation room residents The renovated dwelling unit was opened to the public to collect a new resident. The seven DIY renovation plans proposed by the students were presented on panels in the open dwelling units to show the advantage of UR-FSH to visitors (Figure 6, Photo 4). The seven plans proposed various lifestyles for unique residents. Each exhibition panel explained about commercially-available products, the cost of materials and construction, and construction method in an easy-to-understand manner for ordinary people (Figure 7). Proposal-1

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Target: Painter Lifestyle: A wall is covered with wood panels so that the resident can paint on the wall canvas. Proposal-2 Target: Snooker Lifestyle: It is permissible to walk around with shoes on in half of the room space and the resident can use freely without any care about cleaning this area. Proposal-3 Target: Dress designer Lifestyle: A wall is covered with storage racks for the resident to show and store his/her clothes. Proposal-4 Target: Comic writer Lifestyle: Share room style where private rooms in the east and west side and a shared space in the center where they can work in collaboration. Proposal-5 Target: Scholar Lifestyle: A large blackboard is attached on a wall so that the resident can write his/her ideas and equations on it at any time when you come up with them. Proposal-6 Target: Musician Lifestyle: A soundproof room is installed so that the resident can play instruments without disturbing anyone. Proposal-7 Target: Cooking specialist Lifestyle: A large kitchen is installed to create a kitchen-oriented dwelling unit.

Figure 6-3: Proposal-1.




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Phot.4 State of the open room.

Figure 7: Part of the display panel of the proposal-1. STEP3: Formal application >>> Contract of DIY renovation

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A person who applies for rental agreement concludes a DIY rental agreement with UR. Since he/she needs to perform the DIY renovation at his/her own cost, the first three-month rent (51,200yen/month) is not charged to reduce his/her cost burden. If no application is received, unrenovated areas such as sink cabinets and interior walls are renovated according to the UR specifications and the dwelling units are sold as regular UR rental dwelling units on a first-come-first sold basis. Figure 8 shows the difference in financial contract between UR-FSH and the others. For private rental dwelling units, the party to the contract shall pay for initial expenses such as deposit, key money, and brokerage fee, and for monthly rent, common service expense, and renewal fee. For UR rental dwelling units, the party to the contract does not have to pay for key money, brokerage fee, or renewal fee as well as URFSH.

Figure 8: Comparison of financial contract among other rental dwelling units and UR-FSH. RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY A questionnaire survey on the above proposals was conducted on 67 visitors (male: 41, female: 26) to the dwelling units on the open room days (Figure 9). The most popular proposal was Proposal-2, which proposed a shoes-on space for about half of the room. In particular, Proposal-2 was popular to visitors in their 10s and 30s. The visitors in their 20s also chose Proposal-3 for dress designers and Proposal-6 for musicians. Visitors in their 30s also chose Proposal-5 for scholars. Visitors in their 60s or higher chose Proposal-7 for those who love cooking and tended not to choose Proposal-2, which indicates that they had resistance to the shoes-on space.

Figure 9: Relationship with each age and the proposal that you want to live multiple answers – up to 3).

SUMMARY

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UR rental dwelling units in Kozoji NT, which occupied about 40% of the dwelling units and houses there, faced problems such as the aging of buildings and residents and outflow of the young population. It was hence required to create an inflow of young people at a moderate cost. We made a proposal beneficial to both the UR Agency and the residents, where the owner UR Agency performed a semi-renovation of the multiple-room dwelling units to single-room ones at a moderate cost and the residents could stay in the dwelling units for free for the first three months. Another characteristic of the project was that the rooms could be renovated freely and did not have to be returned to their original states. This policy was to attract young people who have a variety of values. As a result, visitors who came to the open dwelling units praised the concept of the dwelling units and a few actually inquired about application for the DIY rental agreement. A request to make a DIY rental agreement in order to use the dwelling unit for work was rejected since the use of dwelling units for work did not meet the UR rule that allowed residential use only. In the next phase of the project, we will identify problems and find solutions by collecting opinions and evaluations about URFSH through questionnaire surveys conducted on visitors to the open dwelling units and on young people. REFERENCES

Nomura. N., 2014. ‘Consideration of regenerative method viewed from relationship between housing stock and distribution of facilities’, J. Archit. Plann., AIJ, Vol. 79 No. 697, pp. 677-684. Ohno, T., 2002. ‘A study on housing improvement and repair work for aging by elderly persons. A study on housing improvement and repair work by residents’, Part 3, J. Archit. Plann., AIJ, No. 555, pp.185-190. Otsubo, A., 2007. http://www.mukogawa-u.ac.jp/~a_otsubo/pdf/katsudou3.pdf Yamazaki, K., 2001. ‘The functions of home centers on promoting diy in housing maintenance: Study on the social aids for housing management’ (Part 2) , J. Archit. Plann., AIJ, no. 540, pp. 251-258.

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UR FREESTYLE HOUSE (PART 2) - POSSIBILITIES OF RENTAL UNITS BY MEANS OF DIY RENOVATION IN JAPAN Mr. Shin Murakami, Sc. of Life Studies, Sugiyama Jogakuen Univ., Japan, [email protected] Ms. Norie Kawano, Sc. of Life Studies, Sugiyama Jogakuen Univ., Japan, [email protected] Mr. Masanao Hattori, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya Univ., Japan, [email protected] Mr. Nobuyuki Nomura, Division of Business Administration, The NUCB Graduate School, Japan, [email protected] Mr. Eisuke Tabata, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya Univ., Japan, [email protected] Mr. Kazuhisa Tsunekawa, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya Univ., Japan, [email protected] Abstract This study is a continuation of the ‘UR Freestyle House Part 1’, Do-It-Yourself (DIY) revitalization project of existing rental unit in Kozoji Newtown. This paper surveys evaluations received from those with the potential to live there for the ‘UR Freestyle House’ (hereafter UR-FSH) Project framework and surveys their awareness of DIY. We also reveal the potential and issues of developing rental units that can have DIY in Japan based on the results of the survey. The survey method is a questionnaire for visitors who came to see the project unit and young people. The results of this survey are revealed as shown below. Those in their 20s have the most interest with more than 70% of respondents stating they wanted to live there. UR-FSH may promote young people to move into them as per the goals of the project. About 25% of the total had DIY experience. Over 80% of respondents felt uneasy about DIY constructions. Support after moving in is required to perform DIY construction. Keywords: DIY, rental units, renovation, evaluation. INTRODUCTION There is a need to improve old floor plans and update equipment today because of changes in lifestyle and needs. We focused on the potential for DIY in rental units and conducted the UR-FSH Project as a method of utilizing these residential stocks. The following are three features of this project: (1) The UR Agency as dwelling owners launches the primary construction of rental unit for modification to 1room type. (2) Those with rental leases will have DIY renovation performed thereafter at their own expense. This will result in no rent being charged for three months to reduce the burden of renovation costs. (3) There is no need to restore them to their original conditions when the occupants move out. Rented houses in Japan generally have a lease whereby DIY cannot be performed. Rental units have to be returned to their original condition when occupants move out in the event they have had renovation work done. DIY, however, is an effective means for owners to save renovation costs. We tested the DIY Project for rental unit as UR-FSH in Kozoji Newtown as shown in Part 1. Purpose 1 in this paper (Part 2) is to survey evaluations of the UR-FSH Project that has the features described in (1) to (3) above using a questionnaire. Purpose 2 is to survey the awareness of DIY using a questionnaire. We reveal the potential and issues in the development of rental dwellings that can have DIY in Japan as a result.

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METHOD OF STUDY Survey overview We conducted a questionnaire to achieve the purposes of this study. Project open house visitors and university students who may be future occupants were the subjects of the survey (Table 1). Visitors responded to the questionnaire after observing the open room. University students were first shown project photo slides. Then they responded to the questionnaire in the same way as the visitors. Table 1: Overview of questionnaire survey

Open room visitors

University students

Period Conducted

2012.11.10 - 2012.11.18

2012.12.20 - 2013.1.14

No. of Participants

67 (male 41, female 26)

242 (male 138, female 104)

Age

From 10s to 70s

From 18 to 24

Questionnaire survey items The main questions concerned details on evaluating the UR-FSH Project, as well as desire and interest in DIY (Table 2). Table 2: Survey items

Experienced with DIY? ・ Reasons for performing DIY ・ Interest in DIY Area of DIY experience ・ Desire to live in a DIY dwelling currently ・ Interest and reasons for interest ・ Some renovations you would like ・ UR Freestyle House ・ Specifics on renovations you would like Worries? ・ Desired support ・ 0%

20%

Students

Open room visiters

932

60%

68

7

8

10s Figure 1: Age of respondents.

40%

80%

100%

174

12

20s

16

30s

40s

13

50s

60s-

11



RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY Evaluation of UR-FSH 62% of visitors and 68% of students responded they “would like to live in UR-FSH” (Figure 2). The most cited reason to want to live there was “I can renovate the room to my liking though it’s a rental”. The next was “the fact that I am not required to restore it to its original condition is appealing” (Figure 3). The reason why students did not want to live there was “I don’t want to live in a 1-room apartment” (Figure 4). Some of the visitors and students, however, responded “the 1-room is appealing”. Student responses mostly revealed “I would only live there a short time” or “I am not that interested in DIY itself”.

0%

20%

40%

Students

60%

80%

163

Open room visiters

100%

77

38

23

Yes

No

Figure 2: Would you want to live in UR-FSH? 0

Three months of free rent is appealing

20

40

60

N=7 52

The fact that I am not required to restore the apartment to its original condition is appealing

19 63 12 53

I’m interested in DIY

25

I can renovate the rooms as I like though it’s a rental

I like 1-room apartments

127 8 25

Open room visiters Students

Figure 3: Reasons for wanting to live there (Multiple answers possible).

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80

100 %



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Open room visiters

3 months of free rent is not enough

10

I’m not that impressed that I’m not required to restore the apartment to its original condition

35 %

Students

3 3 1

I’m not that interested in DIY

22

I would only live there a short time

21 1

A traditional rental apartment is fine

9

*I don’t want to live in one room

N=23

Figure 4: Reasons for not wanting to live there (Multiple answers possible, *Students only). Percent of those with DIY experience & awareness of UR-FSH (visitor questionnaire) About 25% (74/309) of the total had DIY experience. Most of the experience with DIY was with Storage Furniture, Lighting Fixtures and Beds, Sofas and other Furniture in that order (Figure 5). There were only a few with experience in renovating their apartment in general. 53% of respondents also said “Yes” to the question if they would like to try DIY in the place they currently live. We learned that more than half of them had interest in DIY. Additionally, 70% of those in their 20s stated they wanted to live in a UR-FSH. The desire to live in one, however, dropped the older the person (Figure 6). Those in the 10 to 30s age bracket had little DIY experience, but they wanted to live in UR-FSH.

80% 70

Open room visiters

60 50

4 0

9 3

Storage Furniture

Door

Kitchen

Lighting Fixtures

Figure 5: Area of DIY experiences.

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6 10

1 3

3 1

2 3 Bath area

2 1

Toilet area

15 28

Sink area

3 2

Bed, Sofa and Other Furniture

4 7

Ceiling

3

Wall

N=1 Floor

40 30 20 10 0

Students



0

10

20

30

40 4

60s50s

50

60

70

80

%

5 9

4 8 8

40s 30s

8

2

128

20s

47

10s

44

N=8

want to live in UR-FSH DIY experience

Figure 6: Those that want to live in UR-FSH & percent of experience. Locations to renovate Majority of visitors and students wanted to renovate the “Walls” area (Figure 7). Most specific renovation (questionnaire expressions) was “add wallpaper” or “paint”. Higher percentage of visitors also responded “Furniture”. Most students said “lighting”. We learned that they have interest in renovation focusing on creating a certain atmosphere in the space with lighting rails and spotlights. 60%

Open room visiters

50

Students

40 30 20

7 90

25 72

8 27

5 34

6 40

Sink area

Toilet area

Bath area

Door

10 59

Furniture

5 41

Lighting Fixtures

6 40

Kitchen

24 121

Ceiling

N=12 65

Floor

0

Wall

10

Figure 7: Areas to renovate. Worries and desire for support (student questionnaire). 82% of students said they were worried about moving in there (Figure 8). 61% responded “Yes” to the question “Would you ask a contractor to do the work?” The main reason for the worries based on this was the DIY construction skills, with 56% of students shown to lack confidence in the skills (Figure 9). This may be associated with the very low percentage of those with DIY experience. 45% students who responded that they did not want to live in a DIY also stated they would “Change” their mind in response to the question “Would your desire to move into DIY change if there was sufficient support?” Thus, we learned that ample support is critical.

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3% 15% Yes N=198

No(37) No response(7)

82%

Figure 8: Do you have any worries about DIY? (student questionnaire).

60 %

N=137

50 98

40

30 56 20 10

13

0 DIY construction skills

Making time to do Place to do the work the work

Other

Figure 9: Specific worries (Students: Multiple answers possible). SUMMARY We evaluated the UR-FSH Project through a questionnaire survey for visitors and students. ･Those in their 20s had the most interest in the project, with more than 70% of respondents stating they would want to live there. The fact that they could renovate the rental units as they liked was felt to be the most appealing aspect. The highest percentage of respondents felt that they were “not required to restore the apartment to its original condition” was the most appealing among the features of the project. UR-FSH may promote young people to move into DIY rental dwellings as per the goals of the project. ･25% of all respondents had DIY experience. Over 80% of respondents stated they had worries about DIY. The younger generations who wanted to try living in UR-FSH had less DIY experience.

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DIY constructions are not as popular in Japan as overseas. Young people, however, have interest in DIY. We need to create a support system such as construction guidance after moving in order to utilize this stock of rental dwelling that is aging in Japan by allowing the occupants themselves to make improvements through DIY renovations.

REFERENCES Nomura. N., 2014. ‘Consideration of regenerative method viewed from relationship between housing stock and distribution of facilities’, J. Archit. Plann., AIJ, Vol. 79 No. 697, pp. 677-684. Ohno, T., 2002. ‘A study on housing improvement and repair work for aging by elderly persons. A study on housing improvement and repair work by residents’, Part 3, J. Archit. Plann., AIJ, No. 555, pp.185-190. Otsubo, A., 2007. http://www.mukogawa-u.ac.jp/~a_otsubo/pdf/katsudou3.pdf Yamazaki, K., 2001. ‘The functions of home centers on promoting diy in housing maintenance: Study on the social aids for housing management’ (Part 2) , J. Archit. Plann., AIJ, no. 540, pp. 251-258.

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ENERGY SAVING STRATEGIES FOR THE XUANCHENG OLYMPIC SPORTS CENTER DESIGN IN ANHUI PROVINCE, CHINA Lingling Li, School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China, [email protected] Mauro Caini, Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering University of Padua, Padua, Italy, [email protected] Giovanni Brugnaro, Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering University of Padua, Padua, Italy, [email protected] Naihua Yue, School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China, [email protected] Abstract From 2020, the Guidelines of the China Government require construction of new buildings with 65% energy saving compared to existing ones. This paper investigates how it is possible to reach that objective using the combination of two fundamental factors: the use of a specific planning methodology and the appropriate use of technologies containing integrated and innovative plant systems. The two key factors are developed by the authors in the design of the Xuancheng Olympic Sports Center located in the cold winter and hot summer region of China. The adopted planning methodology develops the principles of the bioclimatic planning which are verified through the analysis of the annual energy consumption of buildings designed. The aim is to maximize the winter sun radiation and, at the same time, to minimize the excessive summer solar radiation using innovative automated shading systems which are specifically developed for this project. Shading systems are considered as an integral part of enclosure system design, in order to reduce primary energy demand according to different plant solutions, to balance day-lighting requirements and to optimize visual and thermal comfort. To achieve the goal of nearly ZEB buildings, different innovative solutions of plant systems using renewable energy sources are adopted in different buildings such as 1) integrated photovoltaic panels connected to a heat pump with geothermal probes for heating and cooling; 2) Integrated solar panels for hot water production; 3) Integrated solar panels to provide energy to the absorption machine for the solar cooling and heating system. The design process control was carried out through the aid of dynamic energy simulation software such as DesignBuilder. The results show that design strategies adopted allow increase the level of interior comfort and the energy efficiency of buildings by the best use of climatic resources of the site. Keywords: Energy efficiency, solar screens, shading systems, lighting control, integrated simulation. INTRODUCTION Sustainability in architecture is an important chapter of environmental sustainability. Environmental sustainability is increasingly important considering the environmental conditions that are becoming more critical. The urgency of the economic problem related to the supply of energy to meet a model unsustainable is considered by experts as a structural limit of the system of development of world economies. The awareness of the importance that these issues have now and will have ever more in the future is already acquired. Regarding climate change, among the many causes is heavy air pollution. Future economic development and environmental protection can only be reached using the available energy in a different way, looking for new sources of energy, developing sustainable technologies and improving energy efficiency. Thus, even in building industry the energy issue assumes a leading position in the international economy and global sustainable development. The European Union for example, from 2020, with the 2010/31/CE Directive (EPDB 2010) requires member countries to construct new buildings to nearzero energy consumption (Nearly Zero Energy Building). The target of the Chinese government is the reduction of energy consumption of 65% for new buildings than existing buildings from 2020. Within this context, the experience of the proposed project aims to develop eco-friendly design criteria for the best use of renewable energy resources. The goal can be achieved by using different design strategies and different technologies, according to the different climate contexts, to take advantage in the best possible way of renewable energy resources. For instance, the research experiences carried out in northern Europe in recent years have been developed as the ‘passive house’ concept which provides a high-performance building envelope in order to create a complete isolation between interior and exterior. On the other hand, results of previous studies conducted

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by the authors show how design strategies that start from the interaction between the outdoor environment and the indoor comfort are preferable to use in the temperate zones of the boreal hemisphere (such as the Mediterranean area or Xuancheng area in China) and in the temperate zones of southern hemisphere (Caini, Paparella 2012). In these climates with alternating warm and cold seasons the optimum is to use the maximum of solar radiation in winter time through the windowed walls to reduce heat energy consumption, conversely in summer time to use shading in front of windowed walls to reduce cooling energy consumption (Brugnaro, Caini & Paparella 2013). This fact puts the façade at the centre of the energy reduction issue. In this perspective shading systems should be considered as an integral part of fenestration system design for buildings, in order to balance day-lighting requirements, to optimize visual and thermal comfort and to reduce primary energy demand (Nielsen 2011). The methodological design approach of the Olympic Park, located in Xuancheng in Anhui province in China, is the general objective. The exploitation of solar radiation adopting intelligent building envelope in the special climatic context of the case study to reduce heating and cooling energy consumption and to optimize daylight comfort is the specific target. THE CASE STUDY Plan of the Olympic Park Xuancheng is located in southeastern of Anhui Province, China, and known as the famous Garden City. To echo the geographical features and maintaining the original ecology of the natural environment, we chose to minimize the alteration of original landform in the design, retaining the hill and the river (Figures 1, 2). The whole center could be divided into five regions (Figure 3): 1) Waterfront Park area: The waterfront park is located at the eastern side of the base, originally is the paddy field which is relatively flat, so we designed it as the Waterfront Park area combined with fitness plaza services for National Fitness. 2) Natural river area: There is a seasonal river inside the base which runs through the north and south, we widened it and put some waterfront landscape along the river. The river could take good ventilation effect during the summer, and could also play a vital role for adjusting the micro-climate of the base. 3) Venues area: With hills behind and the river in front the four main venues are the most important components of the park, the four venues arranged into a strip along the river, just like a Chinese dragon. 4) Sports School Area: The northwest side of the base is flat, and it is also near to the sports training sites, so we use it as the sports school. 5) Mountain Park area: The terrain of southwest side is the mountain area, and we retain the original mountain and design it as the outdoor event spaces and fitness paths. The overall design of the program is based on the perspective of park, emphasizes harmony of the buildings and environment (Figure 4), it’s not the symmetry static relationships of traditional sports center, and we increased the natural elements like mountain, river, lake and so on in it, both of them show the charm of speed, uninhibited freedom, strength and coordination of sport, just like a Chinese traditional ink painting. Now the Olympic Park has become the symbol of Xuancheng City.

Figure 1: The position of Olympic Park in Xuancheng

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Figure 2: plan of the project of the Olympic Park


Figure 3: Site function zoning of the Olympic Park


Figure 4: Aerial view of the Olympic Park.

Sports school area Xuancheng belongs to the region of hot summer and cold winter in China, and the design strategy is to exploit the resources of climate of the place in order to reduce energy consumption leaving the plants a subsidiary role to provide the energy needed for comfort in winter and summer. Given the size of the project, in the following paragraphs we will show in detail the results of the strategies adopted just for the school building of the Sports School Area in the northwest side of the base, even if these results can be considered valid and obtained for the other buildings of the Olympic Park. The sports school area includes three main buildings: 1) in the south the school building for education, 2) in the east the building for student accommodation, 3) in the west cafeteria for students with spaces for physical activity for indoor training. Different innovative solutions of plant systems using renewable energy sources are adopted in these different buildings such as 1) integrated photovoltaic panels connected to a heat pump with geothermal probes for heating and cooling; 2) integrated solar panels for hot water production; 3) integrated solar panels to provide energy to the absorption machine for the solar cooling and heating system. The design development of the school building consists of four following cases: 1) Base case: it has been hypothesized the use of an envelope used in similar existing Chinese buildings. The energy for heating is supplied by coal boiler, for cooling is used fan coil. The lighting demand is supplied by electricity. The envelope is without solar shielding system and without lighting control; 2) First case: it has been hypothesized the use of an envelope with good performance of insulation such as exterior insulation and finishing system (EIFS) and low-emissivity double glazed. The energy for heating is supplied by a gas condensing boiler, for cooling is used fan coil. The lighting demand is supplied by electricity. Without solar shielding system and without lighting control; 3) Second case: it has been hypothesized the use of building management system with an envelope with good performance of insulation (EIFS) and low-emissivity double glazed, with dynamic solar shading system and with lighting control. The energy for heating is supplied by gas condensing boiler, for cooling is used fan coil; 4) Third case: it has been hypothesized the use of building management system with an envelope with good performance of insulation (EIFS) and low-emissivity double glazed, with dynamic solar shading system and with lighting control. The energy for heating and cooling is supplied by geothermal heat pump. The lighting demand is supplied by electricity. 5) Fourth case: it has been hypothesized the use of building management system with an envelope with good performance of insulation (EIFS) and low-emissivity double glazed, with dynamic solar shading system and with lighting control. The energy for heating and cooling is supplied by geothermal heat pump with integrated photovoltaic panels positioned on the roof. Therefore, to improve the energy performance of the building base case is necessary in the first phase to improve the energy performance of the building envelope. Because the building's south façade is principally transparent, it is necessary to adopt solar shading systems. With the support of technological advances of architectural components, design alternatives have shifted to utilizing dynamic fenestration and shading system to optimize the indoor comfort. Then it is designed a dynamic solar shading system in order to

940



reduce primary energy demand according to the solution of the plant system of the building, to balance day-lighting requirements and to optimize visual and thermal comfort (Figure 5). To obtain an automatic system, there is a highly efficient control software that can handle all the different technical components of the building. The system of building automation system controls and regulates the heating, cooling, lighting, air exchange system and solar screens. Thanks to this building management system it is possible to obtain high performance buildings and to create attractive solutions not only from the point of view of energy and of thermal and visual comfort but also interesting architectural solutions (Figure 6).

Figure 7: Dynamic solar shading system applied in the south facade in the open position and in the closed position.

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Figure 8: Different architectural expressions of the south facade by using a system of dynamic solar shading system. SIMULATION MODEL OF THE SCHOOL BUILDING Integrated simulation In this project, analysis were carried out using Design Builder that integrates the software Energy Plus, that is a state-of-the-art software tool for checking building energy developed in the U.S. Department of Energy and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Design Builder calculates heating loads necessary to maintain thermal control set-points and energy consumption of primary plant equipment (LBNL 2009). The cooling loads were not taken into account because they are not significant in the climate context of the case study. The day-lighting simulation is obtained using the Radiance daylight simulation engine developed by the Lighting Systems Research group at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. The daylight luminance level in a zone depends on many factors, including sky condition, sun position, photocell sensor positions, location, size, glass transmittance of windows, window shades and reflectance of interior surfaces (Tzempelikos & Athienitis 2007). The reduction of electric lighting depends on daylight luminance level, luminance setpoint, fraction of zone controlled and the type of lighting control (Lee & Selkowitz 1995). In this work, the software DIALux is adopted to define the specific power to install and to simulate the artificial lighting system determining the best energy light solution required in accordance with the respective national and international regulations. These programs are exploited to implement the integrated simulation of energy and daylight in an office building. The integrated simulation was conducted for the entire building. Energy consumption The total school building area is approximately 7040 m2 and the net conditioned building area is around 6400 m2. Table 1 contains input data on construction and plant system configuration for the simulation models of the different cases. In all cases analysed there are the following boundary conditions: • Heating set-point is 20 °C and the heating operation also has one preheat hour; • Safety factor used for sizing the heating system is 1.2 • Cooling set-point is 24 °C and the heating operation also has one preheat hour; • Safety factor used for sizing the heating system is 1.15 • Maximum natural ventilation rate through open windows is defined using minimum fresh air requirements per person. Setpoints for heating/cooling and air flow rates for mechanical ventilation correspond with requirements for class II in the European standard EN 15251:2007. Both heating and cooling systems are simulated as active during occupancy the entire year, therefore the system set-up would result in temperatures and air quality that always correspond to class II. These values are typical and are adopted to convert thermal loads to a source energy use. Construction

Case Base

First Case

Second Case

Third Case

Fourth Case

Heat transfer coefficient of exterior wall system (Uvalue)

2.071 W/m2K

0.316 W/m2K

0.316 W/m2K

0.316 W/m2K

0.316 W/m2K

Heat transfer coefficient of roof (U-value)

1.540 W/m2K

0.155 W/m2K

0.155 W/m2K

0.155 W/m2K

0.155 W/m2K

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Heat transfer coefficient of horizontal inferior enclose (U-value) Heat transfer coefficient of glazing (U-value) Visual transmittance of glazing (TL) Solar transmittance Solar shading system and lighting control

0.704 W/m2K

0.151 W/m2K

0.151 W/m2K

0.151 W/m2K

0.151 W/m2K

5.788 W/m2K

2.552 W/m2K

2.552 W/m2K

2.552 W/m2K

2.552 W/m2K

88%

72%

72%

72%

72%

82%

64%

64%

64%

64%

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Condensing boiler gas + BMS

HVAC

HVAC +Renewable

Plant System Heating system

Coal boiler

Condensing boiler gas

CoP for heating 0.7 0.95 0.95 4.0 CoP for cooling 2.7 2.7 2.7 4.5 Table 1: Input values defining simulation models of the different cases

4.0 4.5

Sizing method artificial lighting The study of artificial illumination is gone through with Dialux software. This software gives a detailed evaluation of the correct electric power demand to install in according to the DIN 18599-4 legislation. This legislation admits a detail engineering planning (that exploit a specific software Dialux) and other two simplified methods too. So, there are altogether three methods allowed by the DIN 18599-4 legislation: • Tabular method • Simplified utilization method • Detailed engineering planning The possibility of using a detailed method allows us to define more accurately the electric power demand which has to be installed through a 15% of power reduction compared to the other two methods mentioned above. The value of electrical power is dimensioned for each zone according to the intended use and in accordance with the regulations. According to the indications of the UNI EN 12646-1 legislation, in a classroom, for example, an average lightning has to be guaranteed a 300 lux on the horizontal work plane (0.8 m above floor) and a 500 lux in the vertical plane of the blackboard. The glare index should not exceed 19. Always in order to minimize the electric power requirements, and consequently to reduce consumptions, a direct illumination system has been adopted. This one is endowed with led lamps. The result achieved provides a power density of 6.25 W/m2 of the lightning system for one classroom. Approximate values of return air fraction, radiant fraction and visible fraction for overhead fluorescent lighting for recessed ceiling configuration are express in table 2. Input values Recessed ceiling Radiant fraction 0.37 Visible fraction 0.18 Converted fraction 0.45 a Source: Lighting Handbook: Reference & Application, 8th Edition, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1993, p. 355. Table 2: Input values defining surface mount. With these data obtained from the individual simulations it is possible to estimate, during the dynamic simulation, the energy demand spent to the artificial lighting for the different cases. From the second case, the lighting system is equipped with a system of continuous dimming. The artificial lighting is switched on when the lighting level is less than the minimum level required. The artificial light controller will fill up the gap increasing this own power when the natural light is decreasing. The lights switch off completely when the minimum dimming point is reached. Daylight luminance is calculated for different locales during the simulation.

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RESULTS Every single design decision was evaluated by performing an integrated analysis of the entire building. Any changes made to the physical and technical characteristics of the enclosure and the plant system was verified through the analysis of the energy demand, primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. As already described, the different input values for the different cases are used in the analysis of the energy demand of the school. The values of the annual energy demand of the net conditioned building area are expressed (Figure 7) in kWhe/m2 (electricity demand), kWhf/m2 (cooling demand), kWht/m2 (heating demand).

Figure 7: Comparison of the energy demands of the different cases. The energy demand of the building varies in the first three cases because it has gone from using a lowperformance enclosure with high heat loss (base case) to an enclosure with better performance (first case) to finally arrive to improve the energy performance of the transparent components using automated solar shading systems included in a building automation system (second case). In the last two cases, the energy demand is equal to the energy demand of the second case because the design changes affect only the plant typology. Then the request of energy to achieve the comfort level does not change. However, using ever more efficient plant solutions will increase the performance of the building in terms of reducing CO2 emissions expressed in kg/m2 (Figure 8). Finally, the analysis of the primary energy consumption was carried out to determine the primary energy savings obtained (Figure 9).

Figure 8: Comparison of CO2 emissions of the different cases.

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Figure 9: Primary energy consumption. In Table 3 are expressed, finally, the global consumption of primary energy expressed in kWh/m2year and the associated reduction in energy consumption compared to the base case. CASE kWh/m2y Percentage of reduction achieved Case Base 278 First Case 253 9% Second case 169 39.3% Third case 139 49.9% Fourth case 53 81.0% Table 3: Total energy consumption for the respective cases and primary energy savings achieved.

CONCLUSION This work shows how to achieve the results expected starting from a concept of bioclimatic design and, through the stages of technological development of the project, to make the best possible advantage from renewable energy resources to improve the energy efficiency of buildings reducing energy consumption and, therefore, significantly reducing the emission of CO2. A great improvement is achieved in passing from the first to the second case by introducing in design the building management system, with the use of dynamic solar shading system and with lighting control. In fact, as shown in Table 3, the percentage of reduction of energy consumption is increased from 9 % to 39,3 %. This implies the need to develop the solar shading system at the level of the final design, including design of the home automation control software. This is a stage of the design, particularly significant from the architectural point of view, (see fig. 6) in which the south facade takes different forms depending on the movement of the sun shield, which in turn it is designed to move in an automatic way to decrease the energy consumption. At this stage of design the technological design is at the service of architecture and sustainability. But a further result is obtained by passing from the second to the third case, with a further reduction of approximately 10% of the primary energy consumption. In this case it uses a more sophisticated system of plant consisting of geothermal heat pump. Finally, the objective of greater reduction of 65% compared to the base case is obtained by installing photovoltaic panels on the roof for the production of electricity with a reduction in both energy consumption and emissions of CO2 equal to 81%.

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REFERENCES Brugnaro, G, Caini, M & Paparella, R., 2013. ‘The contribution of the intelligent solar screen to the energy efficiency’, Conference Proceedings of CIB W115 Green Design Conference, Sarajevo, pp. 35-39. Caini, M & Paparella, R., 2102. ‘Design methodologies to construct sustainable buildings, in the Mediterranean area, based on the use of renewable resources integrated with the use of intelligent systems’, 4th SASBE 2012 International Conference on Smart Sustainable Built Environment, S. Paulo (Brazil), pp. 125135. EPDB, 2010. ‘Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Energy Performance of Buildings (recast)’, Strasbourg. LBNL, 2009. Energy plus manual, version 3.1, U.S. Department of Energy and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. California. Lee, E & Selkowitz, SE., 1995. ‘The design and evaluation of integrated envelope and lighting control strategies for commercial buildings’, ASHRAE Transactions, vol. 101, no. 1, pp. 326–342. Nielsen, MV., 2011. ‘Quantifying the potential of automated dynamic solar shading in office buildings throught integrated simulations of energy and daylight’, Solar energy, no. 85, pp. 757-768. Tzempelikos, A & Athienitis, AK., 2007. ‘The impact of shading design and control on building cooling and lighting demand’, Solar energy, no. 81, pp. 369-382.

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AN APPROACH TO REDESIGN FOR CHANGE: RESEARCH-BY-DESIGN Waldo Galle, ir. arch., Doctoral Fellowship of the Research Foundation Flanders – FWO, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, [email protected] Mieke Vandenbroucke, ir. arch., Doctoral Fellowship of the Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology – IWT, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, [email protected] Anne Paduart, dr. ir. arch., Post-doctoral researcher at the Transform research team, part of æ-lab, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, [email protected] Niels De Temmerman, prof. dr. ir. arch., chairman of the Transform research team, part of æ-lab, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, [email protected] Abstract The high environmental impact of construction is currently challenging conventional architectural practice. In reaction, the strategy ‘design-for-change’ has been put forward. Through the adoption of ‘interchangeable’ building components and ‘reversible’ connections, this alternative design strategy fosters both reuse and recycling. Consequently, it reduces the generation of construction waste and minimises the need for new resources. To date, it has been unclear how ‘design-for-change’ fits architectural practice; interviewees from the construction sector indicated multiple design-related impediments to its wider implementation. In order to find out if those impediments are well founded and how they can be overcome, we observed a conventional redesign process of an ongoing renovation. From our findings, we initiated the development of a practical approach to ‘redesign-forchange’. Based on our observations we could conclude that the redesign process does not differ substantially when adopting a ‘redesign-for-change’ approach. In contrast, ‘redesign-for-change’ holds the opportunity to coordinate multiple design levels and can guarantee long term quality for the user as well as commercial viability for the owner. From the development of the practical redesign approach we learned that ’design-for-change’ can bring more design options than those initially considered. Nevertheless, the evaluation of multiple design options remains a bottleneck. Life cycle analyses can be performed, but more user friendly evaluation tools are necessary. Furthermore, since ‘design-for-change’ is not common yet, the technical development was indicated as the most difficult part in our research-by-design. Keywords: research-by-design, design-for-change, adaptable building, design process. INTRODUCTION Sustainability and conventional architectural practice Conventional architectural practice is confronted more and more often by high environmental impact. Not only the facts and figures but also the policy that is currently pursued raises designers’ awareness and forces them towards new design approaches: approaches that tackle the environmental, social and financial burdens of construction (Servaes et al. 2013). In the EU-27 Member States, Croatia, Iceland, Norway and Turkey, the construction industry was responsible for 32 per cent of the 2.6 billion tonnes of waste generated in 2008. Although more than half of all construction and demolition waste is recycled (estimated 53 percent of 971 million tonnes generated in 18 EU Member States in 2006), observations in practice suggest that recycling is not evident yet and that the preservation of a materials’ quality is difficult to achieve (European Environment Agency 2012) For example, plasterboard waste can in theory be entirely recycled during the production of new boards. However, producers hardly collect plasterboard from existing buildings since generally boards are polluted with non-removable finishing layers or are demolished together with their supporting structure. (Billiet et al. 2012) The same has been observed for mineral wool (Billiet and Ghyoot 2012). Recycling is thus determined by the disassembly potential of building components as well as by their material’s properties.

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Design-for-change In order to facilitate the reuse and recycling of materials, buildings should not be designed as an end stage, but from a long term perspective (Brand 1994). When the design facilitates alterations, the building can be easily adopted during its service life; it can easily anticipate changing functional, technical and social needs and last much longer. Additionally, building components can be easily recovered and recycled or reused after a repair or upgrade (such as in Slaughter 2001 and Durmisevic 2006). To facilitate alterations, design strategies are required at multiple levels, including at building, component and material level (Debacker 2009; Dorsthorst and Kowalczyk 2002). First, buildings should be easy to adapt, for example by separating frame and infill. In this way, a variety of user preferences can be fulfilled by simply changing the infill whereas the frame remains. Second, it should be easy to disassemble building components in order to reuse them in the same or in another configuration. Therefore, reversible connections and compatible dimensions are essential. Third, building materials should be easy to separate according to their waste treatment. Technical materials should be recycled and biological materials should be biodegraded. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES Since the 1960’s, different design strategies and approaches have been developed to facilitate change (such as by Habraken 1961). Nevertheless, ‘design-for-change’ is still restricted to small-scale and specific applications, like temporary office buildings (Post 2012). To identify the impediments to a wider implementation, a qualitative survey of Belgian designers, contractors and producers was recently held (Vandenbroucke et al. 2013). Several of the problems that the interviewees stated can be linked to the design process. First, practical examples are missing and designers state they have insufficient conceptual and technical knowledge of ‘design-for-change’; it is an unknown practice. Additionally, several interviewees have the perception that it would restrict architectural freedom and result in inferior quality; some thought that conceptual and technical options are limited due to so-called ‘standardisation’. Second, designers note that a tool to quantify the ‘adaptability’ of a design and its financial and environmental burdens is not available. Moreover, ‘design-for-change’ seems an unrealistic goal to some of them: after all, requirements and regulation can evolve into the most unthinkable. On the other hand, designers expect that a hypothetic way of thinking about future needs will increase the complexity of the design and construction process. Third, there exists a large building stock with limited ‘adaptability’, initially not conceived for change. Considering such buildings, designers state that there are no convenient approaches to redesign-forchange. Additionally, designers state that there are not enough construction products available to realise an adaptable building. However, are these problems well founded and can they be resolved? In literature adaptable buildings are mostly examined in terms of their ‘adaptability’ (such as in Leupen et al. 2005). Literature on the design process of an adaptable building has not been found. In order to find answers, we had to analyse the design process of an ongoing renovation case. While the case was tackled in a conventional way by an architectural office, we developed an adaptable alternative and kept track of our own design process. DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE Context and original design The case we considered in our research is located in the Belgian municipality Zelzate, situated between the Ghent harbour and the Dutch border. The nine stories high apartment building was originally designed by Georges Bontinck (1903-1999). In 1961, Bontinck had been commissioned to design a social housing apartment block for 192 people. Up till today, all dwelling units are let, mostly to elderly people. (Meganck 2003)

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Building services, storage rooms and entrances are located at the basement and ground floor. The other eight floors contain 64 dwelling units. Each of both vertical circulation cores with separate entrances gives access to four units at each floor. Most dwellings units have two bedrooms; eight have one bedroom and another eight have three bedrooms.

Figure 1: The plan view of the first till eighth floor shows the existing organisation of the different dwelling units (Left). The plan view at the right zooms in at a two-room unit. At this moment the architectural office KPW Architecten is commissioned by the building’s owner, the Flemish Society for Social Housing (VMSW), to design a fundamental upgrade of the building. Ambitiously they stated in their initial design proposal: “This project is committed to develop a sustainable technical envelope and infill that serve a resilient building in interaction with its residents and neighbourhood.” Requirements The necessary updates to reach the current standards of VMSW (2008) on both building and component design level are defined in regard to: • • •

Optimal energy performance and comfort, Wheelchair accessibility, and Functional and comfortable spaces, including balconies.

Preconditions Some technical preconditions make this redesign a real challenge: • • •

Important thermal bridges at the existing balconies, Floor height of 2m45, and 2m10 under the beams, and Need for additional fire-resistant layers.

Additionally, practical issues set limits on the construction process’s organisation: • •

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Only eight apartments can be renovated at the time since residents are reluctant to move and there is limited capacity to relocate them during the refurbishments, and Due to local planning directives, which cannot be changed within the first few years, it is impossible to expand the building volume with new balconies.



Figure 2: The existing façade as designed in the 1960’s is characterised by continuous thermal bridges at each floor and window frames and infill panels of an inadequate insulation level © Birgit Vandevelde, OVAM 2014. A CONVENTIONAL DESIGN APPROACH VERSUS ‘DESIGN-FOR-CHANGE’ Our research started with the observation of the design process of the case in Zelzate, from problem statement in November 2013 till the first ideas on the technical development in March 2014. During three meetings and intermediate correspondence, we observed the different steps KPW Architecten undertook. Subsequently, we confronted each step with the relevant key aspects of ‘design-for-change’. The differences and difficulties we encountered gave us new insights into several problems that Vandenbroucke et al. (2013) had detected. First, the architects analysed objectively the building’s context and formulated renovation requirements in dialogue with their client and technical advisors. The way those objectives were weighted and tackled seemed however dependent on the architect’s individual approach. As a general example, let us consider the upgrade of the buildings’ energy performance: although it would be possible to upgrade the building to a nearly-zero-energy standard, the selection of the energy performance took into account all design aspects and tried to achieve an overall optimum. We can thus imagine that a ‘design-for-change’ introducing new aspects such as reversible connections would lead to other design choices. Second, a concept has been formulated that responds to the formulated requirements. KPW Architecten presented an ambitious plan with their initial design proposal, tackling both building and component level. In their proposal, the designers adopted the reconversion strategy of the architectural office Lacaton & Vasal as implemented in Tour Bois-le-Prêtre in Paris: a radical breakout of the dwelling units through the façade, expanding the rooms on continuous balconies, pre-assembled and mounted on an independent structure. At this point, adaptability could have been one of the ideas that constitute the design concept: no conflicts would occur at this level. Quite the opposite, ‘design-for-change’ fostering the reuse of materials, components and the building, could have highlighted the designers’ ambition to build sustainably.

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Figure 3: The plan view of the first till eighth floor shows the conventional design proposal with added external balconies (Left). The plan view at the right zooms in at a two-room unit. Last, the architectural concept was elaborated. During that elaboration, the stringent organisational and technical preconditions discussed in section ‘Description of the case’ became clear one after the other, e.g. the local planning directives making it impossible to expand the building with balconies during next few years. Consequently, from the architects’ perspective, it was no longer possible to adopt the overall strategy of Lacaton & Vasal. This led to the rephrasing of the initial ambitions: • •

Reorganise the dwelling units and improve the building accessibility, Refit the building skin, the apartment fit-out and all building services.

With the general concept, the integration of architectural and technical aspects was lost. From that moment, spatial and technical aspects were tackled as separate design questions, with individual requirements. On the one hand, the reorganisation aims at accessible, open and light spaces and focuses on the dwelling units’ lay-out. On the other hand, the refit has to achieve comfort and a minimal ecological impact and therefore focuses on construction components and materials. This fragmented design approach certainly has its merits: it offers a clear work flow and guaranties a feasible and predictable construction process. However, does this approach take into account possible conflicts between the two separate perspectives? And how are the different design levels, including building, components and materials coordinated? As stated in the introduction, buildings that are designed for change consider multiple design levels in order to enable an efficient reuse of the building, its components and its materials. By these means, we believe ‘design-for-change’ has the potential to integrate sustainable strategies at different design levels in a consistent way. Additionally, we could notice that the conventional design approach prevents some desirable adaptations in the future: even when local planning directives would change and allow an expansion of the building, the desired balconies would probably not be added since the costly new façade cannot easily be dismantled. In conclusion, a change oriented design approach is not substantially different than the observed design process. However, it could lead to alternative choices than a conventional approach would. Moreover, ‘design-for-change’ holds the opportunity to coordinate multiple design levels and guarantee short as well as long term quality. AN APPROACH TO REDESIGN-FOR-CHANGE Research-by-design The next step in our research was the evaluation of a design process that adopts the ‘design-for-change’ strategy. Therefore, a research-by-design has been undertaken: while developing an alternative for the case in Zelzate, we kept track of our own design process.

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The ‘design-for-change’ strategy brought us to a building with an adaptable and multi-use layout. However, we saw ourselves confronted with questions that were hard to answer. Nevertheless, we were able to detect generic strategies and develop a clear workflow that could be adopted by designers in other redesign cases. Our design process had this stepwise structure (Figure 4): • • •

First, analyse the existing situation, Second, define future needs in addition to requirements and preconditions, and Third, design for future change.

Step 1: Analyse the existing situation A profound understanding of the existing situation is essential for a successful redesign. A holistic technical, social, historical, economic and environmental analysis indicates to what extent the building and its components can and should be preserved and reused. This reuse is in advantage of smaller waste streams and a decreased demand for new materials. Additionally, the findings of this analysis form the basis of the definition of requirements, preconditions and future needs in the next step.

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Figure 4: This scheme of the adopted design approach can be used by designers when adopting ‘design-forchange’ as a sustainable design strategy.

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At the level of the building, the analysis is made for five different building layers according to Duffy (1990), Brand (1994) and Leupen (2006) as in Paduart (2012). •

The type of organisation of the access to the individual dwelling units e.g. corridor, core or gallery access

•

The type and extend of compartmentalisation of the load bearing structure e.g. bearing façade, parallel shear walls, frame structure or portal frame structure

•

The structural function and construction technique of the building skin e.g. light weight prefabricated curtain wall or in-situ built load bearing cavity wall

•

The type of organisation of circulation and building services e.g. dispersed or grouped in central cores or along the building’s skin

•

The type and construction technique of the dwelling unit’s space plan e.g. light weight infill wall or load bearing partitioning wall

Figure 5: Clear analyses, concerning the existing building, can be easily done by highlighting the individual building layers, e.g. load bearing structure, access and services. At the level of the building components, the evaluation criteria are the compatibility and durability of the individual components, the reversibility of their connections and the pace layering of their composition (Durmisevic 2006; Nordby 2009).

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Due to the irreversible way components are connected in Zelzate, it is not easy to disassemble and reuse them in the same or another configuration: concrete slabs and walls that are cast in situ, glued laminated flooring, window frames covered with plasterwork and sills that are fixed by cement mortar cannot be disassembled without damage. Step 2: Define future needs in addition to requirements and preconditions Requirements and today’s needs explain why the redesign is undertaken now. They can be both spatial and technical and serve multiple stakeholders, e.g. a better comfort and accessibility for the user, better energy performance for the owner and an improved relation with the street considering neighbours and the wider society. Additionally, preconditions give other relevant and important issues. They can be both technical and organisational. Traditionally, the definition of the requirements and preconditions is part of every design approach. For the case in Zelzate, they are explained in the section ‘Description of the case’. ‘Design-for-change’ does not mean that every imaginable alteration should be possible. Detecting likely and unlikely future needs can guide designers in making relevant decisions. This is known as scenario planning from business management and discussed by Brand (1994) and Ogilvy (2002). Future needs are set by experts, such as architects or urban planners, in discussion with the involved stakeholders (investor, owner, user…). These experts are invited to analyse the social, economic, technologic, politic and cultural context of the building and formulate in which way current challenges might evolve. If likely future needs are not taken into account during design, they can cause social, economic and environmental problems in the near future. Anticipating those changes can have an important positive impact and are therefore examined in depth during design. In our case, the likely future needs determined by the authors, the designer and the representatives of the Flemish Society for Social Housing are: Concerning function, capacity and user type: • • •

If elderly residents require care, an extra bedroom for a resident carer or local medicine facilities are desirable, If larger families want to move in, refit and extensions of the existing dwelling units are required, and If local planning directives change and an extension of building volume will be allowed, balconies, as proposed in de original design proposal, should be built.

Concerning energy and technical performance, comfort and trends: • • •

When new technologies prove to offer financial benefits such as solar shading or solar panels, their integration should be easy, fast and cheap, At regular times, maintenance and refit of appliances and their distribution systems are needed, this should be as easy as possible, In addition, alteration of the interior finishing, space plan and furniture might be required.

Unlikely future needs could have an important impact as well, however because their likeliness is far smaller, the risk they represent is estimated lower according to the proportional risk-assessment technique (Marhavilas et al. 2011). Therefore, they should not be considered with the same priority as likely needs. An example of an unlikely future need could be to hand over the complete responsibility on the energy performance to the user, including his energy consumption as well as insulation levels and the economy of appliances. Expressing new challenges, such unlikely needs help us to choose between equivalent design alternatives. When for example, two alternatives fulfil all likely future needs, but only one fulfils the unlikely future needs, it is preferable to select the latter. Step 3: Redesign-for-change After analysing the existing situation and defining future needs in addition to requirements and preconditions, the redesign for change can start. Our redesign approach has three subparts. Step 3a: Design building frame and infill

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The selection of the frame (Leupen 2006) (i.e. the permanent part of the existing building that remains unaltered and in which change can take place) can be based on the following questions: which parts of the building layers can fulfil the defined requirements preconditions, and the likely and unlikely future needs? Can access, load bearing structure, building skin, building services and space plan be preserved and entirely reused, or should they be altered or demolished? Two rules are formulated in this paper: • •

Reduce the amount of generated waste and thus minimise initial financial, environmental and social burdens, and Pursue polyvalence and thus minimise future financial, environmental and social burdens.

These two rules can however be contradictory: to what extend should polyvalence be pursued without generating more waste and costs than necessary? As an example we developed three options in figure 6. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) might guide this decision (Debacker 2009, Paduart 2012). However, designer-oriented and user friendly tools to evaluate these different options are currently lacking. Moreover, the software tools that are generally used for LCA and LCC are not suitable for the dynamic nature of adaptable buildings. Though, considering the future needs we defined, the conservative option was found to be a good balance between generated amount of waste and possible plan changes at first glance. The conservative option generates the smallest amount of waste of all three and the frame doesn’t hinder the accessibility and room size changes. Step 3b: Design the grid and adjust the frame The different building levels should be adjusted to each other to foster reuse. The coordination of building and components can be achieved by selecting a design grid. This grid should not introduce standardised and restricting building elements, but generic components such as profiles, plates and blocks that can be easily combined to different configurations (Debacker et al. 2008).

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Figure 6: Sketching three different options during the design of the permanent frame allowed getting a clear overview of the advantages and drawbacks of each option.

Figure 7: After a few iterations, it was possible to set a grid that fits the selected frame. That grid coordinates the different design levels and consequently fosters future reuse. Possible grids are multi-modular grids, fractal grids or a combination of both. A multi-modular grid defines different modules for different levels and layers, e.g. 5 cm for components, 60 cm for the space plan and 240 cm for the load bearing structure. A fractal grid starts from one module and halves or doubles that module as much as needed. Other sizes, for instance 30 cm, can be composed out of two sequential ones: 10 and 20 cm. The grid has to fit the selected frame as much as possible. It can be useful to test multiple grid sizes and types before you find a suitable one. Once the grid is set, the frame can be adjusted if needed and technically possible, e.g. wall openings can be widened and space dividing walls can be shortened to fit the grid and the components that will be designed or selected. In our case a multi-modular grid was selected: 5cm, 15 cm, 45 cm, 90 cm and 270 cm. Similar as in the previous step, it was hard to decide to what extend alterations should be made in favour of a generic frame that is as compatible as possible with most building components. Step 3c: Design or select the adaptable construction components In this third subpart, the technical detailing op the building components is developed. Compatible components for space plan and finishing, windows, façade cladding, furniture and technical services should be designed based on the selected frame and grid. Several criteria that have been set out in previous research guide this step (Paduart et al. 2013), including: • • • •

Reversible connections for recovering components and easy alterations, Durability of components and connections fostering reuse, Compatibility of generic components fostering reuse, and Manoeuvrability of components and connections fostering alterations.

Figure 8: As an example, an adaptable inner space plan wall has been developed that fits the selected grid. It is built from generic, not standardised components.

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We have noticed that products with reversible connections for residential buildings are currently lacking or difficult to implement in the case. For example, in the Netherlands much research was done in the field of dry floor systems including wiring and ducts (such as by Harsta 2005), but those products cannot be implemented in this case due to the limited floor height. Additionally, other products are not adjusted to the chosen grid or are not compatible with other products. At this moment, there are not many reference details of adaptable walls, floors, etc. and there are no overall catalogues with compatible components for the residential building sector. This makes the technical development of the design the most difficult part in this research-by-design. Therefore, we suggest to start with conventional products and to adapt them to interchangeable components connected in a reversible way.

CONCLUSION The goal of this paper was to find out if the impediments to a wider implementation of the design strategy ‘design-for-change’, indicated by interviewees from the construction sector, are well founded and how they could be solved. Therefore, we analysed the design process of a redesign case and proposed an alternative approach. In conclusion, we connect our findings to the stated problems. One of the stated issues was the lack of practical examples and knowledge. However, several references of this paper present completed newly built adaptable cases. Existing buildings that are redesigned for change could not be found. Furthermore, it is a general perception that adaptable building would restrict architectural freedom. However, our case shows that ‘design-for-change’ opens up even more design alternatives than those that were initially considered. Actively informing designers and clients on this sustainable strategy and illustrate its potential could overcome this problem. The surveyed people also mentioned that evaluation tools for ‘design-for-change’ and its effects are unavailable. Indeed, it is difficult to measure a building’s ‘adaptability’. However, several series of criteria guided us in detecting our case’s ‘adaptability’ at multiple design levels. Additionally, life cycle analyses can be performed to evaluate the long term impact of design decisions. Nevertheless, further development of user friendly evaluation tools is necessary. Another indicated problem was the perception that ‘design-for-change’ is an unrealistic goal: conditions might evolve into the most unthinkable. In addition, a hypothetic way of thinking is expected to increase the complexity of the design. Fortunately, scenario thinking has proved to be an easy and valuable tool during our redesign process. Several interviewees mentioned that there are not enough interchangeable products on the market. Besides, the perception exists of reduced constructional and physical properties. As the technical detailing for ‘design-for-change’ is not common yet, the technical development was indeed indicated as the most difficult part in our research-by-design. Consequently, we propose that like designers and clients also product developers should be involved in this discussion. Finally, according to the polled people, there are no common adaptable solutions for existing static buildings. However, with the framework that has been developed, we hope to guide designers and show them that they do not need standard solutions. In other words, the adopted design approach can be used as a design tool. AKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research has been done in the context of the research project ‘Design-for-change: developing a framework for policymaking and assessing' commissioned by the Public Waste Agency of Flanders (OVAM) and was made possible by the support of the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO), the Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT) and the Brussels Institute for Research and Innovation (Innoviris).

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REFERENCES Billiet, L & Ghyoot, M., 2012. ‘Glaswol’, A+ 78–79. Billiet, L, Ghyoot, M & Gielen, M., 2012. ‘Gipsplaten’, A+ 86–87. Brand, S., 1994. How buildings learn: what happens after they’re built, Penguin Books, London. Debacker, W., 2009. ‘Structural design and environmental load assessment of multi-use construction kits for temporary applications based on 4dimensional design’, Doctoral thesis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels. Debacker, W, Henrotay, C, Paduart, A, Elsen, S, De Wilde, W.P & Hendrickx, H., 2008. ‘Four-dimensional design: from strategies to cases, generation of fractal grammar for reusing building elements’, International Journal Ecodynamics, no. 2, pp. 258–277. Dorsthorst, BJH & Kowalczyk, T., 2002. Design for recycling, in Design for Deconstruction and Materials Reuse, CIB, Karlsruhe, Germany, pp. 71–81. Duffy, F., 1990. ‘Measuring building performance’, Facilities, no. 8, pp. 17–20. Durmisevic, E., 2006. ‘Transformable building structures: Design for disassembly as a way to introduce sustainable engineering to building design and construction’, Doctoral Thesis, Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft. European Environment Agency, 2012. The European Environment: state and outlook material resources and waste - 2012 update. EEA, Copenhagen, Denmark. Habraken, NJ., 1961. De Dragers en de Mensen, het einde van de massawoningbouw, Scheltema & Holkema NV, Amsterdam. Harsta, A., 2005. Flexibele leidingvloeren in de praktijk, SBR, Rotterdam. Leupen, B., 2006. Frame and generic space: A study into the changeable dwelling proceeding from the permanent, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam. Leupen, B, Heijne, R & Zwol, J.V., 2005. Time-based architecture: Architecture able to withstand changes through time, 010 Publishers, Amsterdam. Marhavilas, PK, Koulouriotis, D, & Gemeni, V., 2011. ‘Risk analysis and assessment methodologies in the work sites: On a review, classification and comparative study of the scientific literature of the period 2000–2009’, Journal Loss Prev. Process Ind., no. 24. Meganck, L., 2003. ‘Geo Bontinck’, in A. Van Loo (Ed.), Repertorium van de architectuur in België van 1830 Tot Heden, Mercatorfonds, Antwerpen, pp. 164–165. Nordby, AS., 2009. ‘Salvageability of building materials’, Doctoral Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim. Ogilvy, JA., 2002. Creating better futures: Scenario planning as a tool for a better tomorrow, Oxford University Press, New York. Paduart, A., 2012. Re-design for change: a 4 dimensional renovation approach towards a dynamic and sustainable building stock, Doctoral Thesis, Vrije Universiteit, Brussels. Servaes, R., 2013. Case study ontwerp van gebouwen in functie van aanpasbaarheid: Mahatma Gandhiwijk Mechelen, VITO, WTCB, VUB & KU Leuven, Brussels. Post, 2012. XX Architecten, http://xxarchitecten.nl.

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Servaes, R, Allacker, K, Debacker, W, Delem, L, De Nocker, L, De Troyer, F, Janssen, A, Peeters, K, Spirinckx, C & Van Dessel, J., 2013. Milieuprofiel van gebouwelementen, OVAM, Mechelen. Slaughter, E.S., 2001. ‘Design strategies to increase building flexibility’, Build. Res. Inf, 29. Vandenbroucke, M, De Temmerman, N, Paduart, A, & Debacker, W., 2013. ‘Opportunities and obstacles of implementing transformable architecture’, Proc. of the Int. Conf. Portugal SB13, School of Engineering, University of Minho, Guimarães. VMSW, 2008. Concepten voor sociale woningbouw: leidraad voor bouwheer en ontwerpers, VMSW, Brussels.

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ACTION TO LONG-LIFE QUALITY HOUSING IN JAPAN –DURABILITY OF THE METAL JOINTS OF WOODEN HOUSES Hiroki Ishiyama, Chubu University, Japan, [email protected] Abstract Recently in Japan, there is a lot of R&D about long-life quality housing. In this paper, I focus on the action to longlife quality housing (LLQH), especially to durability of the metal joint of wooden houses. In Japan, the Act on the Promotion of Popularization of Long-life Quality Housing came into effect in June 2009. Based on this act, over 300,000 units were certified as LLQH by July 2009. The standards of LLQH are – Construction durability, Earthquake resistance, Adaptability, Maintenance, and Fit for the elderly. The technological background of these is based on General Technology Development Project of Ministry of Construction in 1980s, with cases collected and organized by durability subcommittee of the comprehensive verification project of Wooden Long-Life Quality Housing, which was a subsidized project of MLIT from 2006. There are 7 themes in this project - Study of Degradation external force, study of durability of preservative chemicals in wood, study of inspection data of new and old housing, evaluation of strength of the joints when wood decays, evaluation of durability by the simulation of dew condensation, study of the durability of the metal joint, and study of maintenance. In order to establish appropriate durability criteria, we need the information of degradation rates and structural performance when the parts are degraded. The information was obtained through exposure tests of metal plates on the preservative woods and structural tests of nails with rust in the woods. With the information, we concluded that the nail with the rust on the surface is stronger than the nail without the rust, and when the rust grows, failure mode changes and strength is reduced. Keywords: wooden structures, long-life, metal joint, durability, degradation. INTRODUCTION In Japan, since the 200-year housing vision policy was recommended in 2007, a lot of research and development about maintenance and durability of building materials has been made. Since 2009, the Act on the Promotion of Popularization of Long-life Quality Housing (LLQH) came into effect, more than 30 million units were LLQH certified by July 2012 due to incentives such as mortgage benefits and tax breaks. According to this law, LLQH are houses with equipment and structures qualified as long-term-use structures. And long-term-use structures consists of the following 5 factors: 1. Construction durabilty (Countermeasure for deterioration of structural frame) Houses which have important structural elements and rainwater barriers applied with countermeasures for corrosion, decay, and wearing. 2. Earthquake resistance Houses which have important structural elements applied with countermeasures for earthquakes in order to ensure good condition in the long-term. 3. Adaptability Houses which have structures and equipment changeable in order to have their phyical functions accomodate aging of their residents and changes in the way the residents use the building. 4. Maintenance and updating Houses which were properly maintained and updated. 5. Elderly measures Houses which were built with the convinience and security of the elderly in mind.

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This long-term-use structure is based on the Japan Housing Performance Indication Standards in the Housing Quality Assurance Act which came into effect in 1999. And the Japan Housing Performance Indication Standards is mainly based on the Development of technology for improving durability of the building, which was conducted by the Ministry of Construction since 1980. In other words, the technical background of these long-term use structures is subject to the construction method, knowledge, and external factors of more than 30 years ago. Many criteria need to be revisited, especially the criteria concerning durability of the metal joints, which was not well defined due to the fact that metal joints were considered as non-structural elements at that time. But in 2000, the Building Standards Law was revised, and the metal joints were reclassified as structural elements. COMPREHENSIVE VERIFICATION PROJECT OF WOODEN LONG-LIFE QUALITY HOUSING Therefore, we decided to collect the technical information about countermeasures for degradation and to make necessary arrangements as a technical basis for LLQH about the following matters. 1. To investigate external forces that cause degradation. a) To create a termite distribution map: to examine in detail the reality of the northern living limits of termite, and to reveal the distribution of various termites. b) To create a decay risk map: to collect the damaged timber from various parts of the wooden house in order to identify the perpetrator fungus to wooden housing by genetic analysis. 2. To investigate durability of preservations. a) To derive methods of accelerated tests: in order to evaluate the durability of the preservation chemicals. b) To evaluate durability: to measure the residual concentration of active ingredients in the preservation chemicals after the accelerated test, and to get the basic data of the lifetime assessment of the preservation chemicals. 3. To survey the conditions of the houses of both existing and new constructions. a) Case collection: to collect cases of accident of new construction methods. b) To revise standards for new construction methods based on a). 4. To evaluate the deterioration of strength by the joint model test. a) Deterioration test of the joint model: to accelerate degradation of the metal joint model by fungus and termite, and to reveal the strength by the strength test. b) Repair criteria: to determine the relationship between the deterioration index by non-destructive tests and structural performance tests, and to determine the repair criteria in the maintenance of existing houses. 5. Durability evaluation of various construction methods by the simulation of condensation. a) Verification of allowable humidity: to determine the relationships between the fixing time of fungus and humidity, and frequency of wet and dirt by the model test. b) Condensation simulation: to obtain quantitative measures of acceptable moisture amounts for the structure by condensation simulation. c) Installation of attic ventilation: to determine the relationships between the way of installing the attic ventilation and the condensation hazard. 6. Durability of the metal joint and metal connector. a) To organize existing knowledge: to investigate the standards of anti-corrosion in Europe and the United States. b) Exposure test: to conduct the outdoor exposure test, wet exposure test, and the high humidity exposure test to various surface-treated metal plates on various preservative treated woods. c) To organize the information for the new standards of the metal joint. 7. Maintenance of LLQH. a) Ways of maintenance: to evaluate inspection period, inspection points, and inspection method theoretically and empirically

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EXPOSURE TEST TO THE SURFACE-TEATED METAL PLATE ON THE PRESERVATIVE TREATED WOOD Figure 1 shows the necessary examination content for the durability of the metal joint and metal connector (Service class in Figure 1 is in accordance with Eurocode 5. Table 1 shows one of the surface-treatment for the metal connectors in Eurocode 5). In other words, in order to discuss the durability of the metal joint or connector, it required both the information about the corrosion rate under some environment and the information about the structural performance of the metal joint or connector with some rust. Structural!performance!when! the!metal!joint!rust!

Corrosion!rate! Outdoor!exposure!test! (Service!class!3)!

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Performance!of!nail!

High!humidity!exposure! test! (Service!class!2)!

Performance!of!plate!

Dry!exposure!test! (Service!class!1)!

Durability!of!the!metal!joint!

Figure 1: Durability of the metal joint Table 1: Surface-treatment for the metal connectors in Eurocode 5 Fast ener

1

Ser vi ce Cl ass 2

3 Fe/Zn25c Z350

Nai l s and Screws wi t h d 4mm

None

Fe/ Zn12c Z275

Bol t s, dowel s, nai l s and scr ews wi t h d＞4mm

None

None

Fe/Zn25c Z350

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Fe/ Zn12c

Fe/ Zn12c Z275

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Punched met al pl at e f ast eners and st eel pl at es up t o 3mm t hi ckness

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St eel pl at es f rom 3mm up t o 5mm i n t hi ckness

None

Fe/ Zn12c Z275

Fe/Zn25c Z350

St eel pl at es over 5mm t hi ckness

None

None

Fe/Zn25c Z350

Ser vi ce cl ass 1 i s charact eri sed by a moi st ur e cont ent i n t he mat er i al s cor r espondi ng t o a t emper at ur e of 20 ℃ and t he rel at i ve humi di t y of t he sur r oundi ng ai r onl y exceedi ng 65 % f or a f ew weeks per year . Ser vi ce cl ass 2 i s charact eri sed by a moi st ur e cont ent i n t he mat er i al s cor r espondi ng t o a t emper at ur e of 20 C and t he r el at i ve humi di t y of t he sur r oundi ng ai r onl y exceedi ng 85 % f or a f ew weeks per year . Ser vi ce cl ass 3 i s charact eri sed by cl i mat i c condi t i ons l eadi ng t o hi gher moi st ur e cont ent s t han i n ser vi ce cl ass 2.

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Therefore, in this project, we determine the corrosion performance of the surface-treated metals on the preservative treated wood in the environment as service class 2 or 3 in Eurocode 5. Figures 2,3 and 4 show the exposure test. In outdoor exposure test (Figure 2) and wet exposure test (Figure 3), the surface-treated metal plates on the preservative treated wood by the screws are used. In high humidity exposure test (Figure 4), the surface-treated metal plates between the preservative treated woods are used. Figure 5 shows the result of 1 year later. The scores are based on the 5-point scale (1: No change, 2: Discoloration, white rust, 3: Small amount of red rust, 4: Red rust less than 30%, 5: Red rust more than 30%). As a result, the following was provided. 1) The metal plates corroded remarkably on the preservative treated wood which contained copper. 2) The metal plates corroded less on the surface-preservative treated wood. 3) Rust resistance ability of the composite-surface-treated metal was high level. 4) The metal plates were easier to rust in high humidity exposure test than wet exposure test, and were easier to rust in wet exposure test than outdoor exposure test.

Figure 2: Outdoor exposure test

Figure 3: Wet exposure test

Figure 4: High humidity exposure test

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Load（kN）

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Zn8Cr6

1.2

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35

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF THE NAIL WITH THE RUST Nailed joints supposed to be used in the shear walls of wooden houses were exposed in high temperature and humidity in order to accelerate rust development on the nails. And the shear tests were conducted on the deteriorated specimens in order to confirm the structural performance of the nail with the rust (Figure 6). Load-displacement curves obtained from the shear tests are shown in Figure 7. Group A (no rust) indicated approximately constant readings, from about 5mm to about 25mm with stick-slip. Group B (weight remaining ratio 98%) indicated that the load increased until about 20mm, and the maximum load was higher than that of group A. The load of Group C (weight remaining ratio 74%) and D (weight remaining ratio 61%) didn’t increase so much.

Figure 6: Shear test on the deteriorated specimen

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475

J apanes e cedar 105 105 475

Pl ywood ( t 9）

425

Nai l s （ N50

4）

Scr ew L65

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J apanes e cedar 105 105

Specimen!

Accelerate&to&rust!

Shear&test!

Figure 7: Load-displacement curves of the shear test CONCLUSION Efforts concerning the development of the technical background of LLQH, especially the recent efforts on the durability of the metal joint in wooden housing, was introduced. Knowledge about the durability of the metal joint in wooden housing is still little, but I hope that in the future, more studies can be made. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Parts of this study was performed as one part of ‘metal joint research task group, durability subcommittee, comprehensive verification project of Wooden Long-Life Quality Housing’, the subsidized project by MLIT. I would like to thank the people involved.

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THE OLD BUILDINGS REUSE DESIGN BASED ON THE REPRODUCTION OF PLACE SPIRIT Zhang Shanshan, Dong Xu, Zhang Xinyu, Harbin Institute of Technology, China, [email protected] Abstract The paper takes old building renovation as the research target, sets foot in the rebuilding of the place spirit, analyzes and researches the profound connotation and functions of old building renovation from such three aspects as territoriality, historical context and social emotions etc., expounds the molding methods and expression methods of the place spirit from the perspectives of restructuring and division of spatial space of buildings, optimization of detailed form and quality of the spatial landscape and solves the contradictions of design between human beings and buildings, environmental history and reality and inheritance and innovation to realize rejuvenation of old buildings in the place spirit of restructuring of territoriality and the sense of belonging. Keywords: place spirit, old buildings, design renewal. INTRODUCTION Urban construction in the 21st century will transfer from the age of “building” to the age of “maintenance and management” (Hao 2006, p. 10). The increasingly converging city blocks and space will be reshaped through old building reuse. With accelerated urbanization and drastic increase of urban construction scale and space scale of China, more and more old buildings begin to face the current status of destruction, abandonment and removal (Yi 2003, p. 12). Social, economic and cultural changes of cities inevitably give rise to the replacement of new and old stuff in the area. Urban development is changing the past urban texture and street pattern (Di 2004, p.11). Historical blocks are progressing towards decline because of lack of protection and meanwhile the space of cultural traits bearing the history of the cities in the area is gradually withering away. The original culture and biological pattern of the cities are facing grim test, the shallow urban culture is being replaced by the fixed form of reinforced concrete and the urban characteristics are becoming ambiguous and converging. Developing engineering construction focusing on old building updating and reuse constitutes an important road to sustainable development of the city. Schurz, the writer of Existence, Space and Architecture, held the view that, only when people experience the significance of place and the environment will they know the concept of “living” which indicates the space, namely the place of living. However the objective of the existence of architecture is to turn the abstract, characterless, identical and homogeneous ‘site’ to the true and specific ‘place’. People pursue their memory, experience the materials, shapes, mechanisms and space of the old buildings and incur the cultural association to form the uniqueness of each building (Figure 1). The more and more people from the architectural circles in the 21st century have begun to call the true meaning of architecture, which is just the importance attached to the place spirit which is as pivotal for the old building reuse as the soul (Qing 2009). Exploration and research of the shaping methods and expression methods of the place spirit can solve the conflicts between human beings and architecture, environmental history and reality as well as inheritance and innovation so as to realize rejuvenation of old buildings in the place spirit of restructuring of territoriality and the sense of belonging.

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a. Louvre b. British Museum Figure 1: Old and new building areas in concert. CONNOTATION AND APPLICATION MODE IN OLD BUILDING REUSE Source and connotations of the theory of place spirit The Theory of Place Spirit sourced from the research of architecture phenomenology, which was brought forth by Norwegian architecture theorist Cristian Norbert Schurz in his book The Genius Loci in the late 1970s. The book researches the relationship between human beings and the environment and between architecture and place and integrates architecture and environment into a concept of place, holding that what people need is not merely architecture itself but the space and actions happening in the architecture. Therefore, different behaviors and architectures form different atmospheres which we call the “Place Spirit” (Genius Loci). He also mentioned that, “The place spirit we call today is nothing but the different features of different places recognized by the people living in ancient times. The features are so strong that they decide the basic property of people’s intention for the environment, which makes people believe they belong to this place” (Christian 1971, p. 54). People’s experience of the surrounding environment is primarily displayed in perception, cognition and identification which are shifted into architectural experience in architecture and establish close contact with the environment through the elements of architecture such as the space and the color, the formal beauty, the ray of light and the material texture etc. (Rasmussen 1964, p. 134). People develop the comprehensive cognition of architecture through the comprehensive perception of architecture and the environment, associated judgment, logic comparison, conclusion and integration so as to establish the sense of belonging and the sense of security for the place. In the macroscopic term, the birth of the sense of belonging is the basic need of the people for the existence and the product of people’s psychological and mental requirements and desires. In microscopic terms, the sense of belonging is also the reaction of the psychological and emotional reaction of people after the perception of the people. When people establish close contact with the surrounding environment, a sense of belonging is naturally generated. Consequently exploration into the place spirit of architecture shall link people, architecture and the environment together, stress the unity of the people and the environment and elaborate on the connotation of place spirit from the angles of historic culture, territorial space and social significance so as to carry forward and create the place spirit of sense of belonging. The pattern and significance of the place spirit in old building reuse Old building reuse is restricted by numerous factors, such as the shape, function and structure of the original architecture etc. So after understanding the basic concept of the place spirit, it is necessary to grasp the fundamental information of the architecture in its entirety and take the place spirit as the scale plate and measurement to evaluate the effects of old building reuse (Figure 2).

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The analysis of the structures of place manifests that the place will change with the change of the environment etc. but the place spirit may not be necessarily changed or lost. During historic changes, carrying forward the place spirit that can demonstrate Figure 2: Chart of the application mode of the Theory of Place the traits of the place and express the symbols of the architectural history to realize innovative protection is the crucial point of old building reuse. The Theory of Place manifests that as long as the place spirit can be identified, the architecture and the place can be kept and inherited. In consequence, taking the place spirit as the scale plate and selecting suitable mode Figure 3: Chart of continuous relationship between historic vicissitudes of old building reuse and the place spirit of old buildings. compose the key and foundation of design (Figure 3). Since the Roman Period, architecture has been regarded as the head of all the arts. However, Corbusier’s Theory of Machine borders the spiritual symbols of architecture on the interpretation of using functions. So the spirits and functions stand as the core content that the architecture can be handed down and old building reuse is the fulfillment of the functions of place and the continuation of the place spirit. Therefore in function excavation, attention shall also be paid to the reservation and shaping of the original place spirit. The joint points of the place spirit in the renovation of the old buildings can be carried out in the natural, cultural and social aspects, which can be summarized in the following three points after analysis: 1) the birth of territoriality and the sense of belonging; 2) the historic culture of the place; 3) the sociality of the place (Figure 4).

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Firstly, it is the birth of territoriality and the sense of belonging. Architecture is the product of an area setting foot in some environment and restricted and affected by the geological conditions, natural environment and urban culture, for instance, the horse’s head represents Huizhou folk dwellings and the bracket system and double eaves become the typical characteristics of wooden

Figure 4: Double objectives of old building renovation

b Bracket system and double eaves of wooden architecture Figure 5: Typical symbolic expressions of architecture. architecture etc. (Figure 5). The people in the architecture develop psychological identification through the space form, color texture and shaping of doors and windows. Psychologically speaking, the typical characteristics help people establish a sense of belonging. The second is the historic culture of the place. Architecture is the product of historic development and will develop as history develops. So architecture will bear the historical fragment in a certain period. The fragments, through integration with architecture, similarly arouse people’s memory and resonance through the space, texture and details and demonstrate and maintain the particular time and incidents. The third is the sociality of the place. Basra said “A house and a place have the place spirit when they boast the contents of happiness, celebration, sorrows, confidentiality and public activities” (Kening 2008, p. 48). Public participation can establish contact and interaction between architecture and people, ensure the reasonability and pragmatism of the reuse of buildings and show the vigor and vitality of the place through organizing open activities. a The horse’ wall of Hui style architecture

DESIGN OF OLD BUILDING REUSE RECURRENT IN THE PLACE SPIRIT The paper combines the information of the practical construction to explore the reshaping and expression methods of the place spirits in the aspects of territoriality, historic culture and social emotions in terms of spatial restructuring and division of architectural functions, optimization of detailed form and quality of spatial landscape. Analysis of the basic status of the program Location of the base: Jinshantun is located in the middle of the southern side of Lesser Khingan Mountains, in the middle reaches of the Tangwang River, to the east of Yichun and 62km away from Yichun, covering an area of 1849 km2, with a population of 477000. It is abundant in natural resources, especially famous for forestry and ore resources. Presently it has developed into a noted tourism scenic spot in Northeast of China.

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The design project is to reuse and renovate the old workshops whose base is situated in the empty land at the foot of the mountain with both sides near the arterial streets of convenient transportation (Figure 6). The current characteristic of it is that its former workshop was a stone cutting plant of up to 40 years that developed Figure 6:Location status quo map together with 1-The site; 2-Hegang-Nenjiang Highway; 3-Xing’an Street the growth of the ore resources of Jinshantun. The plant witnessed the history of Jinshantun’s development. At present there are altogether 4 buildings of diverse sizes in the renovated plant. The architecture adopts the frame structure, the ceiling applies rectangular Figure 7: Architecture status map skylight, the entire roof truss selects triangular wooden structure and the exterior wall is paved with red bricks and painted in white. Now the architecture is seriously dilapidated with the doors, windows, eaves and roofs severely damaged and the construction site is also in a muddle due to long disuse (Figure 6). The design here is to redesign the functions of the plant, the landscape and the space of Building A. Positioning of the architectural functions and spatial restructuring based on social attributes Priorities shall be attached to the transformation of the social functions of public participation: After survey through questionnaire, current status analysis and negotiation and coordination with the local government and in view of the integral structural system and flexible spatial scale of the current architecture, we transform the functions of the architecture to a small sized exhibition building of urban planning, change the other three buildings to the affiliated exhibition building, the arts gallery and the beer exhibition square to expand and complete the exhibition halls in urban planning, integrate the plant area and construct the architecture in the entire plant area to be a complete park through integrated square design (Figure 8).

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Plan design of strong interaction: Endow the architecture with new functions, activate and reproduce the architecture. The functions in the exhibition halls include: the reception hall, the VIP reception room, the urban planning exhibition area, the corporate culture display area, the small video room, the catering and leisure area, the souvenir sales area and the office area for the personnel (Figure 8). The space of the middle part of the architecture is up to 8.7m high, which can be partially divided into two storeys. So in the program we will divide the space into two storeys, enrich the view streamline through the corridor between the two storeys, boost the utility rate of the space and adopt flexible and varying methods in the limited space to provide the visitors with rich and diverse spatial experiences and visual experiences. As for the design of the streamline, the entire visiting process applies the annular series system and combines staggered spatial layout to generate abundant feelings and concurrently ensure simple and explicit routes.

Figure 8: Function plan ichnography

The streamline of visit: the reception hall—the overview of the city—the city model display area—the overall city and table display area—(second storey) the overlooking city model (combining the words on the wall)— the recreation area—the corporate culture display area—the small video room—the souvenir sales area (Figure

9). The space frame of landscape sight based on history: The entire design pays attention to the experience of the visitors and takes the sight of the visiting streamline as a pivotal basis of design. The new partition walls are established featuring “partition without discontinuity” and combining the far and near sight. The space sight also changes with the changed positions of the visitors, which adds the interest of the space and infinitely extends the limited space. We adopt the method of opposite scenery usually applied to build parks in China to design the local space of the corridor of the two storeys into the lingering area and make use of the digital projection and the lettering technique on the walls of opposite scenery to respectively display the three time nodes of the development of Jinshantun, that is, 1662, 1964 and 1992. Time is not an abstract concept. It is varying and sensible, just like a book engraved in the dotted wall. The planning model set in the space drawn by the opposite scenery makes the visitors experience the distance between reality and the history. Time and space is tightly linked with architecture itself here.

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Figure 9:Theatrical streamline


Figure 10: Sight of landscape

Optimized design of detailed architectural forms based on historical authenticity and readability As required by historical authenticity and readability, the building elevation repair, reorganization and expansion design shall give sufficient consideration to the status and characteristics of old buildings, select the appropriate exterior materials which comply with the keynote of the original area and pay attention to the manner of segmentation at the micro level for the sake of visual consistency with the old buildings and the buildings nearby (Wei 2009, p.25) and try to apply modern materials so as to reflect the modern aesthetic features and develop the sound comparative and uniform relationship with the old buildings

Figure 11: Architectural elevation and details

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Figure 12: Subject design details themselves whose specific legibility is also stressed repeatedly in Venice Charter. Wall: Enrich the building elevation, change the original singular form and color of the elevation, match the materials with black bricks and black metal frames on the basis of the original tinge and enhance the comparison of construction details and elements with diverse masonry methods, local white architraves, staggered floors and wall grooves. Color: Combine the original elements of the plant area with regional features and epoch characteristics, repair the damaged architecture, reserve the architectural feature of zigzag form skylight of the workshop and unitize the keynote of brick red with dark grey texture (Figure 10). Skylight: The design of the window also pursues comparison in unity and the window frame adopts two modeling forms with subtle changes reflecting the exquisiteness of the architecture. Entrance: The handling of the entrance also fully combines the elements of China’s traditional culture, designs the form of the door to be a round hole and applies modern glass, steel and concrete to construct a traditional slope roof and establish transition space of modernity. The comparison of materials also increasingly strengthens the modernity and cultural value of the architecture (Figure 11). Surrounding design of special theme: In the architectural design updating, we fully consider the peculiarity of the project and add a series of theme designs in the links matching the architecture, including the Logo, table, chair, window, door, illumination floor lamp, sculpture landscape and feature wall design etc. (Figure 12). Landscape quality in the architectural space based on rationality and sense of belonging With unceasing development of architectural design, modernist architecture has scored remarkable achievements. However, during the pursuit of utility efficiency, the psychological feelings and demands of the users are often neglected. The design of old buildings stressed utility, conciseness and consistency because of the special times. For this reason, unitary pattern, similar spatial forms repeatedly appeared and neglected the demands of the users for spatial landscape. One link in the updating is to design the spatial landscape of the old buildings. As the direct media of the perception of the users for the architecture, the architectural landscape will provide more space for communication and rest for the users.

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Figure 13: Local perspective A quiet environment is provided for the visitors in the rest area through the arrangement of the static water surface, which is favorable for thinking. Local partition walls and the sculpture on the water surface look like the flowing space in the German Pavilion in the design of Smith, where the space seems uncertain and the train of thought turns easy, leisurely and comfortable. Two partition walls become flexible and random through the two-storey corridor with rare tree samples native to Yichun at one end. In combination with the holes and crevices intentionally set on the wall, the walls provide indefinite possibilities for changes of sight. When you go through the corridor or stop to appreciate, it will become part of the space configuration (Figure 13). The same design method of the outdoor landscape and the entrance landscape combines the design of the water surface and the intermittent walls, which offers a unique feeling of privacy. What’s worth the attention is the design with four pillars as the main body dismantled from the original structure of the building. We believe the pillars are also part of the architecture and design ground glass at the back of the pillars writing the history and stories of the plant area. The vagueness of the ground glass and the clearness of the writing form visual contrast implying the dialogue between history and present (Figure 12). CONCLUSION The updating and renovation of old buildings under the guidance of the place spirit provides new basis of design and motif of expression from the dimensions of the territoriality, history and sociality of the spirit. Based on the function of building space division, detailed morphological optimization design and landscape quality three aspects design. Through the positioning of the architectural functions and spatial restructuring construction of social participation can increase. The optimized design of detailed architectural forms can show the unique architectural historical authenticity and readability, through the improvement of landscape quality in the architectural space can strengthen the territoriality and the sense of belonging. The introduction to the place spirit demonstrates both the sustainable significance of the architecture during the updating and the particular vital signs of the architecture. Taking the place spirit as the starting point of new design can comprehensively boost the applicability and value of old building reuse.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The project is supported by the Program for Science and Technology Development of Heilongjiang Province (Grant No. GZ10A508). REFERENCES Chang, Q., 2009. History of environmental regeneration of historical consciousness and design, China Architecture Industry Press, Beijing. Chen, Y., 2003. The theory of sustainable development in city construction, Tongji University Press, Shanghai. Kening, S., 2008. Phenomenology of architecture, Chinese Building Industry Press, Beijing. Lu, D., 2004. Life and death of architecture -- historical buildings reuse theory, Southeast University Press, Nanjing. Norberg-Schulz, C., 1971. Existence space and architecture, Praeger, New York Rasmussen, SE., 1964. Experiencing architecture, MIT Press, Cambridge. Wang, H., 2006. ‘Study on the correlation between architectural update’, Masters’ thesis, Tianjin University, Tianjin Zhou, W., 2009. Study of the history of the building of new and old theories and models of spatial association of protection and reuse, Chinese Building Industry Press, Beijing.

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FRAMEWORK FOR AN OPEN SPACE ECOLOGY IN ARCHITECTURE Akshay Goyal, M.Des Candidate Harvard GSD; M.Arch, Architectural Association London; B.Arch; AIIA, AIIID, IGBC AP Cofounder AG+DR, Architron Group, India, [email protected] Abstract The paper discusses the changing modes of conception, production and consumption of architecture within the larger open source discourse. Analogies are drawn from the field of computer science to conceptually understand the relevance of ideas like hackitivism, crowd sourcing, open source, social media and user centric approaches with regards to architecture in the 21st century. These ideas are discussed in relationship with a long lineage of research carried out within the architectural community regarding user participation in design. Contemporary interpretation of similar ideas is discussed with relation to how they could be systematically classified based on the nature of the ‘open’ and the ‘source’ as an approach towards design and architecture. Hybridising these approaches leads to what can be termed as ‘Hackitecture’, a systemic appropriation of the hacker culture and the open source movement as an architectural agency. The paper then argues for an open source framework for architecture where obvious differences between the user and designer are dissolved and wherein the conception to production and eventual conception of the architectural ‘object’ exists as a continuum. Such a framework is discussed with respect to the technological shift emerging within the discipline. The paper concludes with the possibility of situating such processes within the larger post capitalist socio political turmoil seen today while discussing the problems of such an approach. Keywords: open source architecture, crowd sourced design, participatory design processes, user interaction, post capitalist architecture, social media.

INTRODUCTION User participation in the design processes has been a long-standing challenge for the architectural community. ‘Democratizing’ architectural processes has seen a revival of interest as a result of the ‘open source’ culture imbibed from the computer science discipline. Some of this work can be seen as an extension of the research on ‘user participation’ done in the 1960-70’s by people like Yona Friedman, Nicholas Negroponte, Cedric Price and Gordon Pask. The paper discusses the relevance of these approaches in the contemporary architectural discourse and looks at emerging technological approaches that are resulting in the shift. The focus of the paper is to look at open source culture in the field of computer science and related concepts like hackitivism, crowd sourcing, and social media, and create a framework wherein the field of architecture can appropriate some of the concepts directly or as analogical frameworks. This approach becomes increasingly relevant in the ‘post capitalist’ climate of today, where both the social and economic relevance of architects is being increasingly questioned. In addition, democratic post capitalist protest movements, like the occupy movement and Tahrir square protests, in this context become important both for demonstrating the power of ‘virtual networks’ and for highlighting the need for the field of architecture to react to such emerging sociopolitical phenomena. The paper is structured in three parts. The first part looks at open source culture and related concepts within the field of computer sciences. The next part historically traces ideas in architecture that situate within such an ‘open source’ framework and discusses the relevance of such approaches to the contemporary architectural discourse. User participatory models of the 1960’s are used to compare and categorize contemporary architectural works that claim to be influenced by the open source ideology highlighting the evolution of ‘open source’ thought within the architectural domain. The third part then looks at technological developments that can potentially change the trajectory of this approach in architecture. A framework for open source ecology for the designer-object-user continuum is proposed. The paper concludes with relating such processes with the post capitalist societies while discussing the problematics of such ‘open source’ ecology, in and for architecture.

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COUNTERCULTURE TO OPEN SOURCE CULTURE With its origins in the ‘free software’ movement ‘open source’ refers to free access to either the source code behind a software product or the product itself. The term found popularity in the hacker and software development circles during the late 1990’s. The philosophy imbibes the idea of involving the end user in the product development process through online collaboration as a metaphor for creative individualism (Vardouli 2012). The focus on the user in the ‘open source culture’ has been linked to the ideological utopias envisioned by the counterculture movements of the 1960’s and the 1970’s. Of particular significance was the influence of alternate DIY culture centered around techno cultural artifacts like the ‘Whole Earth Catalogue’. Fred Turner has provocatively traced the utopian visions of ‘cyber culture’ to the ideals of the ‘beats’ and the ‘hippies’. Turner establishes these linkages through examples of a continuing intellectual relationship between people like Stewart Brand and Kevin Kelly (Turner 2006). Open source movement has inspired a range of ideological siblings like crowd sourcing and social media. Crowd sourcing demonstrated best by websites like Wikipedia, solicits contributions from a large group of people, underlining the ‘wisdom’ of the ‘crowds’. The services, ideas or content produced usually also involves the end user who may or may not be an expert contributor with respect to the content being produced. Social media, on the other hand, offers an online platform to socially engage and freely share knowledge, via a virtual societal setup. Both these approaches embody the increasing online engagement of individuals to form virtual societal structures and relationships that create and share information and knowledge. What is interesting to note here is the fact that one of the seminal texts propagating the open source philosophy used architectural metaphors to exemplify the approach. Eric Raymond in the 1997 essay ‘The Cathedral & the Bazaar’ compared process of closed and open software development as being parallel to the organizational network of the cathedral and that of the bazaar. The Cathedral is a top down organizational system for software like ones developed by Microsoft that is protected by stringent copyrights. This model has distinct hierarchical structures that result in lowered efficiencies and creative potential. On the other hand the Bazaar demonstrates a ‘bottom up’ phenomena - ‘a seemingly disconnected but functioning web of relationships on which the open-source movement is modeled’ (Kaspori 2003). Raymond highlights that this great babbling bazaar of differing agendas and approaches’ appears to work and ‘at a speed barely imaginable to cathedral-builders’ (Raymond1999). OPEN SOURCE ARCHITECTURE The last decade has seen a considerable amount of attention towards the incorporation of the open source metaphor in the field of architecture. The aspect of the end user being part of the different set of processes that constitute architecture is not new. This approach has been compared to pre renaissance methodology of producing a building and also to the ‘user participation’ approaches of the 1960’s. Paul Davidoff’s ‘advocacy and pluralism’ in planning is attributed as the pioneer of user participation in contemporary architectural discourse (Negroponte 1975). People like Victor Papanek and Christopher Alexander worked extensively on looking at indigenous modes of architectural production to make systemic frameworks for large-scale use. The ‘paper architects’ of the 1960’s too found this aspect of user involvement as intriguing. The primacy of the user in design was of specific appeal to them and the discourse included shifting the ‘control’ of design from the hands of the architect, considered as an external agency to that of the nonexpert end user (Negroponte 1975). People like Yona Friedman and Nicholas Negroponte/ Architecture Machine Group at MIT, created conceptual models for such an approach usually for the purpose of housing (Friedman 1971, 1975; Negroponte 1975). For them the architect as an intermediary ‘designer’ was to be replaced by an autonomous ‘architecture machine’ that could learn and understand the users needs. The 1971 ‘Participatory Design Conference’ at Manchester, where people like Reyner Banham, Nigel Cross, Negroponte & Friedman participated, marked the high point of this approach (Cross 1971). On a related but slightly divergent trajectory, Cedric Price and Gordon Pask, in the UK, looked at the architect as a ‘system designer’, who as an ‘enabling mechanism’ designs an architectonic system for the user to design and modify the architecture around him/her in a continuous feedback process (Fraser 2001). These self-organizing design processes within the larger systemic framework could be scaled up for almost all public function buildings. But due to the lack of sophisticated technologies to materialize the systemic

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components, these projects could not be realized and the interest of the larger architectural community gradually drifted towards other pursuits. During the last two decades there has been a revival of interest in this pursuit and there are a number of modes via which architectural practices are appropriating the open source metaphor. Whereas most of the architectural discourse over the last two decades has emphasized more the idea of ‘collective intelligence’ and open source as being a collaborative process between designers with various specializations, the user almost always has been ignored. Groups like Servo and Ocean and academic programmes like the AADRL have illustrated how contemporary computational design processes enables the shift from linear, hierarchal, closed systems to open, flexible models (Perry & Hight 2006, Steele 2006). Yet the engagement with actual users – ‘the missing audience’ – of the architectural orchestra still remains. Young practices like Mass Design Group demonstrate the evolution of such approaches to engage end users yet the pursuit of control residing with the user as speculated by the likes of Friedman, Price and Price is still elusive. Of interest in this respect is the ‘Spatial Agency’ project, a database of the network and connections between the various actors involved in such processes ever since the 1960’s, where most of the contemporary practices can be ideologically traced back to the seminal work of the 60’s and the 70’s (Nishat et al. 2011). John Fraser terms this era as an era of ‘computing without computers’ a process of “mental rehearsal of what architecture and built environment would be like at the beginning of the 21st century” (Fraser 1995). The technological shift (primarily computational advancements) over the last two decades has allowed for actual manifestation of some of these ‘thought experiments’. These contemporary architectural and urban processes that engage the user can be reduced to three larger categories discussed as the ‘grassroots approach’; the ‘information driven approach’ and the ‘machinic agency’ that are discussed below. Grassroots Approach - The first approach focuses on participatory urban-rural design and planning systems as an evolution of indigenous architectural processes. This approach popularized by the likes of Christopher Alexander looks at existing indigenous processes for systemic opportunities for user participation. The focus is usually on ‘appropriate technologies’ which enable the user or community to design for themselves via a design–build process which systematically categories the steps and makes the seemingly vague attributes of indigenous processes, explicitly clear and accessible by non-experts. Here the analogy of source code can be understood to be the indigenous systems of habitat design that are existent in every community. These systems can constitute a set of explicit blueprints or as larger open guidelines. The architect then can be envisioned as a facilitator for the user or the community, and engages in an iterative mapping of habitat related systems via which the process of facilitation is enabled. Nicholas Salingaros led P2P (Peer to Peer) urbanism project is developing such an approach as an extension of ‘pattern systems’ framework developed by Alexander (Salingaros 2010). On the other hand organizations like ‘Architecture for Humanity’ through the ‘Open Architecture Network’ illustrate the open ‘blueprint’ approach. Initiatives like Open-Source Architecture (O.S.A) emphasize on dissolving the need of a ‘professional’ designer via a systemic open source framework that addresses the whole lifecycle from funding, design, standards and construction processes (Ratti et al. 2011). Significant progress has been achieved in ‘open construction process’, by research on modular kit of construction parts approach as demonstrated by the Wikihouse project, Bluhomes and Openstructure project. This emphasis on the ‘open architectural hardware’, usually lowtech, can be argued to be grounded in notions of materiality parallel to the bottomup indigenous architectural processes. It is interesting to note in this respect that the computational design paradigm in terms of a distributed agency of conception a production has also been compared to the indigenous architectural processes. In particular Mario Carpo compares how the ‘digital turn’ is increasingly pushing us towards the condition of open and collaborative architectures (Carpo 2013). He compares this with the architectural processes that existed during the medieval age of gothic churches, where immensely complicated designs were conceived and produced without a sole authoring architect, with incremental evolution of designs by the collaboration within the community, artisans and clients. Information Driven Approach - The second approach emphasizes a data based model for architecture (Negroponte 1975). Here the source code analogy is for increasing the qualitative and quantitative aspects of data, fed in by the user, which is used then to design in a conventional or generative way. The participatory aspect is grounded in the information that the users in this case generate or provide. This data allows for enhanced decision making both for the user and the designer. Here the source code is analogous

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to data required for design. Usually looking at behavioral data and programmatic, environmental or economic information the approach involves the user in the production or mapping of the information. User–Designer distinctions usually do not dissolve in such a model, and the designer typically acts as the ‘processor’ of raw data by creating rule sets for data utilization for design decisions. There is also an increasing amount of work being done on how social media becomes the interface via which such information can be generated and utilized. Open - crowd sourced data also provides novel ways of perceiving urban spatial conditions. Some of the works of Hackitectura, ETH’s Landscape Visualization Lab and initiatives like pachube can be seen in this respect. Machinic Agency - The third approach aims to achieve user participation through a technological paradigm. Based in emerging high tech systems it seeks to develop ‘bottom up’ enabling frameworks that are systemic in nature and are designed for user feedback and interaction with the virtual or physical architectural product. This approach diverges either into the territory of anti-profession as propagated by Friedman & Negroponte or focuses on a changing role of the profession to incorporate more user feedback into the design system as envisioned by Price et al. People like John Fraser and later Usman Haque have worked on this approach at a micro scale, whereas ideas of swarm urbanism demonstrated by Leach, Kokkugia or R&Sie demonstrate the approach at an urban scale. Machine as an intermediary or as embedded entities, plays a critical role in the feedback system. The machine either assumed to be a ‘design amplifier’ that understands the user’s needs and sensibilities and designs in an iterative way. Alternatively the machine becomes a ‘smart’ link in the chain between the cyclical information flow between the designer and end user, enabling the user to have overlapping roles with the designer. The source code analogy in either of the cases is the technological process that constitutes the design system. These technological processes are oriented in the terms of design conception systems (R&Sie, Fraser), spatial experience (Usman Haque, Hackitectura) or constructability (robotic kit of parts, smart responsive materiality) (Goyal 2013). At this juncture it is also critical to notice that each of the approach still continue the distinction of the three normative stages of conception, production and consumption of the architectural process (Ayres 2012). This is different when compared to an ‘open source’ software development process, which being virtual allows for the end user to almost in a real time way influence the design and production process. The architect of the ‘end product’ has defined yet varying roles within these stages. When the architect designs an open source design ‘conception’ system the emphasis is on user based information and interactive design systems that allow user feedback directly or through an agent based modeling system. Here the designer is supposed to create an information structure within which the user can modify the physical or virtual manifestation of this information. A more advanced version of the same will imply that expert users can contribute to the structure itself. On the other hand when the emphasis is on the open source ‘production’ system then the usual approach involves the designer ‘designing’ a ‘kit of parts’ or ‘Lego blocks’, which the user then can play around and customize. In this way the designer opens up his/her domain and allows for non-designers as hobbyists or end users to contribute towards the generation of design - knowledge. Also for such an analogy is becomes important to analyze what aspects in architecture constitute the hardware and what is the software. For Usman Haque the tangible physical attributes are the hardware and the intangible experiential attributes are analogous to software (Haque 2002). It can be argued that the material processes that govern how the information system flows is what actually constitutes ‘hardware’. As in the computational world, this hardware or material processes govern the way that the user interacts with the software. The architectural ‘hardware’ then is based on physics based natural rule sets. In such a construct the software analogy can be further split into three different hierarchical parts: programming languages, operating system and applications. The scripting or the programming language via which it interacts with the hardware or material process can be compared with the canonical notions of form, function and meaning in architecture. The ‘operating system’ can be compared to contextual operating frameworks via which architectural process operate within the rules that the script provided. The idea of an ‘application’ can be compared to the individual spatial experience shaped by programmatic rules via which the user engages with the system. It should be highlighted here that both hardware and software for architecture are interrelated in nature. The ‘hardware’ aspects govern the way that the software interacts with the system and results in production and experience of architecture with physical manifestation.

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HACKITECTURE: OPEN SOURCE ECOLOGY FOR ARCHITECTURE The ‘mash up’ or hybridization of the three approaches discussed earlier lead to the idea of ‘Hackitecture’, an opportunistic hacker like approach to design and architecture by involving the non-expert user. Authors like Eric Von Hippel have illustrated that end users can act as sophisticated developer-designer by the example of his research on adventure sport equipment design, specifically the history of development of the designs for surf boards that was primarily user led (Hippel 2005). Involving the user leads to highly specialized niches, which can contribute towards the advancement of the overall architectural discourse. It is interesting to note here that the ‘architect’s’ experience as the ‘user’ of design software products has triggered the computational paradigm that has resulted in development of some of the most advanced software tools for architects today. Ghery Technologies is a suitable example of the ‘architect as the user’ developing and designing a customized and highly sophisticated product (Digital Project/CATIA). This trend can now be observed in most major practices, as a need to have a specialized ‘computational research’ team that functions independently, developing in-house scripts and designing computational routines for the larger office, especially with a focus on design and fabrication. One of the key concerns of open source architecture is to have overlapping roles of the user and the designer. Another aspect that emerges from the preceding discussion is the speculative possibility of the three stages of conception, production and consumption merging into each other. Such a system then is similar to a biological process, where continuous feedback results in a conception-production-consumption continuum. In such open source ecology, nonlinear processes allow for real time material effects, where user requirements and interaction lead to continuous adaptation of the physical manifestation of designed object. The architectural system then much like a social media platform is not confined within its physical boundary and is in constant negotiation with the user needs for differentiation, performance, resources and spatial experience. The technological paradigm for such a shift is visibly on the horizon. Evolutionary design tools, genetic algorithms and multi agent modeling is already leading to increasing possibilities of bottoms up systemic design tools as compared to top down ones which are the norm today. Such tools allow for rule based generative designs where generation of forms and its iterative optimization and evaluation are built into the system. Holographic and volumetric displays offer a possibility of a virtual real scale human interaction with such a system that can lead to increasing non-professional user involvement. At the same time extension of BIM’s into this domain will allow for increased production information to be embedded into such a system. On the other hand developments in rapid prototyping and physical computing allow for intelligent ‘hardware’ to be produced by the user without specific expert knowledge. Also emerging trends of geospecific social networking, augmented reality and projected - interactive environments could be embedded into such architectural systems. These technologies combined with the social trends of ‘maker spaces’ and DIY communes in the city offer collaborative and shared platforms for production of such a system. A wide access of these technologies is critical to their adoption in the system. The incorporation of such an ‘open source ecology’ could lead to a paradigm change in the architectural discipline, but it is not without its own set of problems. For instance questions can be asked as to how efficiently can the non-expert users lead to as sophisticated designs as that of an expert, while addressing all the complexities of the design process? Also issues of authorship and ownership are always critical. Of concern is that unlike virtual systems, physical manifestation of architecture requires engineering liabilities. These are critical issues that need to be addressed by any such system, before it can truly claim to be ‘open’. Also one can look at the various modes of how various interpretations of ‘open source’ in computer science address the issue of authorship for probable analogical situations in architecture. For instance there could be the idea of ‘creative commons licensing’ in architecture that allows for the designer to retain claim of the knowledge produced. Yet on the other hand, one could argue that it is highly improbable to have a copyright design model in architecture; with almost all of architectural progress based in the idea of inspiration from preexisting architectural models. Similarly ‘liability’ in relation to the usage of the architectural product is another grey area. Is the user liable for designing and building a house using an open source architectural system that eventually collapses? Or is it the liability of the system designer or the intermediary architect? These questions remain and a detailed discussion of these aspects is beyond the present scope of this paper.

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The architectural community also needs to proactively respond to and appropriate emerging trends of geospecific social networking, augmented reality and the internet of things that would soon be mainstream. Corporations like Google, Microsoft, Facebook/Foursquare are already developing such systems that will significantly influence the physical habitat around us. It is critical that contemporary architectural processes critically address the need of the user to be an active participant in shaping the environment around him/her, and for whom these technologies could become a convenient but superficial vehicle for achieving a customizable and adaptable built habitat. A constructive dialogue would allow for a seamless integration of intelligent technology in the built habitat without either one dominating the other, while resulting in unexpected outcomes. Also the recent global phenomena of democratic post capitalist protest movements, highlight the role of ‘virtual networks’ and necessitate a critical interrogation of the contemporary architectural processes and the nature of its engagement with the larger sociopolitical context. CONCLUSION The paper argues for an open source ecology using accessible technological platform in a systemic way. The system is constructed based on analogies drawn from the field of computer science; from ideas like hackitivism, crowd sourcing, open source, social media and user centric approaches with regards to architecture in the 21st century. The role of the architect in such a system moves away from the need to produce ‘objects’ for consumption, to architects becoming the lead generators of knowledge systems for interacting with the habitat. In this process the architect then also enables the non-expert user to perform most of the present tasks of architecture without the requirement of an architect. This involves a ‘hacker’ approach towards opportunistically appropriating emerging computational technologies to design ‘meta design systems’ that enable the user to design for himself/herself, an approach termed as Hackitecture. In an era of ‘wikipedia’ and ‘facebook’ where DIY ideas of the ‘Whole Earth Catalogue’ are not a counter culture phenomena anymore, such approaches offer the field of architecture to maintain its continued relevance through a constant process of negotiation with the socio-economic flux of our contemporary society. Nonetheless such a construct has its own set of problems that need to be examined and debated conclusively. Yet, such a system possibly offers ways to situate the idea of architecture into the post capitalist scenario, as a ‘detournement’ of what it is today. END NOTES (1)It is also interesting to note that the seminal text by Douglas Engelbart (Augmenting human Intellect: A conceptual framework, 1962) also uses the architect as the actor for describing the usage of the computer as a ‘clerk’ system. (2)See also Mark Burry’s discussion on the open design framework created by Antonio Gaudi; Burry, Mark, ‘The persistence of faith in the intangible model’ in Persistent Modelling: Extending the Role of Architectural Representation. Ed Ayres, Philip, Taylor & Francis, 2012. (3)See discussion on ‘Multitude’ in Hardt, M & Negri, A., 2005. Multitude: War and democracy in the age of empire, Penguin Group USA. (4) See works of GE Debord and the architectural history of the idea in Sadler, S., 1999. The Situationist city, MIT press.

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REFERENCES Alexander, C., 1964. Notes on the synthesis of form, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Alexander, C, Sara I & Murray S., 1977. A pattern language: Towns, buildings, construction, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y. Awan, N, Tatjana S & Till J., 2011. Spatial agency: other ways of doing architecture, Routledge, Abingdon. Ayres, P., 2012. Persistent modelling: Extending the role of architectural representation, Taylor & Francis. Cross, N., 1972. ‘Here comes everyman’, In N Cross (ed), Design participation, Academy Editions, London, pp. 11-14. Cross, N., 2001. ‘Can a machine design?’ Design Issues, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 44–50. Carpo, M., 2011. The alphabet and the algorithm. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Carpo, M., (ed) 2013. The digital turn in architecture 1992-2010: A Reader, Wiley, London. Fraser, J., 2001. ‘The cybernetics of Architecture: A tribute to the contribution of Gordon Pask‘, Kybernetes, vol. 20 nos. 5/6, pp. 641-651. Frazer, J., 2005. ‘Computing without computers’, Architectural Design, vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 34-43. Friedman, Y., 1972. ‘Information processes for participatory architecture’, in N Cross (ed), Design participation, Academy Editions, London, pp. 45-50. Friedman, Y., 1975. Toward a scientific architecture [Pour Une Architecture Scientifique], trans. C Lang, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Goyal, A., 2012. ‘Field condition and robotic urban landscapes’, Conference Proceedings, Future traditions 1st eCAADe Regional International Workshop. Haque, U., 2002. ‘Hardspace, softspace and the possibilities of open source architecture’, Archis Hippel, VE., 2005. Democratizing innovation, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Hight, C & Perry, C., (eds) 2006. ‘Collective intelligence in design’, Architectural Design, vol. 76, no. 5, pp. 5-10. Kaspori, D., 2003. ‘A communism of ideas: Towards an architectural open source practice’, Archis, no. 3, pp. 13-7. Nicholas, N., 1975. Soft architecture machines, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Nikos, S., 2010. P2P Urbanism, Umbau-Verlag; Peer to Peer Foundation, Solingen, http://zeta.math.utsa.edu/~yxk833/P2PURBANISM.pdf. Ratti, C et al., 2011. ‘Open source architecture’ (OSArc), Domus, no. 948. Raymond, ES., 1999. The cathedral & the bazaar, O'Reilly. Steele, B., 2006. ‘The AADRL: Design, collaboration and convergence’, Architectural Design, vol. 76, no. 5, pp. 58-63. Turner, F., 2006. From counterculture to cyberculture : Stewart brand, the Whole Earth network, and the rise of digital utopianism, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Vardouli, T., 2012. ‘Design-for-empowerment-for-design: computational structures for design democratization’, Dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

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TIME BASED DESIGN APPROACHES FOR INFORMAL SETTLEMENT UPGRADING IN SOUTH AFRICA Amira Osman, University of Johannesburg, Faculty of Arts, Design and Architecture (FADA), Johannesburg, South Africa,[email protected]

Abstract It is no longer sustainable for the state to deliver full and fixed housing units to the poor. Moreover, while all people act on, and influence their immediate environment, this is especially evident in situations where people have difficulty to access the formal housing market. These initiatives create an energy that needs to be celebrated and managed in efficient ways through innovative delivery, finance and technical systems. Given these realities, in South Africa, Informal Settlement Upgrading (ISU) practices need to adopt design approaches that focus on flexibility and multi-actor participation. Using Open Building (OB) concepts, this paper argues that improved housing delivery can be achieved by focusing state investment on the development of complete housing ecosystems and allowing for diverse interpretations in terms of typologies, densities and mix of functions, tenure and income groups. The concept of Base Buildings becomes a framework for managing participation processes and allowing for shared and distributed decision-making in a system that is inherently participative. Base Buildings ensure a method and tool to manage, the sometimes conflicting, requirements of various actors in the built environment. Keywords: time-based design, open building, informal settlement upgrading (ISU), incrementality, South Africa.

A CRITIQUE ON CURRENT INFORMAL SETTLEMENT UPGRADE PRACTICE Huchzermeyer (as described in Abbott 2002, pp. 311–312) critiques what is referred to as a “more technocratic approach to upgrading that can be described as community driven development.” Some flaws are identified, one being the issue that the community takes all the decisions. Abbott elaborates: “There is an arena where communities should take the decisions themselves and there is an arena where decisions have to involve a wider number of stakeholders. A settlement cannot be isolated from the city of which it is a part… The failing of this approach is that it follows a strongly mechanistic approach to upgrading, whereby individual elements of upgrading are seen as being analysed and pursued independently to other elements. This is not to say that the other elements are not recognised, nor their importance ignored. It is simply that the underlying conceptual model is one that sees the whole (the wider settlement upgrading process) as being the sum of the parts (individual sector-based improvements)” (Abbott 2002, pp. 311–312). There is a focus in South Africa on re-blocking which has some of the above-mentioned flaws. Re-blocking is when a shack settlement is rearranged in an intensive consultative process – this re-arrangement allows the opening up of critical routes and the improvement of the general environment with regards to natural ventilation and light. WPI/CT partnership/CORC explain how re-blocking aims to achieve the effective use of space, structural integrity of units, community safety, land security and clustered shacks achieving defensible space. The benefits are articulated in terms of keeping the community together, empowering communities to look for their own solutions while acknowledging the role of other stakeholders. The whole process is one that demands efficient communication and strong partnerships between various agents/agencies in the process (Worchester Polytechnic Institute WPI and Community Organization Resource Centre CORC n.d.).

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Several issues come to mind when considering re-blocking as an approach that is currently being encouraged: •

While commendable benefits to achieving access for emergency vehicles and natural light and air are achieved, the spatial, physical and functional improvements to the settlements are the bare minimum.

•

It could of course be argued that these re-blocking exercises are essential as a first stage when minimal resources are available. Who then is charged with developing the larger visions for the area and overseeing that real progress to the lives of people in the settlement is achieved? And should the end vision of a beautiful, sustainable and desirable neighbourhood, fully integrated in the city in functions, routes/linkages/networks, image and spatial/physical quality not inform the spatial decision-making at the re-blocking phase?

•

The consultations and communication processes achieved may be perceived as temporary in nature depending on current dynamics, personal relationships, and relying on specific individuals or agencies – these are therefore not a part of a sustainable system. The resources invested at this stage as well as the systems set up should ideally have a level of permanence and be able to persist through changing socio-political dynamics and evolving individual and community circumstances.

•

The settlements remain isolated from the broader context and the city at large – in spatial character and quality. The settlements therefore continue to be perceived as a threat. Could informal settlements be re-imagined as places where people will elect to bring up their children, where young professionals will want to live, where innovative/emergent businesses will want to open shop?

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Current technical and spatial solutions for ISU exacerbate ‘otherness’. This perpetual duality in expected standards neglects that fact that people’s need for beautiful and well-functioning neighbourhoods is a universal need.

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Professional roles are unclear: the term ‘community architects’ was used rather loosely in some cases and this has now been changed to “community planners” with no real engagement with the issue. Community-based healthcare is discussed in the National Development Plan (National Planning Commission 2011) – it is about time that Community-based architecture is acknowledged and that the professional institutes start setting up guidelines for practice in contexts of informality.

•

Re-blocking places strong emphasis on the community as the decision-maker. However, there are always "real" architects working behind the scenes. Who takes professional responsibility for these interventions? Who is held accountable? What are the professional guidelines for this type of intervention? Which professional institute manages this process and ensures that clients (informal dwellers and proximate communities) are given a good service?

For the above reasons, the current focus on re-blocking is believed to be inadequate to take the debate on ISU forward. It is a very viable emergency measure – not a tool for neighbourhood development.

THINKING SYSTEMS: HOUSING, HOUSES AND INFORMALITY While it has been maintained numerous times that “housing is not about houses”, the HOUSE continues to be the object most delivered through government mechanisms as it is still the easiest solution to conceptualise and implement. Designing a cost-effective HOUSE has been done many times. It is emphasized that the most innovative and beautiful house cannot solve the housing problem. Delivering a HOUSE is easier as a concept than delivering a VIABLE NEIGHBOURHOOD with all of the qualities that enhance the daily experience of life. It is accepted that the support of incremental housing is crucial, however, design/planning, delivery and funding systems continue to support the provision of detached houses on individual plots. The reason for this is clear: multi-family, semi-detached, multi-storey and mixeduse developments are more complex in terms of design, servicing, implementing and management thus

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demanding more sophistication in process. It is important here to note that ‘sophistication’ does not mean complex and advanced technologies that might be inappropriate for the South African context, but rather implies a sophistication in systems which allow for the low-tech and the informal. A shack-dweller who simply says “I will take my house with me” when asked about being asked to vacate the land she occupies, gives an excellent clue as to the benefits inherent in informal systems such as mobility, alternative tenure systems, demountable and modular systems. This is the sophistication that needs to be provided through formal systems that are currently one-dimensional and inaccessible. Informal housing delivery is cheaper and faster than formal delivery (Cross 2010). Further to this conversation: “The advantage of informal housing construction is the pace and self-sufficiency in which housing units are constructed, and the simplicity of the final product meets the financial constraints of the multitude of low-income and impoverished urban residents… “Incremental Housing” is a strategy to achieve these goals by combining the tools, services and expertise to build safe and vibrant urban communities with the resourcefulness and motivation of the informal sector” (Beattie et al. 2010). Incremental development in informal settlement upgrading may be supported by devising systems rather than fixed products – offering numerous routes of growth and change of a residential unit within a building, street/block and neighbourhood framework that is more stable and permanent. Thus learning from informality to devise more hybrid systems of delivery. A time-based understanding of the built environment and decision making levels

The need to adopt time-based design approaches is important in all contexts (Osman et al. 2013), but even more so in informal settlements, where structures are temporal by nature and where the delivery of fixed products is unrealistic and of limited benefit. Time-based approaches are intended to address future needs and change – thus designing buildings and neighbourhoods with an inherent capacity for change over time. It is in direct contrast to approaches of ‘programmatic-fit’ and allows for building use to dynamically adapt. Figure 1 presents this diagrammatically based on various writings and diagrams of Stephen Kendall (Kendall and Reddington 2002, Kendall 2006, 2005, 1999, Teicher and Kendall 2007). Open Building (OB) considers individual projects within the wider planning context and the need to understand the levels of the environment and which groups/individuals are tasked with making decisions at each level. In his book, HOMEWORKS, he explains how the built environment became more and more entangled as technologies changed and servicing networks and construction methods became more complex and interlinked. This has led to difficulties to achieve efficient flexibility as long-life components of the built environment have to be destroyed to affect change in short-life components (such as knocking down a wall to access piping or electric cables). This inherently inflexibility also has implications in terms of managing relationships between the various stakeholders in the built environment who might share space/structures and whose diverse needs and decisions might disrupt the needs and decisions taken by others. Thus Astley states: “... upfront thinking should be done to understand the whole system, before delivering smaller phased sub systems changes” (Astley nd).

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Figure 1: A time-based understanding of the built environment and decision-making levels based on Stephen Kendall’s writings and diagrams.

Figure 2: This time-based understanding of the built environment and decision-making levels may be applied to the South African situation, its various programmes and policies – this is work in progress (diagram by Jhono Bennett). Time-based design is not a new concept Architects have always suggested design systems that allow for incrementality. Christopher Alexander refers to ‘generative codes’ defined as “…codes which are capable of driving, or guiding, the organic unfolding of a neighborhood (new or existing or partly existing, green field, or brown field), in such a way that the neighborhood and the people who do and will live in it and work there, have a good chance of flourishing, personally, economically, and ecologically. Like the example of biological generative code, such a code is, necessarily, highly complex (in its effects) though simple (in its own structure). It is necessarily dynamic. It specifies processes, happening under a variety of types of control, which will contribute to the proper unfolding of the whole, and delineates the interaction of the people concerned in such a way that what results may, with good fortune, become a living neighborhood” (Alexander et al. 2005, p. 2). Alexander further explains how these codes assist in the gradual “unfolding” of a neighbourhood towards becoming “whole” (Alexander et al. 2005, p. 3).

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Kendall explains that the historic preference for the “autonomous dwelling”, due to the level of “independence and freedom of action” that it offers. This led to an emphasis on the “autonomy of the individual unit in multi-family buildings” leading to a great focus on technology as the solution to housing, leading to many failed projects and attempts at solving the housing “problem”. Kendall further explains that: “a) housing is not only about bricks and mortar. Second, housing is not only about professionals - nonprofessionals are a vital part of the housing process; b) housing must fit into its local fabric, and c) housing is about processes that extend over time. An overemphasis on “technical fixes” seems shortsighted in light of these lessons” (Kendall nd, pp. 2–3).

Kendall refers to the “Shell” as follows: “...necessarily part of the local setting in all its physical, cultural, regulatory and environmental dimensions. The Shell helps make the urban scene.” He further explains: “The Infill is not so constrained by the local scene. It is – and should increasingly be – approved by national certification agencies and distributed in the global marketplace of consumer-oriented products, "kits" and services. It responds more directly to the pulse of change, whereas the Shell is meant to age in place and become part of the social memory of an urban landscape” (Kendall 2006). Kitchley and Srivathsan (2005) describe an approach to design, intending to capture the essence of how traditional habitats evolved organically over time to embody complex relationships “between land characteristics, functional activities and social aspirations”. This entails that: “The distinct and deliberate pattern of hierarchy of spaces wherein a gradual transition from private space at the household level to semi-private spaces around the house to public spaces... is the feature that enriches an organic settlement. This design knowledge is abstracted into a Shape Grammar and acts as a source for the derivation of designs, controls and guides the design process and allows the designer and computer to evaluate the results of designing (Kitchley and Srivathsan 2005). There have been many attempts over time to replicate the natural processes of evolution, to build in an inherent capacity for change, to develop systems and processes that have multiple spatial and formal manifestations rather than fixed form. There is an intention to identify the elements that, when put into place, through applying considered ‘rules’, lead to evolution over time: a generative process and embraces the ‘unexpected’.

TIME-BASED DESIGN APPROACHES FOR INFORMAL SETTLEMENT UPGRADING IN SOUTH AFRICA While incremental development in informal settlements implies that residents are guided towards incrementally developing their own residential units in ownership options – this could also mean the provision of core houses or a framework that may be phased and that may evolve into alternative layouts and forms and possibly the incremental provision of various forms of tenure as well incremental provision of infrastructure. At the urban and neighbourhood scale, incremental development could be applied in terms of providing the ‘skeleton’ or cohesive base structure for an informal settlement (Osman et al. 2013). The author refers to this as Base Building infrastructure. (It is important to note that this is based on the concept of Supports are introduced by Habraken in 1961 and 1972 respectively (Dutch and English editions) (Habraken 1999). Therefore sometimes the terms Supports and Base Buildings are used interchangeably – as are the terms infill/fit-out) (“Open Building” nd). Community expectations are shifting: from a demand for housing to demands for basic services and tenure security, which aligns with the government’s current agenda on incremental upgrading (GGLN 2012, 2012 p. 57). Open Building may be an approach to the delivery of residential Base Buildings through government subsidies applied at neighbourhood level. These Base Buildings would therefore be considered a part of neighbourhood infrastructure – in the same way that roads and service lines are considered a part of the neighbourhood infrastructure and are accessible and used by all, irrespective of income level or social status (Stephan Kendall is acknowledged). This would result in the subsidised Base Buildings being accessed by different income groups and individuals for the provision of mixed residential developments – that is, developments with a variety of types, functions and income levels – therefore achieving more integrated neighbourhoods.

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So while reference to infrastructure is generally taken to include public buildings and amenities, transport structures and roads, service lines for water, sanitation and electricity – the intention is to broaden that definition to include Base Buildings delivered through government subsidies via the various housing programmes, or by the introduction of a new subsidy programme geared towards the provision of base buildings. Base Building design principles First Base Building design pointers must be identified. Sometimes a settlement has a clear urban structure + routes + urban blocks + and/or buildings that need to be retained as a part of the Base Building/Support structure (Figure 3). Some have little structure evident and a ‘skeleton’ must be added as a part of the base level intervention (Figure 4). Design thinking needs to be harnessed to be able to develop an urban framework beyond emergency-access routes and reduced fire hazards. While this may also follow a consultative process, it does need more professional decision-making. The settlement density and mix of use needs to be strategically addressed – possibly maintaining the existing character as some informal settlements are lower-density, sub-urban in character while others are very compact and urban (refer again to Figures 3 and 4).

Figure 3: Kliptown, Johannesburg (Diagram by Nhlamolo Ngobeni)(Ngobeni, 2014)

Figure 4: Ruimsig (Goethe Institut et al. 2012).

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Base Building finance and management systems

Kendall motivates for: “A new kind of business entity with a new customer value proposition is needed to meet the demand of variable fit-out in open building projects. Base buildings do not cost more. This was established by sound economic analysis decades ago for the residential sector, most clearly by work done in the Netherlands” (Kendall nd). Open Building and the development of subsidised Base Buildings offers opportunities and benefits, such as alternative tenure, which are difficult to achieve through conventional delivery and procurement processes. It is argued in this paper that the primary level of the environment needs to be included as a component of government-financed infrastructure delivery – therefore allowing for incrementality to occur at the secondary level of the environment. However, it is also important to note that Base Buildings may be sold off or leased, with their related services, to various agents including subsidised rental housing institutions – the system must make economic sense and offer good return on investment for the government for it to be sustainable. In some cases, for the extremely poor, government might subsidize the secondary levels or infill. However, it is believed that with Base Buildings in place, the purchase of the secondary level becomes much easier for individuals to achieve in ownership options or to rent. As an example, the right to inhabit a section of the Base Buildings may be leased from the agency that owns it allowing for the tenant to own the infill, which may be let, sold, dismantled and reassembled elsewhere and reconfigured as needs change. This allows the poor to, more easily, get onto the first rung of the hypothetical housing ladder of formal housing, but even more importantly it envisions solutions for low cost housing and informal settlement upgrading within strategies that address the development of complete housing eco-systems rather than isolating housing for the poor. It also allows for the development of housing models that make business sense by allowing for the involvement of small-scale construction industries in the delivery of the lower level of the built environment (the infill or fit out levels) while the large and more experienced companies deliver the Base Buildings (Tshweu et al. 2010). Government provided housing and public buildings would usually have a diverse set of funds allocated to them including government subsidies, grants from other sources, loans from private sources as well as personal savings and contributions that the beneficiaries would use in subsequent adaptations or extensions. Conventional practice means that these funds all go into “one pot” and produce highly “entangled” buildings with no level or system separation (Phil Astley explains the concept of systems separation or open planning in several documents, refer to (Astley nd). These investments are also injected across various physical locations and the reach, extent and impact is therefore limited (Refer to Figure 5). GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES

$ OTHER GRANTS

‘ONE POT’

CONVENTENTIONAL PROCUREMENT SYSTEM

CONVENTENTIONAL BUILDING ‘ENTANGLED & MONO-DIMENSSIONAL

$

$ $ PERSONAL FUNDS

$ LOANS

Figure 5: Conventional practice produces highly “entangled” buildings (Diagram by Jhono Bennett)

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Strict system separation implies that different fund sources would be assigned to different aspects of the building/development allowing for innovative management, ownership and rental scenarios. This paper argues that government-subsidies for housing must only be spent on Base Building infrastructure – stopping all investment on individual units except in cases of destitution. RESIDENTIAL UNIT SUB-DIVISION & INFILL LEVELS

TISSUE & SUPPORT LEVELS

10-30 yrs

100 - 300 yrs at the NEIGHBORHOOD BLOCK LEVEL

at the BUILDING UNIT LEVEL

$

$

$

$

PERSONAL FUNDS

LOANS

OTHER GRANTS

GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES

Figure 6: Strict system separation implies that different fund sources would be assigned to different aspects of the building/development (Diagram by Jhono Bennett).

By providing Base Buildings, it is possible to address the disparity in infrastructure in different parts of the country and within cities. Base buildings achieve equity by injecting government funding in structures, which are shared by everyone, irrespective of income level. This means that everyone would use and benefit from the base buildings in the same manner that government investment goes towards a street or railway line that everyone uses. This would surely reduce the discrimination that arises from the distinctly located, designed and built housing for the poor? Structuring elements / design decision-making Structuring elements that are identified in a given context need to be used in determining design decisionmaking strategies. It is important to think beyond public/private by exploring intermediate zones semipublic/semi-private and clearly demarcating to communities where interventions are not permitted by using OB zones/buffer zones – this needs community buy-in. Routes and open space may be used as urban structuring elements – taking clues from existing spatial patterns and space use – which may be easily detected from initial mapping. Through mapping at neighbourhood level, existing structures, heritage buildings, pedestrian paths, vehicular routes, public space, existing space defining elements, service lines (piping, networks, cables) green corridors and building envelopes might be considered a part of the permanent base/support level. At block and building level, the supports/base buildings would be more finer-grained and nuanced and would include structural elements, horizontal and vertical service lines as well as service ducts at building level, vertical and horizontal circulation – again building envelop might be considered as part of the base/support level.

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Therefore the support/base level of the environment allows for diverse interpretations and supports are as diverse as the needs/characteristics of the various environments being considered. Process of design and implementation in an informal settlement Learning from current experience in re-blocking, mapping must be carried out in partnership with the residents and decisions made, in consultation, with regards to what needs to be removed/demolished as well as with regards to the Base Buildings that need to be inserted. These allow for shared/communal ownership and provide spatial structuring elements. Coordination between the diverse agents/stakeholders may be achieved through strict system separation and clear decision-making strategies which make it easier to manage the complexity of the process, to manage expectations and clearly assign roles. It is also important to differentiate about aspects of the built environment where decision-making may be made by individuals or communities. Sometimes the decisions that are delegated to communities have no structural/functional/spatial value and may simply “cosmetic” in nature (Osman and Davey 2011) – not an ideal scenario. This needs to be considered and addressed. Base Buildings should be used as a spatial and physical intervention to facilitate real and on-going participation. In addition to the above issues, asking people “what they want” is an inadequate understanding of participation as people’s “expectations are experientially determined” (Dewar and Uytenbogaardt 1991). The role of the professional is to introduce communities to new solutions that they would not be able to envision – bearing in mind their day-to-day experience of using space and their own understanding of priorities and needs. Needs however are also dynamic, meaning that the results of a consultative process today may not be valid tomorrow. Once-off participation is therefore not very effective. Real and effective participation is on-going and representative. Real participation would have an impact on the way projects are conceptualized, funded and realized. On-going participation ensures long-term partnerships with communities but also puts in place an infrastructure which facilitates this constant engagement in decision-making and in the careful management of relationships between various stakeholders.

Alternative tenure options Individual ownership, in more cases than most, translates into individual plots and individual units. Occupation agreements may be an alternative to ownership. Using an Open Building understanding, a secondary level in the built environment may be considered where non-structural and partitioning may be separately owned and easily movable – replicating the sophistication of the shack system which, despite being low-tech and rudimentary, offers excellent clues to manage the different levels of the built environment and allows easier access to the lowest rung of the formal housing market. This secondary level of the environment may be owned independently of the base level, it may be re-configured, sold off or let. This proposed approach is in line with the call for an incremental tenure approach which offers alternatives to the current focus on individual ownership. The process: “… relies on simple administrative and legal mechanisms… [and] emphasises an incremental approach to tenure in terms of which initial tenure is simple and affordable but may be upgraded later (Garau et al. 2005, Cousins et al. 2005). The Incremental Tenure Approach also highlights the importance of, and makes provision for, alternate forms of legal tenure such as short-term leases, rental and servitudes of use” (Napier and Ntombela 2006). Urban Landmark also suggests the following steps in the process (author’s notes in italics):

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•

Step 1 involves making a decision about the long-term future of the settlement. This relates to the development of a long-term vision before any interventions are made.

•

Step 2 involves the blanket legal recognition of the settlement. This allows the community, with municipalities and professional teams may embark on the conceptualizing and design of the Base Buildings as well as sourcing funding for this with confidence that the development is legally recognized and there is no risk of the effort being aborted.



•

Step 3 involves the ongoing developmental regulation and improvement of the settlement. By offering various forms of tenure rights and giving people an address it is possible to create a sense of permanence and ownership. Base Buildings ensure a collective sense of ownership and diverse tenure opportunities within the structures.

•

Step 4 involves township establishment, if not already begun, for the settlement and the award of individual ownership to beneficiaries on the opening of township registers. Once the Base Buildings are in place, it is still possible to have individual ownership for some sections of the development, if so desired. Thus OB diversifies tenure opportunities, ensures access for those members of the community who cannot afford or do not desire ownership. It also solves the issues that arise with the “non-qualifiers” (this refers to illegal immigrants or people not entitled to government housing support through the existing subsidy systems) and allows the settlement to “self-regulate” within set systems and process that are disentangled and do not conflict. (Based on Smit and Abrahams 2010)

The buildings would be structured differently with strict "systems separation". This allows for the building infill to be disassembled (design for disassembly DfD) and by designing building components for compatibility (design for compatibility DfC) (Osman et al. 2011). This also allows for differentiated ownership systems where someone or agency may rent the right to use the space within the support system/base building but own the infill level. Integration with surrounding urban context In most cases, informal settlements need to be integrated with the surrounding urban context through some major infrastructure interventions – a bridge across the railway line + a vehicle route across the river/park area. This would be a more beneficial use of resources leaving the lower-level/residential unit decisions for community/individuals using individual resources. In some cases a meaningful interface with the surroundings may be achieved through a higher density, mixed-use zone, perhaps with social rental housing as a function that may attract new tenants as well as commercial activities that invite people from the surroundings into the settlement, thus reducing its isolation.

HYBRID MECHANISMS OF HOUSING DELIVERY AND NEIGHBOURHOOD DEVELOPMENT: A PROPOSED ALTERNATIVE PROCESS FOR ISU

WPI/CT partnership/CORC define re-blocking projects in some detail in terms of stakeholders and roles (Worchester Polytechnic Institute WPI and Community Organization Resource Centre CORC nd). This process offers a great framework. The author has made some alternative suggestions based on this re-blocking process:

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1.

Community or Municipality initiates the project. Municipality has a system in place which is wellcommunicated so that the processes may be replicated at scale but which also manages to acknowledge the unique circumstances and dynamics of individuals and communities.

2.

A professional team is appointed by the Municipality, which must include architects as a condition. An agreement is achieved with the Community, to be treated as the clients, which defines the extent of the project, the timeframes and articulates the various roles.

3.

The professional team documents the settlement as it is currently in partnership with the community in a similar process and manner as implemented at Ruimsig, Mtishini Wam.

4.

The professional team in partnership with the Community develop visions for the settlement, which are divided into IMMEDIATE/SHORT-TERM solutions and LONG-TERM VISIONS towards the achievement of an INTEGRATED, BEAUTIFUL, SUSTAINABLE, DESIRABLE NEIGHBOURHOOD. The two processes must run concurrently and through a rapid assessment and decision-making process.



5.

The IMMEDIATE/SHORT-TERM solutions must aim to address issues that are considered to be hazardous and pose immediate danger to the residents such as fire risks and access for emergency vehicles.

6.

The visions for an INTEGRATED, BEAUTIFUL, SUSTAINABLE, DESIRABLE NEIGHBOURHOOD must emphasise concepts of creating linkages with the proximate context as well as visions for how the settlement may evolve in a phased process through DIVERSE ROUTES OF GROWTH with an end project that contains both PERMANENT COMPONENTS and CHANGEABLE components. It is important to note that the PERMANENT COMPONENTS must be determined before any changes are made to the existing settlement pattern in the form of IMMEDIATE/SHORT-TERM interventions. An exception is situations where lack of immediate action will result in hazardous repercussions.

7.

A plan is developed in collaboration with the community to implement the PERMANENT COMPONENTS – these are financed by the Municipality or through a special subsidy. High-level technical input is critical at this stage. These components must also be carefully negotiated as they imply shared walls with neighbours and street edge definition using buildings.

8.

As the base buildings are being conceptualised, designed and delivered through government support and funding, skills audits may be carried out and small business teams developed for the delivery of the INFILL/FIT OUT level of the settlements. These multi-skilled teams are appointed and move in to deliver the infill level for individuals, families, social housing institutions, business who own or rent sections of the base structures.

CONCLUSION The paper has presented a case for phased and adaptable developments aligning with two proposed levels of the construction process. A process to monitor and evaluate design and tendering processes supporting an Open Building approach needs to be established. The link between housing, economy and progress in general is acknowledged as is the link between cohesive form, space, image, architectural language and inclusive, cohesive communities. Any new vision aiming towards equal access to the city, and equitable distribution of resources, should focus on shared space. If this vision is to become a reality, wide-scale buy-in must be aimed for among civil society and professionals. Adoption as a national strategy would provide the government with a more efficient mechanism for delivery in the built environment. In conclusion, in addressing the specific needs of various settlements, it needs to be considered that there are assumptions about alternative design/delivery processes which are not always accurate and it is therefore important to state the following two points: a)

An Open Building project is NOT an incomplete project. There is much negativity (shared by the author) towards projects that delivery a wet core, roof and asks that the owners complete the unit themselves. However, Open Building allows for a diverse group to contribute in the process of design and building – in a manner that is carefully coordinated and managed. This implies the careful coordination of different construction teams at different phases of construction.

b) An Open Building project does NOT have to look different. However, the design and construction/procurement process is very different from conventional practice. The buildings would be structured differently We therefore need to address this negativity and re-think the way that informal settlement upgrading is practiced, by applying a time-based approach to the built environment, and by better aligning thinking on the process of upgrading with the context of the city and the understanding that need and desire for beautiful and functioning neighbourhoods is a universal principle.

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AN ON-GOING INVESTIGATION This paper presents the concepts of time-based design, open building, distributed decision-making and disentanglement and their relevance and application in informal settlement upgrading in South Africa. This process still needs to be studied in terms of viable economic models and technical systems in future research.

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Opportunities”', Presented at the CAADRIA 2005: “Digital Opportunities,” The Association for ComputerAided Architectural Design Research in Asia (CAADRIA), TVB School of Habitat Studies. Napier, M., Ntombela, N., 2006. Towards effective state interventions to improve access by the poor to urban land markets. Urban LandMark Counc. Fro Sci. Ind. Res. South Afr. National Planning Commission, 2011. Our future - make it work NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 2030. Ngobeni, N., 2014. Kliptown CBD “Bridge”: an architectural intervention enhancing the physical & socioeconomic integration of Freedom Square, Kliptown informal settlement and Kliptown CBD, Johannesburg. (MTech Architecture), University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa. Osman, A & Davey, C., 2011. Sustainable building transformation in the South African housing sector, CSIR case studies. Osman, A, Herthogs, P & Davey, C., 2011. 'Are open building principles relevant in the South African housing sector? CSIR investigations and analysis of housing case studies for sustainable building transformation', in Management Innovation for a Sustainable Built Environment, presented at the Management Innovation for a Sustainable Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Osman, A, Sebake, N & Arvanitakis, D., 2013. 'A vision for sustainable human(e) settlements in South Africa: “base building” infrastructure for mixed residential developments, presented at the 2nd International Conference on Infrastructure Development in Africa (ICIDA 2013), University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa. Smit, D & Abrahams, G., 2010. 'Incrementally securing tenure: An approach for informal settlement upgrading in South Africa', Urban Landmark. Teicher, J & Kendall, S., 2007. Residential open building, Taylor & Francis, London Tshweu, T., SAIA, SHiFT, CSIR, SAICE, Industry partners, 2010. 'A vision for sustainable human(e) settlements in South Africa', Unpublished. Worchester Polytechnic Institute WPI, Community Organization Resource Centre CORC, nd. Reblocking: A Partnership Guide a handbook to support the reblocking of informal settlements though a multiple stakeholder effort, WPI Cape Town Project Centre.

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STUDYING THE EFFECT OF ADAPTABLE MATERIALISATION ON LONG TERM URBAN DEVELOPMENT GOALS: A METHODOLOGY Pieter Herthogs, Vrije Universiteit Brussel & VITO, Belgium, [email protected] Niels De Temmerman, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium, [email protected] Yves De Weerdt, VITO, Belgium, [email protected] Wim Debacker, VITO, Belgium, [email protected] Abstract Sustainable urban development is increasingly studied within the framework of dynamic theories such as resilience, adaptation or transition – concepts based on the acknowledgement of an uncertain and changing future. However, the use of dynamic concepts in the development discourse is not reflected in the approaches used to materialise our urban environments – conventional approaches mostly lead to the creation of buildings, infrastructure and public spaces that are unable to accommodate changes over time. In order to study the effect of a more adaptable built environment on long term urban development goals, there is a need for methodologies linking dynamic theories on the urban level to concepts of adaptable materialisation. Using complexity theory as a theoretical framework, we have developed such a methodology: the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures. This paper discusses the aim to balance theory and practice, illustrates the methodology based on an urban regeneration project for a social housing estate in Mechelen (Belgium), and discusses its potential use and merits. In essence, the methodology is a design charrette. The goal is to ‘refurbish’ an existing urban development project and adaptable variants of that same project, based on a hypothetical future scenario. Afterwards, the refurbishments of the existing project and its variants are evaluated in terms of their long term sustainable development goals. The development of the methodological framework and resulting theories is an iterative process, evolving case by case (similar to a grounded theory approach). On a theoretical research level, the Lab could be useful to explore the benefits and drawbacks of adaptability on the neighbourhood level, to formulate theory, to create preliminary tools and guidelines, and to explore if there are planning principles to optimise the distribution of adaptable capacity in an urban fragment. At the same time, it could function as a decision support platform for policy makers, designers and other stakeholders of urban projects by demonstrating the importance of adaptable materialisation in supporting longterm sustainability goals. The next stage in the development of the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures is testing the methodology in practice, which will be done in an ongoing redevelopment project in the city of Turnhout, Belgium. The results and experiences of the test case will then be used to explore and assess the methodology’s strength in terms of verifying hypothesis about urban fragment adaptability. Keywords: adaptability, complexity, urban fragment, design charrette, design scenario. INTRODUCTION Sustainable urban development is increasingly studied within the framework of dynamic theories such as resilience, adaptation or transition – concepts based on the acknowledgement of an uncertain and changing future. For example, transition based approaches are gaining momentum in research and governance, particularly in the Netherlands and the UK (Shove and Walker 2007), and in the Belgian region of Flanders, the concept of transition has become embedded in sustainable urban development policy (Block and Paredis 2012). This shift in theory could be understood as part of a larger evolution towards the acknowledgement of the world as a complex, dynamic system (du Plessis and Cole 2011). Mitchell (2009, p. 13) defines a complex system as ‘a system in which large networks of components with no central control and simple rules of operation give rise to complex collective behaviour, sophisticated information processing, and adaptation

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via learning or evolution’. This adaptation leads to a complex system’s most vital characteristic: the fact that it can maintain ‘coherence under change’ (Holland 1995, p. 4). City systems are inherently complex and dynamic: they bring together a vast amount people with diverse and interdependent needs, desires and skills. As a result, they are too complex to be controlled or planned centrally; instead, they should be developed from the ground up (Batty 2005). Neighbourhoods are generally perceived as being the most basic units of urban development (ibid.), which makes it important to understand how they function. Because ‘neighbourhood’ is a contested term, with different meanings in different fields of study, we have introduced the term ‘urban fragment’. Urban fragments are combinations of physical and social systems that together form the most basic organised systems of cities and urban development; they represent the mesoscale of the city, and are the link between individual elements of the physical built environment and the city system in its entirety. Seeing cities as dynamic, complex systems has resulted in new theories for urban development that explicitly focus on change and uncertainty. However, approaches to apply such dynamic theories to the materialisation of our environments appear to be less common. This is the case from spatial planning to building design. Roggema (2012, p. 29) describes how important international conferences and publications on climate adaptation and resilience hardly mention spatial planning and design. In our built environment, conventional buildings are often unable to accommodate changes over time (Slaughter 2001). When building requirements change, they are abandoned by its users, partially demolished and renovated, or destroyed and replaced. It is not economic or resource efficient to design and build facilities that become obsolete before their expected lifespan is reached (Slaughter 2001). These are not efficient forms of adaptation – this is not ‘coherence under change’. On the scale of the building, research often focuses on the benefits of individual adaptable buildings, such as decreased demolition waste production, lower maintenance costs or increased user control. But would these adaptable buildings also introduce benefits on the urban scale, at the system level? Can they support an urban fragment’s capacity to maintain sustainable under change? In order to study the effect of a more adaptable built environment on long term urban development goals, there is a need for methodologies linking dynamic theories on the urban level to concepts of adaptable materialisation. We have developed such a methodology, the ‘Lab for Urban Fragment Futures’, and illustrate it in this paper using an urban regeneration project. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the methodological process and discuss the underlying ideas of the concept, not to showcase actual results. The first section discusses how the methodology aims to address concerns on both a theoretical and a practical level. The second session is a brief overview of the methodology, its components and structure, before going over to the third section illustrating the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures, based on the Mahatma Gandhi neighbourhood redevelopment in Mechelen, Belgium. Finally, the discussion shows how the methodology addresses the requirements and concerns raised at the beginning of the paper and describes future work. A METHODOLOGY BALANCING THEORY AND PRACTICE This section discusses why a methodology to study adaptable materialisation at the urban fragment scale should be grounded in both theory and practice. On the one hand, the topic itself is inherently theoretical. The topic’s subject - buildings and infrastructure that have been purposefully designed for change – is not commonly applied in real life. Although such buildings are no longer considered unusual (Kendall 2011), they are not yet conventional, especially when considering the scale of a neighbourhood. The theoretical framework is complexity theory. Because complexity is a relatively recent field of study, there are many uncertainties about theories and methods, and because of the non-reductionist and non-linear characteristics of complex systems, it is difficult to do quantitative studies (Herthogs et al. 2012).

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Because both the subject and the framework are emerging fields of research, the methodology should be able to contribute to the postulation and verification of theoretical hypothesis regarding adaptable materialisation and urban change. On the other hand, there is an increasing demand to put theory into practice. In Flanders, the idea that buildings can and should be designed for future change is gaining ground and is starting to feature in vision and policy documents of governments, government institutions and cities. For example, the Public Waste Agency of Flanders (OVAM) has put the need for ‘dynamic and flexible construction and renovation’ centrestage in its recently proposed policy programme (Materiaalbewust bouwen in kringlopen 2013), and a study for the Agency for Domestic Governance on the policy challenges and threats cities could face when implementing adaptable and multi-purpose buildings and infrastructure (IDEA consult 2012) show that cities are ready to explore the concept. It is likely that this increased interest in adaptability on the building level will result in an increased need to effectively implement adaptability on the urban level. These reports and policy documents also show that the first concern of policy makers is guidelines and evaluation tools, and a preference for predictable planning actions and quantification. The next section gives an overview of the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures, the methodology we developed to study the effect of adaptable materialisation at the urban level. Its aim is to compare different theoretical hypotheses regarding the distribution of adaptable capacity in an urban fragment within the framework of a participatory design exercise exploring urban change in an existing urban development project. AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE ‘LAB FOR URBAN FRAGMENT FUTURES’ The ‘Lab for Urban Fragment Futures’ (LUFF, or the ‘Lab’) is a guided participatory design exercise. The goal is to ‘refurbish’ an existing urban development project and adaptable variants of that same project, based on a hypothetical future scenario. Afterwards, the refurbishments of the existing project and its variants are evaluated in terms of their long term sustainable development goals - in essence a resilience test. An overview of the methodology, its components and structure is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Structure of the 6 steps in the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures methodology.

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The basic concept of the methodology will now be illustrated based on an urban regeneration project for the Mahatma Gandhi neighbourhood in Mechelen, Belgium. The case selected for this illustration is the regeneration project of the Mahatma Gandhi neighbourhood in the city of Mechelen. It is a typical post-war social housing estate for about 3000 inhabitants (Paduart et al. 2013), mostly consisting of terraced housing units and medium rise housing blocks (see Figure 2). The buildings and public space will be refurbished over a period of several years. The highlights of the master plan shown in Figure 3 are new housing blocks on the south edge, the resizing of roads and parking, and the improvement of green space (Omgeving cvba 2010). This illustration focuses on the first phase of Gandhi neighbourhood redevelopment, situated to the north. The aim of this paper is to explain the methodological process, not to generate correct or representative data and results – the examples used to describe each step are deliberately straightforward. This illustration has been developed to explain the methodology to potential partners in participative cases and researchers. Therefore, it is not based on such a participative process. This illustration in no way aims to reflect any particular visions of those involved in the actual project. Unless otherwise indicated, the only source used for this illustration is the final report of the town planning study done by design firm ‘Omgeving’ for the social housing cooperation ‘Woonpunt Mechelen’ (Omgeving cvba 2010). In case of missing data (like amounts and sizes of apartment types), estimates and assumptions were used.

Figure 2: The current Mahatma Gandhi neighbourhood is a typical post-war social housing estate (Source: Omgeving cvba 2010).

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Figure 3: The highlights of the master plan are new housing blocks on the south edge, the resizing of roads and parking, and the improvement of green space (Source: Omgeving cvba 2010). Analysing an urban development project using the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures is a multi-stepped process, with workshops and preparatory research work. A flowchart of the methodology is shown in figure 4 below. These six steps structure the description of the methodology below. In this description, the researchers are experts in urban adaptability (i.e. the authors of this paper) and the project participants are a selection of key stakeholders in the urban development process (e.g. city officials, developer, designers, experts, neighbourhood representatives, inhabitants …).

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Figure 4: The flowchart of the Lab for Urban Fragments methodology shows how each of its six steps is interrelated, and which steps are participative. Step 1: determining long term development goals In the first meeting, researchers and project participants discuss the project’s long term development vision and goals, and the participants select what they consider to be the key goals. As the Lab is used to study the effects of adaptable materialisation, the goals need to be related to the built environment. In case of the Gandhi master plan, two long term goals fit this requirement: maintaining an increased social cohesion and avoiding future parking space problems. According to the master plan, increasing and maintaining social cohesion will be achieved by increasing the amount of different housing and apartment types, both now and in the future. In other words, the master plan directly substitutes an immaterial goal (social cohesion) for a building specification (housing type diversity). Verifying whether there is a causal link between housing diversity and cohesion is beyond the scope of the Lab; housing type diversity is the first long term goal that will be studied.

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One of the basic concepts of the master plan is to stimulate multi-modal mobility. The plan significantly reduces the amount of car-based infrastructure, especially the amount of on-site roadside parking space, in order to improve the public space for pedestrians and cyclists, and to reduce the fragmentation of green spaces (Omgeving cvba 2010, p. 51). Nevertheless, drastic changes in mobility could result in parking problems. For, example, the introduction of commercial functions could increase the need for (car) parking, or the stimulation of cycling could result in an increased need for bicycle parking. Studying if and how such evolutions could be supported increases our understanding of the resilience of parking solutions. Suitable parking infrastructure is the second long term goal that will be studied.

Figure 5: Plan and partial rendering of first phase of the master plan. Type 1 buildings are family apartments with garage boxes (yellow), type 2 are single bedroom flats, type 3 are one family terraced houses with an adjacent garage (green): all these types will be or have been refurbished. The type 4 buildings are multi-storey apartment blocks to be constructed at either end of the type 3 streets. (Adapted from Omgeving cvba 2010).. Step 2: developing adaptable variants of the project The Lab for Urban Fragment Futures compares how well a business-as-usual urban project and more adaptable variants of the same projects respond to changes. These adaptable variants of the existing urban development project are developed by the researchers. The idea is to change the ‘adaptable capacity’ (AC) of buildings and infrastructure. Adaptable capacity is a measure of the adaptability of the materialisation – in case of buildings, for example, it covers a range of concepts such as multi-purpose buildings, support and infill, moveable or demountable walls, etcetera. Only the AC of buildings, infrastructure or other materialised components is changed; no changes are made to the overall design scheme of the master plan, intended functions or spatial layout. Each variant is based on a different hypothesis or theoretical principle to distribute AC throughout the site. The first variant of the Gandhi project distributes a low AC evenly on the site. The terraced houses (Figure 5, type 3, in green) are refurbished in such a way as to make it easier to turn the adjacent garage into a functional space for people. This could be done by improving insulation, providing options to swap the garage door with wall and window panels, and installing more multi-purpose water and electricity ducts. Each of the 126 housing units of this type can now increase its number of living spaces by one, but only at the expense of a covered space for parking.

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The second variant introduces high AC at the street corners. The new multi-storey buildings at the ends of the terraced housing rows (Figure 5, type 4) will now be designed using a support and infill approach. They allow a wide range of possible changes, some of which include introducing covered parking spaces, but there are only 21 units.

Figure 6: In variant 1 (left), the garages of the terraced houses would be more adaptable, while in variant 2 (right), the new multi-storey buildings use a support and infill approach. Adaptable variants correspond to a hypothesis of AC distribution. The Lab for Urban Fragment Futures can be used to compare different adaptable variants, based on the performance of the hypothesis under change (step 4 and 6 of the methodology). The factor of comparison is efficiency: what kind of AC levels are required at which locations on the site in order to maximally support the long term goals determined in step 1? Although the examples described here are (deliberately) simplistic, other distribution principles could use more complicated or complex parameters, such as levels of control (Habraken and Teicher 1998) or network complexity measures (e.g. Hao and Xin 2010, as described in Roggema 2012, p. 137). Step 3: developing a sub-model and generating a changed design programme During a participative workshop, project participants and researchers work together to develop a sub-model for change scenario’s and use it to generate a new design programme for the urban development project. In the next step, this hypothetical ‘future programme’ or scenario will be used to refurbish the existing master plan. The aim of the methodology is to study the effect of adaptable materialisation on change. In the Lab, this change acts on a partial programme of requirements for the Gandhi project. We developed the concept of a ‘sub-model’ as a framework to generate a changed programme of requirements in a controlled and parametric way. The sub-model links different parameters and requirements related to the long term goals of the Gandhi redevelopment project (determined in step 1). Researchers and participants develop the sub-model together, starting from a demo model created by the researchers. The sub-model displayed in figure 7 links different parameters related to housing diversity and car and bicycle parking infrastructure. The first parameter is the number of households that can live in the neighbourhood, the next determines household requirements for bedrooms and living rooms, finally resulting in a demand for certain housing types (in the model, housing types are considered equal to the amount of spaces for sleeping and living). Two more parameters, the number of adults and children per bedroom, determine the amount of inhabitants. Multiplying this by the car and bicycle ownership rate gives us a total required amount of car and bicycle parking.

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Figure 7: The sub-model for the Gandhi neighbourhood links parameters related to housing diversity and parking. The green boxes indicate which type of change is applied to each parameter. The resulting shift in parameter values is listed under each parameter. The sub-model is then used to generate a new programme of requirements for the Gandhi neighbourhood. During the workshop, the change is determined by the project participants per parameter or cluster of parameters. The researchers guide the process by demonstrating how each parameter relates to the projects long term goals, and show relevant references (e.g. expected demographic evolutions). Participants decide on values for the programme of requirements: first, they decide desired or expected values for the project as if it were to exist today; second, they decide or generate new values for that project in a future time. Most parameters in the sub-model are distributions: for example, in the Gandhi neighbourhood, 19% of households need 1 bedroom, 66% needs 2, 11% needs 3, etcetera. These distributions can change, new options can emerge, or existing options can go extinct. We have defined three types of change: normative change is predetermined or chosen based on goals, forecasts or other methods (e.g. the number of households in a neighbourhood must stay the same); normative-random change is a random shift in a distribution, but within a normative minimum-maximum range (e.g. maximum 10% distribution change), making it possible to define slow or fast changing distributions, or distributions that are more or less likely to change; finally, random change shifts the distribution without any limitations. In Figure 7, the type of change selected for each parameter is listed in a green box, and the resulting value or distribution shift is listed underneath.

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Figure 8: The generated shift in the programme of requirements shows the combined effect of changing individual parameters. The shift in the programme of requirements, shown in Figure 8, is generated by inserting the values for individual parameters into the sub-model. Cumulative or concurrent changes can lead to compounded requirement shifts: for example, the 15% increase in bike ownership together with an increase in household size actually results in a 46% increase of the bicycle parking need. It is possible to cater the sub-model to the needs and requirements of the project participants. For example, an urban development project that aspires to transition towards a certain sustainability vision could normatively favour solutions that support this vision and will maximise the emergence of new solutions. A project focussing on climate adaptation could select the changes that result in a worst case scenario. Step 4: refurbishing the project in a ‘redesign charrette’ Step 4 is the crucial step of the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures. The participants are asked to ‘refurbish’ the Gandhi neighbourhood, adapting the built environment as envisaged by the master plan to a changed programme of requirements generated in step 3. In essence, this step is a design charrette: ‘a time-limited, multiparty design event organised to generate a collaborative produced plan for a sustainable community’ (Condon cited in Roggema 2014, p. 16). The fact that participants are adapting an existing design to a set of determined requirements instead of co-creating a new vision and plan for a sustainable urban project is stressed by referring to this step as a ‘redesign charrette’ instead. The goal of the redesign charrette is to implement the changed programme of requirements. In case of the Gandhi example this implies adapting or adding housing units and bicycle parking infrastructure. Participants keep track of the amount and scale of the interventions needed to adapt the project. Both the existing project and its adaptable variants are ‘refurbished’ in this way, either starting by redesigning the existing and trying to apply the same solution to the adaptable, or vice versa. Step 5: assessing the adaptable capacity in the existing project and its variants The last two steps in the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures methodology evaluate the results of the redesign charrette. In step 6, the researchers evaluate the effectiveness of the existing project and its adaptable variants in terms of supporting their long term development goals. In order to do this, the adaptable capacity of buildings and infrastructure used in the existing project, its variants and the different redesigns needs to be determined.

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The type of adaptability assessment to be used depends on the type of project and the types of materialisation that needs to be assessed. For a participatory exercise, the adaptability assessment methods need to be straightforward. Some examples we have (co-)developed are a set of multi-criteria analysis tools for the material, building and urban infrastructure level (Paduart et al. 2013), a tool to evaluate the generality and adaptability of a building plan’s spatial configuration (Herthogs et al. 2013), and a verification diagram to assess the entanglement of building components with different life-spans (Osman et al. 2011). Step 6: evaluating the ‘resilience’ of the existing project and its variants The final step evaluates how well the existing project and its adaptable variants can stay ‘coherent under change’, expressed in terms of the effort needed to adapt them to fit the new programme of requirements. Depending on the type of project, the available data and the interest of the project partners, the evaluation can be qualitative, quantitative, or a combination. In case of the Gandhi illustration, the two important benchmarks are how well the neighbourhood can be adapted to a spike in bicycle popularity, and to what extent it can support the diversification of housing (or household) types. The results of this evaluation should be interpreted as cases that explore particular hypotheses and minimum requirements for adaptable capacity in urban fragments. How much of the projects needed to be refurbished to meet the new requirements? How extensive was this refurbishment? Was it easier to redesign a particular adaptable variant? How much of the new requirements could not be met, and need to be solved in adjacent or larger scale systems? DISCUSSION The Lab for Urban Fragment Futures is a methodology which aims to allow the formulation and evaluation of theory while it is being used in practice. It is similar to a grounded theory approach, in the sense that the methodology itself, the hypotheses it explores (the adaptable variants), its assessment methods and evaluation tools can evolve with every iteration. The Lab can iterate in three different ways: it can be used to analyse different urban development projects; it can be used to generate different sub-models and programmes of requirements; and it can be used to test different adaptable variants. It is important to stress that the Lab is a framework to study adaptation, not change. The methodology can’t be used to predict future change – in fact, it is completely independent of the kind of change an urban fragment needs to adapt to. The final results will never be useful as predictions or estimates, but they can increase our understanding of urban level adaptability, and could serve as illustrations and verifications of hypothesis and principles. On a theoretical research level, the Lab could be useful to explore the benefits and drawbacks of adaptability on the neighbourhood level, to formulate theory, to create preliminary tools and guidelines, and to explore if there are planning principles to optimise the distribution of adaptable capacity in an urban fragment. At the same time, it could serve as a decision support exercise for people in practice, such as policy makers, designers and other stakeholders of urban projects. The exercise could explain the impact of change on sustainable urban projects, demonstrate the importance of adaptable materialisation in reaching long-term sustainability goals, and identify opportunities for more deterministic analysis of particular problems that were encountered. Du Plessis and Cole (2011) describe how a flexible and reflexive participative approach, where researchers are not experts, but co-learners, is particularly suited to study in a holistic, uncertain paradigm or world view. We think our methodology fits that description. Nevertheless, part of finding a balance between theory and practice is the ability to bring both closer together. An inherently uncertain worldview might be acceptable for fundamental theory, but it is a concept many – including the future participants in our charrettes – will find hard to grasp. It seems to contradict the basic human tendency to continuously predict the future; a tendency which can’t be excluded artificially (Sela 2013). A completely ‘prediction free’ urban planning approach might just be incompatible with practice. The Lab’s use of sub-models could serve as a hybrid. A sub-model with unexpected accumulation effects in the end might be a good way to demonstrate to the participants how a complex urban system works, and how

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different aspects are interconnected, while still allowing them to apply determinism and prediction to individual parameters. In practice, the act of making or deciding on predictions and designing for change might prove to be an important stepping stone to actually building adaptable buildings. FUTURE WORK The next stage in the development of the Lab for Urban Fragment Futures is testing the methodology in practice. We will do this together with the project partners (city and developer) of an ongoing urban redevelopment project in the city of Turnhout, Belgium, where a part of the old industrial area next to the railroad station is being turned into an urban fragment focussing on sustainable housing and innovative healthcare solutions. The LUFF test-case will take place within the framework of a consultancy study aimed at setting up transition experiments to act as catalysts for innovation. The results and experiences of the test case will then be used to explore and assess the methodology’s strength in terms of verifying hypothesis about urban fragment adaptability. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is funded by VITO, the Flemish Institute for Technological Research. REFERENCES Batty, M., 2005. Cities and complexity: Understanding cities with cellular automata,AgentBased Models, and Fractals, The MIT press, Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England. Block, T & Paredis, E., 2012. ‘De Januskop van duurzaamheid in Vlaamse steden en van het gangbare transitiedenken’, Presented at the ViA-rondetafel “Naar een duurzame en creatieve stad,” Brussels, Belgium. du Plessis, C & Cole, RJ., 2011. ‘Motivating change: shifting the paradigm’, Building Research & Information, vol. 39, pp. 436–449. Habraken, NJ & Teicher, J., 1998. Structure of the ordinary: form and control in the built environment, MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Herthogs, P, De Temmerman, N & De Weerdt, Y., 2013. ‘Assessing the generality and adaptability of building layouts using justified plan graphs and weighted graphs: a proof of concept’, in: CESB13 - Central Europe towards Sustainable Building, Grada Publishing for Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic, p. 992. Herthogs, P, De Temmerman, N, De Weerdt, Y & Debacker, W., 2012. ‘Links between adaptable building and adaptive urban environments: a theoretical framework’, Proceedings of the CIB Conference on Smart and Sustainable Built Environments, Funcamp: Campinas, Brazil, São Paulo, Brazil. Holland, JH., 1995. Hidden order: how adaptation builds complexity, Helix books. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. IDEA consult, 2012. Aanpasbare, combineerbare en multi-inzetbare infrastructuur in centrumsteden: uitdagingen en knelpunten voor het beleid (Eindrapport), Agentschap voor Binnenlands Bestuur, Team Stedenbeleid, Brussel. Kendall, S., 2011. ‘New challenges for the open building movement: Architecture in the fourth dimension’, in MD Gibson & S Kendall (Eds.), Architecture in the Fourth Dimension: Methods and Practices for a Sustainable Building Stock, Proceedings of the Joint Conference of CIB W104 and W110, 15-17 November 2011, Boston, USA. Ball State University, Muncie, USA

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Materiaalbewust bouwen in kringlopen. 2013. Preventieprogramma duurzaam materialenbeheer in de bouwsector 2014-2020, (No. D/2013/5024/31), OVAM, Mechelen. Mitchell, M., 2009. Complexity: a guided tour, Oxford University Press, Oxford; New York. Omgeving cvba, 2010. Mahatma Gandhiwijk Mechelen: stedenbouwkundige studie, De Mechelse Goedkope Woning, Mechelen. Osman, A, Herthogs, P, Sebake, N, Gottsman, D & Davey, C., 2011. ‘An adaptability assessment tool (AAT) for sustainable building transformation: towards an alternative approach to residential architecture in South Africa’, in MD Gibson & S Kendall (Eds.), Architecture in the Fourth Dimension: Methods and Practices for a Sustainable Building Stock, Proceedings of the Joint Conference of CIB W104 and W110, 15-17 November 2011, Boston, USA. Ball State University, Muncie, USA, pp. 83–91. Paduart, A, De Temmerman, N, Trigaux, D, De Troyer, F, Debacker, W & Danschutter, S., 2013. ‘Casestudy ontwerp van gebouwen in functie van aanpasbaarheid: Mahatma Gandhiwijk Mechelen (No. D/2013/5024/27)’, OVAM, Mechelen. Roggema, R., 2012. ‘Swarm planning: The development of a planning methodology to deal with climate adaptation’, Doctoral thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft; Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen. Roggema, R., 2014. The design charrette: ways to envision sustainable futures, Springer, Netherlands. Sela, R., 2013. ‘Global scale predictions of cities in urban and in cognitive planning’, Presented at Complexity, Cognition, Urban Planning and Design, TU-Delft, Delft, The Netherlands. Shove, E & Walker, G., 2007. ‘CAUTION! Transitions ahead: politics, practice, and sustainable transition management’, Environment and Planning A, no. 39, pp. 763–770. Slaughter, ES., 2001. ‘Design strategies to increase building flexibility’, Building Research & Information, no. 29, pp. 208–217.

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HANDLING MULTIPLE ECOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN Peter Andreas Sattrup, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark, [email protected] Katrine Lotz, Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture Design and Conservation, Denmark, [email protected] Abstract In light of the many challenges of resource scarcity, climate change, rapid urbanization and changing social patterns facing societies today, main stream architecture remains remarkably 'resilient' to conceptual innovation regarding its nature and role in society. If the idea of open architecture, able to accommodate change over time is a necessary development in architectural conceptualization, what are the barriers and problems inherent in the present design culture, and how may these be overcome? In an educational experiment, architecture and architectural engineering students were asked to imagine that their recent housing projects had been built and occupied for 25+ years. The students were given the task to transform each other's projects according to new social programs, increased urban density and strict energy and resources use paradigms, using a design methodological framework in which they were to address liveability, environment, recyclability and energy across several architectural scales. Drawing on Actor Network Theory (ANT) vocabularies to describe the process, the authors identify challenges and potentials: A need for further cross disciplinary integration remains if architects are to address the increasing demands for resource optimization and environmental performance with great precision, but the experiment also showed promises in resolving design problems with multifaceted solutions addressing social and environmental issues simultaneously. The methodological framework in which the traditional scales of relative size were combined with new scales of time, intensities and durations proved instrumental towards creating a design culture of multiple ecologies. Keywords: multiple ecologies, integrated design methods, transforming the built environment, sustainability.

INTRODUCTION “The problem with buildings is that they look desperately static. It seems almost impossible to grasp them as movement, as flight, as a series of transformations. Everybody knows—and especially architects, of course— that a building is not a static object but a moving project, and that even once it is has been built, it ages, it is transformed by its users, modified by all of what happens inside and outside, and that it will pass or be renovated, adulterated and transformed beyond recognition” (Latour and Yaneva 2008, p. 80). As Latour and Yaneva point out, it seems as if the static means of architectural representations in photos, perspectives and renders in the media has a tendency towards suppressing the degree to which architecture is both subject to and instrumental in addressing change. Discussing the pressures from the actors in the network of the design process, - clients, users, officials, consultants, contractors, material suppliers, building codes, regulations, requirements etc. and the changes building goes through in its daily life and over its lifecycle, Latour and Yaneva point out the inadequacy of architectural representations, which may in fact be misleading as they tend to hide the complexity of architectural agency. Are architects taken hostage by their representations, mired in a swamp of images of architecture as object? The question is increasingly relevant as the role and agency of architecture as societal endeavor and as cultural expression are under scrutiny in light of the pressures on material and environmental resources. So how can architecture and architectural engineering students maintain their conceptualization and representations of buildings and the built environment in a fluid state of openness to change? How can we de-stabilize and keep open the tendency to crystalize and finalize design decisions as seemingly permanent, while still making design-decisions? Our assumption was that working within a methodological framework

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of ‘multiple ecologies’, students would be able to navigate a territory of temporal and spatial complexity in which their project would not be conceived as stable and finalized statements, but rather as a continued movement in the actor-network of the buildings’ be-coming. The concept of ecology has found applications in many disciplines of thought. Some applications are rather direct while others take the shape of useful metaphors explaining parallel phenomena in other fields of study. Ecology is directly applicable in architecture as the study of interactions between organisms and their environment, specifically as the way human species create, maintain and control their environment through material, energy, behavioural and cognitive processes and strategies. The term is however branching off in each of these dimensions and we can now speak of ‘industrial ecology’ (Allenby 2006, Gallopoulos 2006) as material flows managed in industrial processes to facilitate recycling loops and minimize waste, as a supplement to the ecology of human interaction with the natural environment. Guattari’s concepts of Mental, Social and Environmental Ecologies, point out that in order to create a balance between human activities and the capacity of the natural environment, a change in social behavioural and mental cognitive processes are needed, internalizing and socializing ecology as a pattern of thought as a critique of the present orders of societal organization, at individual and collective levels (Guattari 1989). The fields of Media Ecology and Knowledge Ecology are being developed, studying how human thinking, emotion and behaviour processes are influenced and structured by media (Postman 1970, McLuhan and Lapham 1994) and how practicing ecology may require a transdisciplinary approach combining natural science, cultural theory and philosophy, since humans are continuously interacting with and changing their environment (Robbert 2011). The aim here is not to add to the theoretical development of these specific theories, but to creatively explore how the idea of designers having to navigate ‘multiple ecologies’ in the design process, may describe and inform agendas, phenomena and interactions occurring in design process collaborations among architect and architectural engineering students in a teaching experiment: -

How does the design interact with the natural environment?

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How does it structure human social activity and how does human behaviour interact with it over time?

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How are material and energy processes structured by the design, and how do these change in time?

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How does the design come into being, as a process of knowledge exchange and creation, argued and debated through cross disciplinary collaboration?

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How do design methods and tools influence the design process and the resulting project?

In the experiment, a group of 4th year international exchange students of architecture at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture Design and Conservation (KADK) and a group of 2nd year architectural engineering students from the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) collaborated directly on design projects. The course was set up in a two stage process over a full semester. At the first stage, students worked at their separate institutions, developing a new housing scheme at all scale levels from urban planning and urban design to building design and apartment units. Apart from a few social events the students did not interact, and the projects were fully developed in accordance with the design criteria of each disciplinary institution. Key focus areas were biodiversity and tectonics to the architects, while to the architectural engineers they were climate, energy and daylight, building complementary competences in dealing with environmental and industrial ecologies through design decisions. Both groups of students had been introduced to Duffy and Brands’ observation that buildings change as they are adapted to changing functional requirements over time as summarized in Brands shearing layers (Brand 1994). A building’s Site evolves very slowly and can in many instances be considered permanent. The Structure of a building sees very little change over the course of a building’s lifetime, while the building’s Skin is subject to maintenance and modifications at long intervals. Building Services need updating and replacement regularly, while the Spaceplan – the disposition of functional programs in the building is

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subject to rapid change, as user patterns and needs change often. Stuff – the surfaces and furniture in the building have the highest rate of change. Buildings literally have metabolism, and different metabolic rates for each shearing layer. As a consequence the material resource flows going into building maintenance, renovations and transformation are correlated with the spatiotemporal scales of the shearing layers. Designers should, according to Brand, organize the design of buildings according to the hierarchy of shearing layers, in order to facilitate buildings’ change with a minimum of resistance. Taking this logic further, the articulation of assemblies becomes a pivotal point in industrial ecology, as it is the degree to which the elements can be disassembled that decides whether components and materials may be recycled, and their embodied energy or carbon thus retained for another lifecycle. Tectonics are, in addition to being the architectural expression of structure, a basic instrument in industrial ecology, serving or resisting architecture’s role as a discipline of material resource management.

Figure 1 – Shearing Layers (Brand, 1994) and an example of its application in the cradle to cradle design philosophy (McDonough + partners, 2009) applying design for disassembly principles (Crowther 1999, Nordby 2009). While the architecture students’ first stage introduced the shearing layers in a tectonics assignment and developed architectural design strategies for each correlated scale from urban to design detail, the engineering students’ first stage was organized in a sequential progression according to the spatial and temporal scales of the shearing layers, examining large scale and long term design issues first, before progressing to more rapidly changing minor scales, according to a design methodology developed by Sattrup building on previous work by Eberle and Simmendinger and Foster and partners (Eberle and Simmendinger, 2007, Hagan 2008, Sattrup 2012, 2009): Environmental design issues can also be organized sequentially according to a progression in scale, due to the impacts of design solutions on climatic conditions from landscape and urban scales to the building interior. The different layers of scale act as filters regulating climatic potentials, transforming solar radiation to daylight, heat and air movement, slowing winds down or speeding them up, affecting urban comfort and building energy use. The energy exchanges of the human habitat, from natural climate conditions, urban macro and micro climates to climate controlled interiors, can be interpreted in terms of a hierarchy of scale dependencies parallel to that of the shearing layers (Sattrup and Strømann-Andersen 2013, 2011). As with the shearing layers and industrial ecology, it is possible to derive design principles from the environmental ecology hierarchy of scales, which can be grafted into a design methodology proper using the shearing layers as conceptual structure: Environmental performance optimization requires consideration of the cumulative effects of urban, building and component design (Sattrup 2012). A designer wishing to minimize building energy use by say passive solar heating or optimizing daylight would do well to work at the urban scale before deciding on detailed design solutions, as the urban scale is the first layer modifying the climatic potential for lesser scale solutions.

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Figure 2: Brand’s shearing layers used to structure a design methodology for environmental and industrial ecologies of scales (Sattrup and Schipull Kauschen 2013). Thus, the general congruence between design concerns focusing on natural and industrial ecologies, allows these to be fused into a unifying methodology: Design decisions taken at the urban scale tend to have long term low to medium intensity impacts while decisions addressing smaller scales are short term and tend to have higher environmental impacts. Understanding this general tendency may allow designers to navigate the buildup of information in the design process with greater clarity. The architecture students would seek to fuse social and environmental concerns in the urban scale cultivating biodiversity in swales acting as a recreational space of species’ co-habitation. The engineering students were instructed in the use of digital simulation tools to analyze the urban climate potentials of sun, wind and daylight first, before calculating energy use at the building and room scales.

Figure 3: Architecture: Bio swale, wind, transformation of Ben’s project by Milda, Jason, Stefan, Alexander, Christoffer & Jesper (Naujalyte et al. 2013).

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Figure 4: Engineering: Superimposed daylight and solar radiation study, wind study (Naujalyte et al. 2013). Viewed in terms of managing design decisions during the design process, the interplay between the designer, his or her tools and their representations as media, and the design itself, architecture as medium which influences and is influenced, - we may interpret the build-up of information in the project as a media ecology in which scale plays a structuring role. The relations between scale and the progress of the design process are neither linear nor unidirectional, but generally assymetrical yet reciprocal and dependent on the types of media employed. In the design process, designers may very well lock design decisions at a minor scale early, for example deciding for a specific window size and system type before having studied the urban scale influence on daylight, but the design would then risk unintentionally missing out important information that could affect desired performance deeply. Scale dependencies can also work the other way around, as when the size of glazed areas in the building skin affect daylight distribution in the urban space. The term scale has until now been used mostly synonymously with the notion of architectural scale as the relative size of architectural elements proportional to the human body. Once the physics of climate and energy made visible by digital simulations are introduced and made tangible through visualizations, new scales are opened up for creative speculation and critique by designers. As Collinge noted, scales are conceived on the basis of the technological media used to give measure to the phenomena that are being sought controlled, and are thus very dependent on technological inventions and their modes of representation (Collinge 1999). Yaneva and Lotz have depicted how scaling up and down, jumping scale, navigating the influences of discrete design choices on the overall design quality is a method employed creatively by architects, negotiating which decisions to take in the process of making a design (Lotz 2008, Yaneva 2005). Knowing that decisions taken early in the design process influence the subsequent decisions deeply and thus tend to account for most of the final result’s performance, and that late design changes are cumbersome and expensive to perform due to the entanglement of information built up during the duration of the design process, - it is now possible to analyse the relative impact of design decisions on different design quality performance parameters using digital modeling tools. Geometric scales and scales of performance indicators, - be these social, environmental or economic, - may now be assessed early or late in the design process, but with changing precision, as data quality tend to increase and uncertainty decreases with the resolution of the project’s levels of information. Being able to navigate this rather complex ecology of media, in which quality is not only empirically experience dependent but tool and medium dependent, requires new skills of creative interpretation and critique of solutions by reflective practice, - in this case by the architecture and engineering students. Three weeks before the end of the academic year, as the semester’s projects had been drawn up as precisely and finitely as they possibly could, having been handed in and subjected to ‘final’ critiques, the collaboration began. Students were first asked to create groups of 2 architecture and 3 engineering students and choose a project which should be thoroughly renovated and transformed according to a changed program. They could not choose a project which anyone on the team had worked on: “Imagine that your projects have been built according to today’s standards, just as you designed them. Some 25+ years have passed, the inhabitants have changed, and so have patterns of life along with changes in demographics and culture. Along with a requirement to meet new functional demands, buildings are in need of repairs and upgrades, since wear and tear have begun to show.

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The projects were to accommodate a new program for a group of people ‘Urbania’ who wishes to live in a closely knit community, sharing amenities and spaces to a much wider extent than has been usual. In addition the original layout of buildings should be densified by up to 20%. “How would you transform your previous projects to build such a creative future, mixing old and new, recycling and upgrading structures, components and materials, reinventing identities and properties?”

e 5: Schematic representation of the stages of the design assignment.

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The students were asked to address four sets of design criteria reflecting interstitial dimensions of environmental, social and industrial ecologies, creating design concepts for each of these at four different scales. The design criteria were: Shared Space, Environment, Energy and Materials. The scales were: Urban space, Building, Apartment unit and Building Component. Combined, the criteria and scales could be seen as a matrix of overlapping concerns explicitly guiding the students’ attention towards several scales and multiple ecologies, both as a coherent whole and as an assemblage of particular, dynamically interacting concepts.

Figure 6: Matrix – Scales are conceived as both spatial and temporal dimensions not unlike Brand’s shearing layers. Introducing the matrix of ‘multiple ecologies’ challenges students to re-consider features of the design at point, where the projects are not just sketches, but actually ‘more-known’ in terms of Yaneva (Yaneva 2005). The projects have already once been assembled as a coherent whole through a design-process. Teachers and fellow students have followed the development of the project, and contributed to its development – and also to its stabilization as an architectural statement - through a critical engagement with it. Students have performed quite extensive analysis of the site, and of the program of modern, urban dwelling. We might say that the projects regarded as networks have already been fairly tight connected or stabilized, and it is present in its materializations: the scale-models and the posters, heavy with visuals, diagrams and text that unfolds the projects.

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Figure 7: Students discussing problems and potentials while deciding which project to transform. The students could choose among the 21 architecture and 10 architectural engineering design projects. The selection turned out to be critical for the subsequent work. “Well, there was numerical evidence behind all the engineering projects, making them difficult to change with good reason,” Kasper noted, “so we went with the architects’ projects only, as they seemed much more open to modifications.” The more finite quality of the architects’ projects did not deter the engineering students, - having a well determined project made the first step of analyzing the chosen project easier. Some of the engineers experienced that the sometimes sketchy resolution of technical issues would be demanding to tackle, finding it difficult to interpret the design, when technical concepts were not explicitly addressed. To the architecture students, there seemed to be a certain reluctance at first to ‘re-open’ projects that had been so recently finished at great effort, but also an ambition to ‘improve’ upon the original projects could be detected. In fact, reopening the projects could easily be rather risky, as projects would be judged equally on their integration and resolution of both architectural and engineering design issues. If architectural qualities were lost in the process of addressing a full palette of engineering concerns and issues, architecture students might easily appear as poor custodians of the virtual ‘cultural heritage’ left by their fellow students. As the design process of transformations evolved, it turned out that some projects were very difficult to modify without compromising the original design ideas, while others were easier to adapt in empathy with the original design intentions. Projects could be considered on an imaginary scale ranging from robust to fragile in this respect, noting a tendency towards projects using relatively generic shapes and organizations being more robust or able to accommodate change than projects with a more complex configuration. In addition, projects with particular aesthetic qualities were challenging to modify as well. Aesthetics turned out to have a functional quality in resource management: The higher the initial quality of the project, the less need for drastic interventions was deemed required, preserving the resources already invested in the buildings. The process of analysis had difficulties as well, as some aspects of the designs were left unresolved. Since projects had to be analyzed in both architectural and engineering terms, students would have to make assumptions of how unresolved aspects of the projects could be specified. This particular aspect of the assignment turned out to be pedagogically very fruitful due to its challenging of the projects: Crossdisciplinary scrutiny would make any weaknesses of the original designs evident. Some would have performance problems in terms of excess energy use or discomfort. These flaws were perhaps to be expected, since the projects had not hitherto been elaborated with these performance parameters in mind, and some international students were unfamiliar with these aspects of environmental design in a northern European setting. “Excellent projects will demonstrate how architecture and engineering may create a fertile common ground. Architecture may use engineering issues to create principles of formal and material architectural expression,

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while it is also very possible that architectural ideas may push engineering towards creative solutions. Creativity in tackling and resolving design issues in both architectural and engineering terms will be rewarded.” Once projects were selected and analyzed and students began to imagine strategies and interventions of transformation of the projects. The matrix of multiple ecologies could be said to oblige students to analyze and re-evaluate the given project on 16 different combinations of parameters. In that sense, it forces the ‘room for design’ to open again, and the already stabilized projects are in a sense back in the more liquid state of the design-process, where all of the parameters meet in yet another round of iterative design-work.

Figure 8: Using the matrix to conceptualize interventions addressing multiple ecologies. (Naujalyte et al. 2013). Ben had based his first proposal for the urban settlement on a metaphor of the building as a body with two distinct different features: ‘spine’ and ‘organs’, also expressing a closely knit mix of public and private purposes; of dwellings and of workplaces. The ‘spine’ was long buildings with large, general spaces for office-purposes. They were designed with close relations to the adjacent bio-swales. The swales were the main organizing features in the master-plan that the students had carried out in common in the beginning of the semester. On top of the spines where then placed dwellings in the form of the boxes, that Ben named ‘organs’, since they had all their supplies from the spine below. The boxes differed in size, and the composition of them on the top of the spine provided for very intimate spaces between them, providing intimate and small-scale shared, common spaces alongside with a strong sense of privacy. When the new team re-opened the project, they quickly identified which of the project’s features were relevant in which parts of the matrix, and made small diagrams to analyze the goals and strategies for the work. As they started to breed ideas for the renovation on the basis of this initial analysis, they also considered the life-span of the new features they introduced, by holding them against the notion of ‘Shearing Layers’. Thus, after the renovation, the building comes up with a kind of conscious approach to how to administrate and live with its own ‘multiple ecologies’. Though both scales and ecologies were simplified by addressing programmatic requests such as urban densification, shared space allocation and specific environmental performance indicators, and the scales were less fine grained and specific than the shearing layers, the resulting matrix was not a two-dimensional

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reductive ontology of sustainable design or a sustainability certification system, version ultralight. Reminding the students of the shearing layers’ possible double functionality regulating spatial scales, scales as different metabolic rates of material resource flows and scales as durations and intensities of social patterns, environmental and energy exchanges, the matrix could be used to create depth in both space and time.

Figure 9: Urban solar studies studying seasonal changes in radiation leading to modification of window shape and shading (Naujalyte et al. 2013). Asking the students to make explicit their disciplinary design concerns, explaining why they thought a specific design issue was important, and demonstrate what means and methods they thought could aid in creatively resolving it, the students were practically instructed in knowledge creation through transferring tacit knowledge in one discipline to explicit knowledge in the other and vice versa, bridging the gaps of specialized disciplinary knowledge through social interaction and collaboration (Nonaka 1994). In the sense that the matrix of multiple ecologies together with the instruction to transfer tacit and explicit knowledge between the architecture and engineering students was instrumental in guiding students’ discussions and development of creative design concepts, it can be said to serve an ecology of knowledge as well. Design knowledge is building on research and practical experience from many fields, and the successful integration between disciplines is an art, a cultivation of ideas, a management of knowledge resources and perhaps a discipline of knowledge by itself. It is one of the finest aspirations of architects to master this, though it becomes increasingly difficult due to the continued specialization of knowledge. It requires collective intelligence, co-thinking, co-creation. And perhaps a redefinition of the modern day division of labour in architecture and engineering as separate identities. CONCLUSION Based on the discussions of the jury giving feedback and assessing the projects in the end, projects could loosely be identified as projects with either generic formal expressions or with more formally expressive architecture. It was found that formally expressive architecture was generally more difficult to transform than more generically shaped projects, due to a certain fragility observed, when the original concept was analysed and transformed by a subsequent generation of designers reinterpreting it with new design intentions. On the technical side, not all projects would exhibit a full cross disciplinary integration of design issues. Establishing low-energy performance turned out to be very difficult in some projects, and future zero energy or carbon standards well-nigh impossible, pointing to the need of further cultivating cross disciplinary design culture. Complexity will continue to increase, as the focus is likely to change from energy efficiency to environmental impacts over the life cycles of the built environment. The idea of letting students imagine the passage of time, thinking of how changing needs, continued urbanization and densification, environmental changes and resource scarcity might affect the projects they had designed themselves, turned out to be a valuable learning experience, opening up new insights into the undeclared assumptions and some blind spots of contemporary design culture and education. It is of course difficult to generalize from a single experiment, involving students from design traditions from around the world, but cross-disciplinary design bridging the gap between architecture and engineering is a real challenge. The best projects were authored by groups of students who had taken great care in sharing knowledge, making design decisions transparent and justifying their solutions using both qualitative arguments and quantitative analytical methods, handling multiple ecologies in the design process with great precision. The winning entries had, although working on projects with different challenges, worked consistently with the

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methodological matrix to ensure consistent relations between architectural spatio-temporal scales in multiple ecologies, making a case for further exploits, experiments and research in the field of design methodologies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors want to thank the students from KADK and DTU, Toke Rammer Nielsen, Lotte Bjerregaard Jensen and Michael de Cederfeldt Simonsen, Mette Lorentzen, Anne Romme and Søren Nielsen for their contributions to the assignment. REFERENCES Allenby, B., 2006. 'The ontologies of industrial ecology?' Prog. Ind. Ecol. Int. Journal, vol. 3, no. 28.doi:10.1504/PIE.2006.010039. Brand, S., 1994. How buildings learn: What happens after they’re built, Penguin Books, London. Collinge, C., 1999. 'Self-organisation of society by scale: a spatial reworking of regulation theory', Environ. Plan. Soc. Space, no. 17, pp. 557 – 574. doi:10.1068/d170557 Eberle, D & Simmendinger, P., 2007. From the city to the house: Eine Entwurfslehre / A design theory, Gta verlag, Zurich. Gallopoulos, NE., 2006. 'Industrial ecology: an overview', Prog. Ind. Ecol. Int. Journal, vol. 3, no. 10. doi:10.1504/PIE.2006.010038 Guattari, F., 1989. 'The three ecologies', New Form, pp. 131–147. Hagan, S., 2008. Digitalia: Architecture and the digital, the environmental and the avant-garde, 1st edn. Routledge, London. Latour, B & Yaneva, A., 2008. 'Give me a gun and I will make all buildings move: An ANT’s view of architecture', in R Geiser (ed.), Explorations in architecture: Teaching, design, research, Birkhäuser, Basel, Boston, pp. 80–89. Lotz, K., 2008. Architectors - specific architectural competencies, Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture, Copenhagen, Denmark. McDonough + partners, 2009. 'Metabolism: Cradle to cradle', in K Kjeldsen, MJ Holm, & PE Tøjner, (eds.), Green architecture for the future, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, pp. 102–107. McLuhan, M & Lapham, LH., 1994. Understanding media: the extensions of man, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Naujalyte, M, Treherne, J, Bojesen-Kofoed, S, Da Costa Carneiro, A, Koza, C & Larsen, J., 2013. URBANIA | Responsible living in adaptable buildings - transformation of Ben Allnatt’s project. Nonaka, I., 1994. 'A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation', Organ. Sci. no. 5, pp. 14–37. Postman, N., 1970. 'The reformed english curriculum', in AC Eurich, High School 1980: The Shape of the Future in American Secondary Education, Pitman Pub. Corp, New York. Robbert, A., 2011. Nature, media, and knowledge: A transdisciplinary study of the nature and impact of ecological research in science, culture, and philosophy, California Institute of Integral Studies. Sattrup, PA., 2009. 'Foster + partners. Interview with Stefan Behling and Gerard Evenden', in K Kjeldsen, MJ Holm & PE Tøjner (eds.), Green architecture for the future, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, pp. 49–55.

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Sattrup, PA., 2012. Sustainability - energy optimization -daylight and solar gains, Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture, Design and Conservation, Copenhagen. Sattrup, PA & Schipull Kauschen, J., 2013. Nordic built challenge - environmental design methodology. Sattrup, PA & Strømann-Andersen, J., 2011. 'A methodological study of environmental simulation in architecture and engineering. Integrating daylight and thermal performance across the urban and building scales', Proceedings of the Symposium on Simulation for Architecture and Urban Design, Presented at the SimAUD 2011, Boston. Sattrup, PA & Strømann-Andersen, J., 2013. 'Building typologies in Northern European cities: Daylight, solar access, and building energy use', J. Archit. Plan. Res. no. 30, pp. 56–76. Yaneva, A., 2005. 'Scaling up and down extraction trials in architectural design', Soc. Stud. Sci. no. 35, pp. 867– 894. doi:10.1177/0306312705053053.

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THE HELSINKI SEASIDE QUARTER OF SUSTAINABLE BUILDING TYPES em.Prof. Esko Kahri, ArkOpen, Finland, [email protected] Cooperating Architects: Talli /Pia Ilonen, ArkOpen / Juha Kämäräinen, Petri Viita Developer, Owner: SATO Corporation /Jouko Kuusela, Hannu Korhonen, Maarit Tuomainen Building Contractor: SRV Company /Project managers Juha Leivonen, Janne Sihvonen Abstract Medium density housing has in Finland been lately estimated as the best solution both in terms of quality and energy use. But new urban areas lack social interaction, don’t meet up with residents’ values and are rigid for changes. Improvement requires new building types with adaptability to create a versatile urban quarter. Studies of this theme started in 2007 and a good location was found in the former Helsinki harbour area. The City application was approved and the research and design projects started. Building work was finished by the end of 2013. The Housing types were 1. The social Gallery House with 77 small combinable flats for rent around a 5-6 floors high inside court with a glazed roof, 2. The Family Block, 6 floors and 45 owner-occupied reasonably priced family apartments, which are open for different uses without structural changes, 3. Town Houses in two threefloor buildings, 11 apartments with courtyard, roof terraces and many user selections. The whole quarter´s technical systems, services and parking are under the common courtyard. Outcomes of the project are encouraging. Versatility and customer fitted housing types improved apartments, common spaces and social environment. Previous research work gave solutions for family housing, especially for small apartments. The building process was based on prefabricated structural elements and the cost level was normal. The demand for flats was lively; almost all apartments except the town houses are occupied. Residents moved in Jan 2014. A feedback survey of both housing blocks has been implemented: the resident satisfaction was high.

Fig 1: View from north: Gallery Block in front, Family Block in back, Town Houses between. Keywords: social versatility, adaptability, sustainability, urban building types. INTRODUCTION Medium density building has been some years back found to be the best premise for housing in Finland. The research project ‘Urban Happiness’ studied among other things resident satisfaction in reference to building density (Broberg-Kyttä 2010). The misconception that low building density would result in a high quality living environment was refuted in a convincing way:

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Fig 2: Inhabitant´s quality experience of environment as a function of density. The building density in the Helsinki Kalasatama area is slightly above 100 apartments/hectare and is consequently in the ideal density area. Below and above this density all perceived quality experiences fall rather quickly. Another important line of research is the use of energy. In this field, important results (Wahlgren 2010) were lately published. They show massive long term energy benefits for dense, urban housing:

Fig 3: Long term energy consumption in different housing area types. Results have been combined for the housing project use by the authors (Kahri 2011). The town planning The project is in a new Helsinki housing area ‘Kalasatama’ (The Fish Harbour), where a large shoreline area was made available when the harbour moved away. The City of Helsinki gives the following description: “One of the largest urban development projects in Helsinki is in the process of expanding to link up with the central city area. Seaside locations that used to be industrial and harbour areas will gradually transform into a city district where homes, services, jobs and culture are all close by. The area’s shoreline will be open to

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everyone. For the city, the multiple decades of construction will require careful coordination and new operating practices. The construction has begun south of the Eastern Fairway and will proceed radially towards north and south. Planning and construction will be steered throughout the lengthy construction period, so that Kalasatama can continue functioning as a place to live and work in and travel through… Construction and site arrangements will be managed so that construction traffic, lot and street construction, storage and parking cause as little disturbance as possible. Another important task is to ensure effective communication for the residents and for project partners… Use has been made of environmental artwork and temporary environments to create more pleasant surroundings during construction work. The first of these temporary arrangements appeared in spring 2010 with the opening of seaside promenades lined with a range of activities during the summer months. Residential construction began in 2011. The area will consist of apartments for around 2,700 residents, as well as a school, two day care centres, a hotel and an office building. A number of connected townhouses will be constructed in addition to the high-rise blocks” (Text and pictures from Helsinki web sites March 2014).

Fig 4: East view 2013, quarter most right - North view in 10 years after finishing the center. The design coordination The initiative for this project was made by the author of this paper through the developer. The author was also responsible for the design coordination. The key idea was to create new adaptable housing types for varied urban customer groups and to combine them into a versatile urban quarter. This aspiration was based on the increased criticism, stating that the common building and apartment types compromise living qualities for both families and small households and are too rigid for future changes. Helsinki City planners were conferred with about the proposed housing types. After discussions the town plan for the quarter was tailored alongside with the building designs. The City supported the project by allowing extra floor area, which made the project more economical. At this stage the design coordination was handled by the ArkOpen team. The buildings have three different architects, but the technical design for all buildings was done by same engineers. The quarter consists of the Gallery House for mainly small apartments, the Family Block for adapting apartments and Town Houses in between. In the middle is a common courtyard, and under it the parking garage. The final housing floor area is 10 200 sqm, 145 apartments and parking places for 97 cars under the common courtyard.

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Fig 5: The Quarter: South facades / Section / Garage and basement floor. The previous research The main goal was to improve building types for the main customer groups to create a versatile urban quarter. The plots except town houses are City owned and rented for 50 years. The base for the gallery idea is the urgent need for small flats in Helsinki: ¾ of the current demand comes from single or two people´s households. The Town Houses inside the urban quarter was the town planner´s goal; the apartments are intended for demanding customers. The Family Blocks have a regulated price based on plot renting conditions. The research background was an earlier publication (Talli 2006) about flexible family apartments and based on a traditional urban housing model with large, universally usable rooms.

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Fig 6: Main development themes and features in the three building types of the quarter. The Gallery House research started in the ‘Space’ R&D program in 2008 (ArkOpen / Kahri 2010). The triangular form is to improve the natural lighting of flats and decrease the building volume. The main issues were installation flexibility, combinable flats, reasonable cost level and fire safety caused by the gallery solution. The non-bearing walls between one and two room flats makes it possibile to combine them. Wet zones are located near the entrances with vertical ducts outside the flats to facilitate renovation and also give sound insulation between flats. Fire safety is ensured with two exit directions, sprinklers and smoke ventilators. The energy consumption of this building is lower than usual. The sqm-cost for building is on a normal level compared to the tradional apartment block. The Town Houses in the area are based on town plan goals presenting in Finland, a rarely used building type. The apartments are on three floors and have their own courtyard, roof terraces and access from street and parking level. The solutions have been developed in previous Open Building projects by the architect. Originally the goal was to build these apartments on a raw space basis, where each buyer manages the inside finishing individually. But the developer wanted the apartments fully finished, however with a range of choices for the customer. Each home has an individual facade and alternative floor plan lay-outs and three interior design style alternatives with high standard materials and equipment. The Family Block is based on a research requisitioned by the City Planning Department (Talli 2006). One of main themes in this pioneering study was a traditional Helsinki housing type with large adaptable rooms. In this kind of apartments flexibility is accomplished through space solutions: the rooms open onto each other but can also be separated to different zones (Fig5/low right). The apartment lay-out is formed by nine squares: the private rooms are situated in the corners, between them are the family rooms, which are connected to all rooms. The arrangement opens up possibilities for different kinds of uses and inhabitant groups. The principle can be applied to different apartment sizes as shown in the picture.

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Fig 7:


The quarter view in building stage south-west from the sea.

The Gallery House Architect: Sketch stage the ArkOpen team, implementation stage Petri Viita In this 5-6 floor block 77 small flats are grouped around an inside court with a glazed roof. The building type is for adaptable small flats. The shape of the building is ideal for the Nordic climate, because it increases natural light both in common spaces and flats. According to light calculations the triangle form adds sun hours in the summer by 20% and in the winter by 40% compared to buildings with parallel sides. The form also diminishes the volume and outer surface of the block and thus lowers heating and building costs. On the ground floor is the gallery meeting court, laundry and bicycle storage, in the basement on parking level are storages and technical spaces such as for the automatic waste collection system. On the roof floor there are common saunas, a club room and roof terraces with sea views. The rental flats are offered in three interior design styles.

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Fig 8:


Gallery House floor plans: left the entrance hall, right five normal floors.

Fig 9: Gallery court views show the brightness and social athmosphere inside the house compared to the usual block of flats with staircases.

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Fig 10: The view to east shows Town House couryard facades, Gallery House in the back. The Town Houses Architect: Juha Kämäräinen / ArkOpen Two smaller scale buildings with 11 apartments form the north and south side of the quarter courtyard. The use of this housing type in this urban area is based on the town plan. Town houses present in Finland a rarely used building type developed in previous projects by the architect. They increase the versatility and sun light on the courtyards and bring important medium urban scale to the area. The apartments are on three floors and have their own courtyard, roof terraces and access from street and parking level. Each apartment has an individual façade and alternative floor plan lay outs. The Town Houses are for sale for demanding customers and include their own plot and two garage parking places. The apartments have high standard materials and equipment, which are selectable from three interior design styles.

Fig 11: Section across the quarter showing garage and town house situation. The original goal was to build the town houses on a raw space basis, where each buyer takes care of the inside building and finishing. Unfortunately the developer did not go along with this idea because it was said to complicate the building contract for the whole quarter.

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Fig 12: Town House: the view from living room to kitchen.

Fig 13: The Town House typical floor plans: Entrance / Bedroom / Roof terrace floor. The family Block Architect : Pia Ilonen / Architecture & Design Talli This waterfront building of the quarter consists of 6 floors with 45 owner-occupied apartments with regulated price, where the developer only gets a fee on top of the contractor price. This building has influences from the urban traditional Helsinki housing with large adaptable rooms as described before. The floor plan allows many ways to live for different family types without any structural changes. In this application of the principle large flexible apartments are located in the middle of the building and smaller flats are in the north and south wings. On the roof floor there are common saunas, a club room and roof terraces with sea views. The basement with storage and technical facilities connects directly to the underground garage below the common courtyard.

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Fig 14: The south street façade from right: Family Block - Town Houses – Gallery Block. The next buildings in the back are by other developers and architects.

Fig 15: Family Block floorplans: left the couryard level with studio apartments, right the normal floor with large apartments in middle.

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Fig 16: The courtyard view to the west, toward the Family Block.

Fig 17: Interior view of a large flexible family apartment. Closer information about projects of the block has been published by authors (Kahri… 2011) The apartments and residents In the whole project the distribution of apartement sizes was given by the developer. The three housing types serve mainly a special inhabitant group, but part of flats are available also for other groups. This gives social diversity in every building, but makes possible the specialization of housing types. The principle gives significant functional, technical and economical benefits. This is a different starting point from the usual housing block, which includes all flat types. It is hard to meet with the wishes and the living ways of varied residents with one building solution. The Gallery House apartments are mainly small and for rent on the free market. These flats were occupied quickly, in which the gallery attraction had some part. The Family Block is owner occupied and the price level was regulated. The demand in this area was so lively, that residents were chosen by lottery. The Town Houses are for sale with own plot for demanding customers; their selling seems to be a challenging business in Finland. The next figure with apartment size statistics shows the rational task of the different building types for housing.

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Fig 18. Distribution of the quarter´s 133 apartments according size in different buildings.

Fig 19. Basic resident information about both blocks of flats March 2014.

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Resident’s feedback survey The inhabitants have moved in January 2014 and resident surveys for both buildings were carried out a few months later. The main results are given below with diagrams and a selection of residents’ comments The average age in the 22 answers from the Family Block was 47 years, the age groups were quite evenly distributed and the average household size was 2,4 persons. The Gallery Block´s 113 inhabitants’ average household size was 1,8 persons and average age 29 years, but all age groups were represented. An encouraging thing to find out was the active use of the gallery court especially by older people and young children as shown in figure 9, even though their number in the block is small. The resident feedback was carried out by SATO Company with their survey method, which has been used for thousands of apartments over ten years. The main results of resident answers are shown below with a diagram, which concentrates only on the features of the apartments and the common spaces. There was a special problem in the Family Block answers, because some factors caused answer distortion. This fault was eliminated by comparing answers to questions about the same object; thereby the distortion rate was clearly noticeable. For comparison there was not enough time to study current reference housing projects, but an older whole year’s statistics was available with same apartment questions. Those ratings are presented as indicative comparison in the same diagram below.

Fig 20. Resident’s evaluation of overall satisfaction is high and almost the same in both new housing types, but apartment´s shared ratings differ (SATO Resident Surveys). Factors like renting / owning and economical considerations affect the answers. Resident’s comments Interesting feedback information is the free comments, which are below as a resumé. The Gallery Block Very positive (7): The design of the house is excellent, the open gallery is really good and special / The gallery is special and the roof window a fine idea / A stylish housing project, the gallery entrance gives a good quality feeling, which continues to the apartment and other spaces / The apartment is good design within the limited space / For once a small flat, which is easy to furnish….The use of colors is refined / 2 MORE Positive (10): Well functioning small flat… / Sensible solution / A nice Housing project / Succeeded well / My apartment is nice / 5 MORE Positive and critic (6): The floorplan is nice, some furnishing problems / Good floorplan, more cupboards, better materials / Relatively good design,…a bigger elevator would be useful when moving in / The whole is good, better finishing materials wished for / 2 MORE

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Negative (7): Poor material quality / Storage, electric socket placement / The courtyard is rugged / Soundproofing lacks / Kitchen design / 2 MORE The Family Block Very positive (7): A really wonderful floorplan. Looked good on paper, but after moving in one understands how good it is for us / The housing project has been designed and built very well, I am very satisfied / The wholeness and the apartment has a really functional feeling / The floorplan is suitably spacious / 3 MORE Positive (6): The design has been done with sense, furnishing advice hoped for … / Apartment floor area is well utilized, more cupboards / OK except for some details…general picture clean / 3MORE Positive and negative (6): Floorplan is different in a nice way, common spaces on the roof a fine solution, storage design is unsuccesful / Apartments closets are puny, lots of daylight is positive / Courtyard is good, storage solutions bad / 3 MORE Negative (4): Shortage of storage, windows too large, information and detail complaints (2) poor soundproofing (1) OUTCOMES AND CONCLUSIONS The main goals and results of this paper can be defined as follows: The versatile urban quarter to improve housing was rather successful. Medium density housing has been found the best premise in Finland to create ‘urban happiness’ and long term energy efficiency. Because most housing quarters in the whole future harbour area are roughly the same size and shape, the results of this project will be comparable. Specialization of different housing types for most important customer groups is one of key pinciples. It gives healthy starting points both for small and family apartments and brings significant technical and cost benefits to building solutions. However, different customer groups should be more clearly defined before general and specified conclusions can be drawn. The design coordination was rather successful: one architect was responsible of developer and research contacts and common ideas; other architects are main designers of each different building. This principle keeps the main goals clear and brings natural diversity and identity to the block. Technical design should be done by the same group of engineers to keep good coordination to the contractors. Inhabitant influence based on former researchs, which gave tools to the design and convinced officials about new solutions. Developer´s goals were changing during the design period and there was no inhabitant contact during the design process, but much information from former resident influenced projects. Later the residents’ feedback by SATO survey gave good satisfaction results, but profound comparisons with common building types are still needed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS More information about this housing project, resident survey and photographs will be after the conference available web sites: www.arkopen.fi/kalasatama REFERENCES Broberg, A & Kyttä, M., ‘SoftGIS in planning for the socially sustainable environment SB10 Finland – Sustainable Community’, BuildingSMART Conference 2010, Finnish Association of Civil Engineers RIL, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. Kahri, E, Enkovaara, E, Anttonen, S, Viita, P, Ilonen, P & Kämäräinen, J., 2011. Asukasnäkökulma kaupunkiasumiseen (The Resident View to Urban Living), Rakennustieto Oy (Building Information Ltd) Finland. Talli, O, Ilonen, P, Lukander, M& Niska, A., 2006. Helsinkiläinen KerrostaloAtlas 2006 (The Helsinki Housing Atlas),Helsinki City / City Planning Office 2006 Wahlgren, I., Sustainable built environment – assessment of eco-efficiency in urban planningSB10 Finland – Sustainable Community, BuildingSMART Conference 2010, Finnish Association of Civil Engineers RIL, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

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LIFESTYLE ADAPTATIONS IN MULTICULTURAL STUDENT HOUSING – CASE STUDIES IN JAPAN AND IN USA Dr. Arno Suzuki, Kyoto University, Japan, [email protected] Abstract Accelerated mobility necessitates mixed culture living environments in nations where the majority of citizens are of a single-ethnic group and speak the same language. These countries, including Japan, are under great pressure to provide living environments that accommodate diverse culture. Originally multi-ethnic nations such as USA also have remaining issues in true equality of different ethnic groups and religions. In Japan, traditional housing had a lot of shared spaces, but the trend after the WWII was toward a higher level of privacy. Recently, however, shared space or community space has become revalued for educational purposes and sustainability. And international students from other cultures prefer to adapt traditional Japanese ways of living or community spaces to make the best of the limited size and equipments of their rooms. Even the lack of privacy may become a tool for encouraging communication. Coexistence of different cultures in a shared space sometimes helps the effective use of limited resources. In the international student housing survey in USA, cultural lifestyles and the Anglo-Saxon oriented planning theory were conflicting. We observed that minority lifestyles were still being ignored after years of multi-cultural living, although they may give us good suggestions for community building and sustainable living. In comparable cases, simpler room plans seemed to allow more freedom for residents to use their apartment to maintain their cultural lifestyle. We also observed, however, that cultural lifestyles have been rapidly disappearing in globalization in the last decade or two. These are only a limited number of case studies, and there may be different types of cultural conflicts and situations in other places. These cases, however, have suggested that cultural lifestyles are worth revaluing. Therefore, this article opens discussions on how other people have been accommodating diversity and how we should plan the multi-cultural living environment in the future. Keywords: diversity, lifestyle, tradition, community, planning. INTRODUCTION “ERASMUS” and “ERASMUS MUNDUS” started in Europe in 1987 and 2003 respectively. “100,000 Foreign Students Action Plan” and “300,000 International Student Action Plan” started in Japan in 1983 and 2004 respectively. Other student mobility programs followed suit all over the world, and today we see many international students at campuses. In these newly diversified countries, administrators at higher education institutions are struggling to minimize cultural conflicts especially in the living environment where different lifestyle matters. On the other hand, countries like USA, Canada, Australia and UK have more experience in accepting international students as well as having a long history of accepting immigrants. Although the legal and social systems in these preceding countries are more established to accommodate cultural diversity, but there are still some misunderstandings, conflicts and virtual discrimination with deep roots. TERMINOLOGY Types of nations We use two categories for discussion purpose although we are aware that things are not that simple. The first category is ‘homogeneous nations’, which originally were almost-homogeneous countries but have started accepting diversity in the last couple of decades. The second category is ‘multiethnic nations’, which have a longer history of having a multi-ethnic population both on campus and in the entire country. In this paper, we case studied Japan to make a representative for ‘homogeneous nation’, and USA for ‘multiethnic nation’.

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Types of international student housing ‘International student housing’ refers to both collective housing specifically designed for international students and regular student dormitories which coincidentally have a big ratio of international students. In this paper, we call the former ‘international houses’ as they are typically called in USA, and the latter ‘international dormitories’. Types of students ‘International students’ in this paper refers to those who recently came from other country to study. ‘Domestic students’ refers to not just a citizen of that country but also refers to foreigners who grew up there; e.g. permanent residents, immigrants and their descendents. ‘Resident advisors’ a.k.a. ‘resident assistants’ refers to students who are assigned to help residents at international student housings, paid or non-paid, international or domestic. CASE STUDY IN JAPAN Background According to many visitors, cities in Japan are clean and comfortable, and most Japanese people are amicable and hospitable. According to long-term residents including international students, however, life in Japan is not that easy because the living environment there is not ready to accommodate diverse lifestyles. More than 95 percent of native citizens are of the same biological origin, having similar customs in each region, and most people only speak Japanese. Local apartments are designed by Japanese standards for Japanese lifestyles even though many of them appear to be westernised on the surface. Some landlords discriminate foreigners partially because of their fear for the different lifestyle and partially because of financial concerns. The Japanese custom of requiring a local guarantor and advanced payment of ‘key money’ in rental contracts has been a big obstacle for foreigners, although the situation is improving for students since schools began to provide ‘institutional guarantee’. The national and regional governments are trying to accommodate foreigners in their society (Cabinet Secretariat 2012), yet they do not know how to do this because of the different culture and lifestyle. Unfortunately, some locals discriminate certain groups of ‘foreigners’ or tend to be judgemental (Ministry of Justice 2012). Methods The author’s research team visited 40 international student dormitories, interviewed 38 staff members and 158 residents, and conducted a written survey with 200 international students during 2010-2012 (Suzuki et al. 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010). Observations in multi-cultural living Language is not really a big issue when it comes to students because they quickly adopt the local language (Suzuki 2010). Almost all housing managers complained, however, that many international students did not observe the local rules of daily life such as garbage disposal. Some international students are also said to make common spaces untidy or dirty, but it depends more on the individuals. The two biggest complaints from international students are about the small size of their room and the lack of privacy (Suzuki 2010). Sound insulation between private rooms is typically weak in dormitory layouts with shared kitchen, bath and living room. Noise from neighbouring rooms is the most typical complaints in student housing (Suzuki 2010). It seems that the allowance of noise is different from culture to culture, thus it is difficult to set a rule that satisfies everyone. Some people also have different time schedules than other cultures. For example, the time of dinner for European is much later than that of Americans and Asians. Some people take shower in the morning and others do in the evening. Such time differences may become a cause of conflict when noise and other disturbance are an issue. In some cases with shared baths or shared kitchens, however, the cultural time difference effectively dispersed users and helped to ease congestions within their small facilities. Adapting to the small room size In Japan, studio apartments called ‘one room mansion’ are typical for student housing in both private apartments and college dormitories. It usually comes with a room of 10-20 square meters including a bed and a kitchen in the same space, and a separate all-in-one bathroom called ‘unit bath’ of 1-2 square meters (Figure 1). Studying, relaxing, dining, and sleeping all in the same room used to be normal in traditional Japanese houses until the idea of ‘dining kitchen’ appeared in the 1950’s after the theory of 'separation of

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eating and sleeping quarters in small houses' (Nishiyama 1942). The mixed-use or flexible use of rooms was an effective way of making the most of the limited space in Japan. Semi-hard ‘tatami’ straw mats and the foldable ‘futon’ mattress enabled such a use of rooms. These items have also been disappearing since the western influence in Japan. Now we have a fixed western style bed in the same small bedroom of 10-13 square meters, which leaves no room for other activities than sleeping. Therefore, some international students remove the furnished bed from their dorm rooms and sleep on the floor, and others choose a traditional Japanese room with tatami mats to begin with. In this case, the supposed demerits sublime to merits as well: The limited space in outdated buildings consequently helps young foreign students to understand the merits of traditional wisdom. Some American students of convenient appliances noted that they learned to live with limited resource while in Japan (Suzuki 2004).

Figure 1: Typical ‘one room mansion’ or a single room in Japanese dormitories; sleep and study area (left), private kitchenette area (middle), and private ‘unit-bath’ (right). Kitchen issues in Japan In the all-in-one room of the ‘one room mansion’, there is only a small kitchenette that is usually not functional. Designers of such student apartments do not suppose the resident will seriously cook at home probably because many Japanese students living by themselves used to eat out. Recently, however, more and more students cook and eat alone at home probably because of their tight budget of living expenses (Seikyo 2013). In our survey, more than 75% of international students either always or mostly cook at home, which is especially the case for Chinese students. But the kitchenette in the Japanese studio apartment is too small for Chinese cooking. They also prefer to have a separate kitchen, even though many Japanese people today prefer ‘open kitchen’ style (Figure 2). Chinese students living in bigger apartments elaborate by using furniture, such as cupboards, to make a wall to separate the kitchen. Students in dormitories may cook in their shared kitchen, which is usually is large and fully equipped. Many students pointed out that their shared kitchen is a good community space for getting to know other residents in the dormitory. In this case, the supposed demerits sublime to merits as well: Shared facilities and insufficient private equipments may have been forced by the limited space or budget, but they help to foster a community as a result.

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Figure 2: ‘Open kitchen’ style popular in Japan -living, studying, sleeping in one room (left); Chinese students by all means separate their cooking space from living area (right, 4 images). Privacy From 1980’s to the end of the last century, university administrators have been trying to provide international students with more privacy by providing all-equipped-in-one rooms for international student housing (Tada & Asano 2005). However, problems such as isolation, mental illness and illegal residency seem to happen more often in self-contained apartments with more privacy. Therefore, the recent trend is more towards providing safety and good human relations. Some universities even provide old-fashioned double rooms shared by pairs of international and domestic students for educational purposes. A shared unit with a couple of private single rooms, a shared bathroom and a shared dining-kitchen is somewhat typical. ‘Soft privacy’ provided by connected rooms, with a curtain or a sliding door between each resident, may have derived from the paper partitions of traditional Japanese houses. Students living in such shared rooms or connecting rooms testify that living with someone else is difficult, but when they get to discuss how to share the room, they understand each other better (APU 2007). Opening and closing the boundary, in the case of connecting rooms, could produce some kind of complex feeling, requiring them to ask things like ‘May I open?’ or ‘May I close?’ in order to avoid misunderstandings. Such a moment creates verbal communication and helps to break the ice between the roommates, according to some interviewed residents. In this case as well, the idea of shared space and facilities, which originally resulted from the limitation of resources, consequently works educationally and helps inter-cultural understanding. Localization for internationalization In the field survey of international student housings in Japan, we observed that students are quick to adapt to new living environments such as small space, shared facilities and various definitions of 'privacy'. We also observed that such limitations and cultural differences might help the residents to accept the limited resource, encourage communication and foster a better multi-cultural community (Figure 3). Learning from these examples, it may be better to positively utilize the local particularity, or traditional style, in future planning of multi-cultural living environment, instead of blindly imposing the uniformity everywhere.

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Figure 3: Students gathering in a community space in a dormitory (left); ‘kotatsu’, or Japanese heated low table on the floor, preferred by international students over sofas (right). CASE STUDY IN USA Background USA started as an immigrants’ nation, which went through many inter-ethnicity conflicts. After the efforts to solve these problems for years through civil rights movements, they established a legally ‘equal society’ in 1960’s. Now the law strictly prohibits discriminating against anyone because of his or her property or background such as language, ethnicity, gender, religion or physical conditions. Laws such as the American Disability Act, or ADA, strictly protect the human rights of physically challenged people within their society, especially in public spaces. There are, however, still some people who discriminate others consciously or subconsciously, as often reported in the news or seen on an everyday basis. In architectural planning, the influence of Anglo-Saxon culture is still dominant, even though citizens of different ethnic groups have different lifestyles (Suzuki 1997). Methods Student housing of two internationally renowned public universities in California were surveyed. Those housing complexes were not specifically planned international students, but almost half of the residents were international with as many as forty different nationalities. One of them went through a complete redevelopment with drastic change during 1998-2008 (Suzuki, 2012). We conducted a survey in 1996-1997 and in 2008, before and after the redevelopment respectively. Conflicts observed in multi-cultural living As is the case in Japan, noise was the biggest complaint in the student housings which we surveyed. Though newer housings have improved their insulation, and the managements hear less complaints about the noise, there seemed to be another factor in those complaints which was not often observed in Japan’s case; racial discrimination by physical appearance. Even though the law guarantees the equality of all people, the law cannot control being judgemental. For example, courtyard apartments are supposed to create the best sense of community according to the Anglo-Saxon theory of house planning, but if one is not blended in the community, the situation may become worse. Such cases were often observed such as an African American family feeling uncomfortable in a Caucasian dominant community, or vice versa. Kitchen issues in USA For undergraduates, dormitories with ‘room and board’ are still dominant in USA, and cooking habits do not become an issue very often. For graduate and family students, however, a different custom of kitchen use sometimes produces a cultural conflicts; for example Chinese cooking requires more oil, heat and

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ventilation. Some Chinese residents have to change their cooking style, while others continue to cook in their own style and get complaints from their neighbours or receive warnings from their management concerning fires. Japanese residents are said to use, or waste, more water in their kitchen. They also receive complaints from their roommates for leaving dishes and kitchen equipments wet. Smell from kitchen may also become an issue; for example, Indians may receive complaints for their spices, and Koreans for their kimchee. For different customs, compromising to some extent may be necessary. Some residents, however, learn to cook foreign food from their neighbours and become interested in foreign culture from there. Laundry issues Many Asians and some Europeans have a custom of hanging laundry outside in public for drying purposes, but it may not be acceptable for most Americans. Westerners care more about how their neighbourhood appears, whereas Asians tend to be more practical (Figure 4). Rental apartments for students do not usually come with space for washing and drying machines, and it is typical for residents to go to coin operated laundry rooms. In student housing, however, many people wish to have a washing machine at their home because of the time and budget constraints. In older days, everyone had washing machine wherever they liked. In 1960’s, washer and dryer space had been provided in apartments. It was eliminated in the new development, and then we found many international students installed a portable washing machine in their bathroom against the housing contract (Figure 5). Using a dryer is customary in USA nowadays, and many Americans think that hanging laundry is visually disturbing. However, sun drying was a common practice there in previous generations, according to some Americans. Energy saving is a global goal, and utilizing the free and sustainable solar energy seems to be a matter of course for some people.

Figure 4: Chinese quarter with laundry hung outside before redevelopment (1996, left), planned aesthetic landscaping after redevelopment (2008, right).

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Figure 5: washing machine outside apartment in 1940’s apartments (left) washer and dryer space provided in kitchen in 1960’s apartments (middle)illegally installed portable washer in new 2000’s apartments (right). Enclosure Enclosure seems to give many people a sense of security, and it was recommended in some popular house planning theories (Marcus & Sarkissian 1988). In multi-cultural housing as we surveyed, however, less interaction outside the enclosure was observed. In cases where each apartment has a private yard, the common courtyard was less actively used. According to a preceding quantitative survey on one of the surveyed housing (Amam 2007) and to many other management staff and residents interviewed, interaction among the entire community became less active after the redevelopment (Figure 6).

Figure 6: a courtyard after (left) and before redevelopment (right). Shoes inside apartments Traditionally speaking, Japanese, Korean and some Scandinavian people take off their shoes inside their house, or use separate ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ shoes. On the contrary, American, Chinese and central or southern European people keep their shoes on until they go to bed. The decision seems to derive from the materials of the floor; you would feel comfortable being bear food when you are on the soft and warm wood floorings, but need to have shoes on if the floor is made of cold stone. In California, however, most residential buildings are wooden, and residents are regularly exposed to Asian culture, and more people started to take off their shoes when entering their house. Students with small toddlers and young children especially do so because they wish to keep the floor clean. In China nowadays, about 90% of educated urban residents take of their shoes and use slippers or room-shoes inside. Even though this trend is so clear, designers of the surveyed housing did not prepare any space to change or store shoes. As a result, shoes were randomly left behind outside the room in many apartments simply because there is no room for ‘shoes leaving’ (Figure 7). Room layouts and patterns of habitation Before the redevelopment of one of surveyed housings, there were cultural patterns of habitation clearly observed. 12 years later after the redevelopment, however, such patterns were disappeared completely. The reason why it happened, even though national and ethnical diversity of population remained the same, is unknown. It may simply be the different time and level of globalization of the society. The difference in planning, however, may also have influenced: Before the redevelopment, however, there was only one type of simple room layout for 1-bedroom, 2-bedroom and 3-bedroom apartments respectively. Each bedroom had an almost equal area and character, and they gave users freedom on how they assign and use rooms. After the redevelopment, there are as many as eleven different types of apartments, with each plan clearly indicating how spaces in the apartment should be used (Figure 8).

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Figure 7: shoes left inside apartments (left, right), and resident relaxed in slipper (middle).

Figure 8: an example of simpler old plan with equal bedrooms before redevelopment (left), an example of new plan clearly indicating expected room assignment and use (right). Cultural patterns of habitation before the redevelopment In the residents survey in 1996, we observed that 2-bedroom apartments with the exact same room layout were used in various different ways. At that time, the tendency seemed to be cultural: Chinese families assigned one room for the husband and the other for the rest of the family because for the husband succeeding in his studies and thus getting a degree was more important for the family than anything else. Korean families always keep their living room open with little furniture so that they can invite a large group of friends, sometimes as many as 30 people at once, and have gatherings. Japanese families were noticeable for their flexible use of rooms and for not showing any common rules. European families always separated a child’s room and a parents’ room (Figures 9 & 10). In the survey in 2008 after the redevelopment, there were much less cultural differences observed (Suzuki 2013).

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Figure 9: Room usages by Chinese and Korean families, surveyed in 1996.

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Figure 10: Room usages by Japanese and European families, surveyed in 1996.

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CONCLUSION From these surveys, we learned two things: First, limitation of resources can be sublimed to become an effective tool for community building and sustainable planning. For example, sharing spaces because of the area limitation encourages communication among residents and even helps inter-cultural understanding. Second, cultural differences in lifestyle have become smaller and almost invisible in the last couple of decades, and we can expect international students to adapt to new lifestyles easily. Combining these two findings, we propose to utilize the architectural resource that we already have in each country, especially the ones with cultural characteristics. It will not just save some valuable resources but also create a better international community. FURTHER DISCUSSIONS The simple plan seen in the American student housings before the redevelopment somewhat resembles Japanese ‘kaidan-shitsu-gata’ room plan typically seen in ‘danchi’ or public sector’s apartment complex built during 1950-1970’s. In such plans, two apartments on each floor share a staircase with entrance doors facing each other. With this type of plan, each apartment has windows on both sides, which allows good ventilation as well as giving all bedrooms equality, and therefore making them capable of being assigned and used in any ways. There are many ‘danchi’ resources in Japan which have come to a crossroads between demolition and conversion. Some of these apartments have been converted to international student housing for recycling purpose and we have already seen some successful cases. We may want to consider utilizing not just these old ‘danchi’ apartments but also some traditional Japanese houses with flexible room use to accommodate cultural diversity. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Following colleagues collaborated in the research and co-authored prior publications regarding student housing in Japan; Dr. Katsuhiko Suzuki, professor, Kyoto Institute of Technology Dr. Junko Kawai, associate professor, Kyoto University Dr. Misako Tanaka, associate professor, Osaka Sangyo University Following classmates collaborated in the research of student housing in USA: Ms. Kimberly Chen, Mr. Steven Schneemann, Ms. Sarah Shih under supervision of Professor Renee Chow at University of California, Berkeley Following administrators at University of Claifornia, Berkeley, contributed to gather information and data about University Village Albany: Ms. Tavie Tipton, associate manager, and Mr. Cephas John, housing coordinator Following people contributed tremendously in data processing; Mr. Iat Hong Chang, graduate student in architecture, Kyoto University Dr. Yasushi Suzuki, director, Saraya, Co., Ltd. Many people whose names cannot be listed in the limited space but contributed a lot to the research by taking interviews, showing their rooms and so forth.

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REFERENCES Amam, WL et al., 2007. ‘UC village: Designing courtyards for active use in family housing, CED graduate school report. APU, 2007. ‘New APU house extensions fostering multicultural understanding’, Special program, vol.16, viewed 2 June 2014, http://www.apu.ac.jp/apuinformation/english/vol16/special/index2.htm. Cabinet Secretariat, 2012. ‘Gaikokujin tono kyosei shakai jitsugen kentou kaigi’, viewed 2 June 2014, http://www.cas.go.jp/jp/seisaku/kyousei/index.html. Marcus, CC & Sarkissian, W., 1988. Housing as if people mattered; Site design guidelines for medium density family housing, Reprint, University of California Press, Berkeley. Ministry of Justice, 2012. ‘Gaikokujin no jinken wo soncho shimasho’, viewed 2 June 2014, http://www.moj.go.jp/JINKEN/jinken04_00101.html. Nishiyama, U., 1942. ‘Jukyo kukan no youto kousei ni okeru syokushin bunri ron (Separation of Eating and Sleeping Quarters in Small Houses)’, Journal of Architectural Institute of Japan, vol. 25, pp. 49-55. Seikyo, 2014. ‘Campus life data 2013 by National Federation of University Co-operative Associations’, viewed 2 June 2014, http://www.univcoop.or.jp/press/life/report.html. Suzuki, A et al., 2013. ‘Ryugakusei no jutakushikou to sono haikei ni kansuru kenkyu: Chugoku-jin ryugakusei no doukou ni tyakumoku shite’, Journal of Architectural Planning Research, vol. 78, no. 686, pp. 745-754. Suzuki, A., 2012. ‘Open social housing to accommodate diversity: A case study of the university village Albany, California, USA, before the redevelopment’, The 18th Open Building International Conference Proceedings, pp. 608-617. Suzuki, A et al., 2011. ‘Ryugakusei no jutakushikou to sono haikei ni kansuru kenkyu; Shitsumon-shi chosa kara’, Reports of Housing Research, vol.6, pp. 247-254. Suzuki, A & Kawai J., 2012. ‘Kansaiken kokuritu daigaku ryugakusei no jukankyou jittai Chousa’, COISAN Journal vol. 14, pp. 87-98. Suzuki, A., 2010. ‘Kokuritsu daigaku ni okeru ryugakusei shukusha seibi no kadai’, COISAN journal, vol. 12, pp. 133-142. Tada, Y & Asano, H., 2005. ‘Ryugakusei shukusha ni okeru shisetu kuukan no seibi katei’, Architectural Institute of Japan conference proceedings (Kinki), Planning II, pp. 133-134. Wikipedia, 2014. ‘Housing in Japan’, viewed 2 June 2014, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Housing_in_Japan.

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THE CIRCLE MANAGEMENT FOR URBAN BLOCKS Yang Liu, Dalian University of Technology, China, [email protected] Abstract The frequent renovation of urban blocks not only produces a great deal of solid waste, but also cuts off the longterm development of community culture. Economic, population, consumption capacity and the quantity of reserve land for future development are all important factors for the phenomenon except building lifetime. For the lack of prediction of the future space requirements, the developed urban blocks will come to renovation under the pressure of population and profit. On the other hand, the crowded core area and environmental erosion on the urban boundary highlight the limits of urban space and aggravate the renovation pressures of the developed blocks. The temporary space requirements coming from unplanned renovation are also the fact that promotes the blocks` renovation. In this article, we try to construct an urban space management which is based on blocks circle, it can be mainly divided into following steps: 1. Calculate the future space requirement by the growth of population and unit residents space requirement; 2. Set up the classified regulation for urban land base on ecological value and probability of construction, which can be used to predict the storage of urban space that can be used to develop. 3. Make the circle schedule of blocks renovation based on the lifetime of building and the quantity of developed blocks, coordinate the action time for constructing, using and demolishing in different blocks. 4. Calculate the volume rates of blocks in different stages, and use the storage space to reduce the peak value in order to keep suitable space density. Keywords: building life, space requirements, land grading, land update periodic schedule, livable density. BACKGROUND The shortage of urban land supply The desert area of China has reached 2.64x

, which accounts for about 27.4% of total land area. There

are another 3.1x land which has a tendency to desertification, and 99.6% of this land is distributed in western and northern China (CUI Xiang-hui & LU Qi 2012). But in eastern China, urbanization swallowed quality farmland every year, which accounts for 1.5% of the total arable land (Luo Qi 2013). At the same time, Government made rigid policy for holding fast the red line of 180 million mu farmer land from 2006. According to the estimates of MLR, the land out of arable land red line will be depleted until 2020(JIANG Jie, JIA Sha-sha, YU Yong-chuang 2009). The fast urbanization course of China will continued until about 2040(and the growth of population will continue until 2035. Then all the increase space needs will be accommodated by renovation of built-up area.(Figure1) City Beijing Tianjin Shang Hai Chong Qing Guang Zhou Wu Han Nan Jing

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Construction land 10000ha Arable land 10000ha 2005 2010 2020 2005 2010 32.3 34.8 38.17 23.34 22.6 34.63 37.47 40.34 44.55 44.2 24.01 25.9 29.81 27.31 25.8 46.78 49.81 54.68 226.27 221.67 12.15 13.08 14.04 13.59 12.83 13.97 15.66 18.5 34.51 33.83 15.73 16.56 17.9 24.56 24.22 Figure1.The control indicators of land use in some cities of China Edited according to National Land Use Planning of China (2006-2020)

2020 21.47 43.73 24.93 217.07 12.8 33.8 23.6



The intertwine of urbanization and urban renewal In the future 10 years, there will be 100 million farmers migrate to the cities (CHEN Ming xing 2010), which make Chinese cities keeping rapid rate of population. Under the enormous population pressure, the urbanization was forced to be carried out in two directions----the renovation of built-up area and the development of new suburban land. Under the condition of limited land supply, the two strategies constitute a contradiction of the shift, which gives two choices: abiding the city boundary or protecting the existing residences.

Figure 2: The change of floating population proportion of Beijing core area (LU Xiang, WANG Mao-jun 2013). The initial appearance of counter-urbanization Until 2012, the urbanization rate of China has reached to 50%, which has exceeded the index line for Counter-urbanization (WANG Xiao-wei 2006). Urban agglomeration promoted the density raise of center blocks, traffic congestion and air quality degradation has forced part of middle class moves to the suburbs, and the rental rates of center blocks have been rising. Such relocation willingness and the influx of floating population formed a convection, which is leading to the change of demographic composition of the core area (LU Xiang, WANG Mao-jun 2013/ Figure 2). Facing the two requirements, real estate companies provide high density and low density settlements in core area and suburbs. Under the lack of unified planning scheduling, the former often lack humanity and the latter ignore the efficiency of land use. By the expansion of the city and the requirement of the settlements quality, the two kinds of settlements will face the fate of being demolished. PURPOSE Achieve intensive use of urban land resources Under limited land supply, neither high nor low density residential developments have proved to be a waste of resources. The plan of urban land use should be constructed by the accurate prediction of space needs in the future. The construction and non-construction areas should be managed uniformly. The nonconstruction area should be classified in order to assess the quantity of developable land. The calculation of residential density should combine the economical valuation and living quality, finding the balance point by the needs of residents. It will make the delineation of the city border more human and operational. Realize the whole life cycle of the new settlements In the future, the increased requirement of space will be borne by renovation of existing residences. Demolition of existing blocks will become a frequent and repeated phenomenon. The contradiction between the adjustment of city capacity and the maintenance of the whole life of existing residential are more and more irreconcilable. The two contradictions should be connected by a kind of linkage mechanism.

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We should schedule the renovation by the predict cycle life of residential. By dividing and coding blocks to uniform the time of each stage, which helps to regulate the two contradictions. Keeping appropriate residential densities to ensure the vitality of the city center Facing the loss of the middle class, the city center should control the development density, and extra space requirements should be converted to suburbs. In order to keep the efficiency of land use, we should balance the density of center and suburbs. For this, we should arrange the development timing. In fact, this strategy has be implemented in some city. LITERATURE REVIEW In 70-80s of 20th century, Smart growth theory began to spread around America, try to use the renovation of existing settlements substituted the suburban sprawl (Gillham 2002). At the same time, the study of long life residential was activated in Japan by the background of the oil crisis (SEIKE Tsuyoshi, AKIMOTO Takayuki 2003). From 80s to 2000, the two theories were introduced into China to help solve the problem of urban sprawl and short-lived building which was caused by rapid urbanization, but there were few studies to construct the connection between the two theories. KAI Yan, who is the vice chairman of China Real Estate Research Habitat and Environment Committee consider that extensive development model is the main reason for building short-lived (KAI Yan 2011). Based on the analysis of 35 ephemeral buildings in Beijing, Doctor SHEN Zhen Jin point out that the urban development should abide the principles of Pleasant, Simple and Integrated, and united the recent and long term development of suburbs and the center area of city (SHEN Zhen Jin 2008). RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Figure 3: Research framework Large cities of China are at a crossroads of development: Either left the core area keeps crazy development by the market-oriented, and then experience the recession of central areas, which led to the untimely death of large areas of residential housing due to the inappropriate density, or control the residential density from now on. We need to calculate the appropriate density to balance the efficiency of land use and living comfort. It needs not only the forecasting of future space needs, but also the potential of urban land supply. We also need to give the criterion of land grading ecological value, which can help us make accurate judgments between the quantity of land use and the ecological changes of city lead by it. For the strict regulation of household registration for large cities which has promulgated in The Twelfth FiveYear Guideline, the population of large cities will enter a stable growth pattern. And the limited urban land needs to construct a set of renovation mechanism to accommodate the stable growth population. Such as other recycled materials, urban blocks can also be reused by a certain cycle, and the cycle is closely related to residential life. We can divide the urban land into blocks according to the number of residential life. Then

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code each block, and establish the schedule of renovation which would unite the time points of demolish, start and finish of construction and reduce flowing and storage costs of renewal materials and market volatility come from relocated residents (Figure 3). TECHNOLOGY STRATEGY Urban population and the density of construction The density of renovation land will determined the possible of demolition in the future. So the formulation of it should have further vision. There would not only have lower limits, but also the upper limit. The reason is that the high density is not humanity and will lead to high vacancy rates in the future for the decline of population. As the future of China's population will experience a roller coaster-style trends (MEI Bai qing 2012), and because of differences in fertility regime between urban and rural area, this trend will be even more evident in the city (HUANG Kun 2009). In the new town planning of Chinese government, the migrants of the metropolitan will be restricted, meaning that the impact of a large floating population in urban population growth will be weakened. It also makes predictions about the future population more simple and accurate. Before reaching the peak of population, the density of renovation land will be calculated by the peak of population and land inventory (based on the statistical classification of urban land come, the standard will be described later), and after reaching the peak, the construction density of land will be reduce basis on the stabilize population, improving the living environment. Urban land grading standards The prediction of urban land stores will be the determining factors for the calculation of the volume rate of land. It will also determine the future urban border. For this, we need to formulate the evaluation criteria for the total urban land, which is mainly determined by two factors: The first is ecological value to the city; and the other is the cost of construction. The ecological value of the land is mainly constituted by its ecological function and time and ecological costs of growth. Their ecological functions include conservation of water, providing oxygen, carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, keeping air moisture, biodiversity, etc. Each of these items can be quantitatively graded to form different levels of eco-functional criteria. Land ecological function of time can be speculated by the forest ecosystem components, complexity and the age of plants, and the resource costs can be represented by water that was used during the growing period (Figure 4).

Figure 4: The standard of urban lands` ecological value. The site factors that affect the costs of land development include slope, face, geological conditions and flatness. Slope and face and flatness will affect the building density, and increase the difficulty of site preparation and the road pavement. Geological conditions will affect the difficulty and depth of the foundation excavation, thereby affecting the choice of building height (Figure 5).

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Grade Score


A B C 1 2 3 Face Due south South Due east slope 5 5 10 10 15 Slope(degree) 3 3 10 10 15 Maximum elevation(m) Planeness 15 15 25 25 40 Planeness percentage (%) Depth of supporting course(m) 5 5 10 10 15 Figure 5: The standards of developing costs

D 4 Due west 15 25 15 20 40 60 15 20

E 5 Due north 25 20 60 20

Suitable residential density For a specific city, the most suitable residential density is mainly determined by the number of available lands for construction. In order to ensure the appropriate residential density, the city will devote all available land reserves before reaching its population peak, in order to reduce residential density. How to determine the suitable residential density will become the primary problem. Under the preconditions of certain living standard, the improvement of residential density will lead to the increases of the residences layers and the reduction of per capita public spaces, which will directly lead to the reduction of living comfort. On the contrary, increase the above two indicators will lead to the increases of land investments, thereby force to reduce the ecological standards of the urban borders. Apparently, we should seek a balance between the living comfort and ecological standards of borders. It needs to find a quantitative indicator, which suits both sides (Figure 6). The object of satisfying suitable residential density is reducing the space abandon which is caused by relocation. Either ecological environment or residential space can affect the willingness of relocation. The willingness can be quantified by survey and indicated by percentage. We can use a certain percentage value to balance the former pair of contradictions—residential density and land quantity. According to the former ecological value standards, we can construct the relation between the quantity reduction of lands and the change of environmental indicators for the whole city. We can also construct the relation between the quantity of input lands and the layer depth and per capita public space. So we can stimulate the suitable residential density and the quantity of input lands by certain data of some city.

Figure 6: The game between residential density and urban environment on land resources. The schedule of land renovation Urban regeneration cycle Urban regeneration cycle is determined by two factors: The first one is the process of urban development; the Second is the city's dependence on the construction industry. From the experience of western countries, the city should experience gathered evacuation and aggregation and then come into stable situation. In other words, the city will keep the renovation process until reaching this stage. We can make sure of the developing stage of certain city by some indicators such as salary, industrial structure and the proportion of urban population. According to the rate of change of these indicators, we can calculate the time for the city to experience these intermediate stages, which is the regeneration cycle of the city. Urban renovation

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provides not only more space but also the employment, consumption and government taxation. These factors affect the popularity and inter power for city development. So we should calculate and keep a certain scale of renovation projectors every year by considering of above requirements. Then we can calculate the renovation cycle of total land of the city by the renovation scale and quantity of land. The coordination of three states of land Urban land always keeps three types of state: Demolishing, Constructing and Being used. There will have different requirements of resource supply and waste excretion for each state. In traditional manage mode, the demolish components and materials will be transported to recycling plants and converted into recycled materials. But they cannot find a stable market for the uncertain plan of projects, so they have to pay more money for maintaining and storing these recycled products. In the constructing state, designers and builders cannot find a reliable supplier of recycle materials, but the plants cannot keep supping for the lack of raw recycled materials. In demolished land, the relocated residents will increase the requirements of residences in the residential market which will push the new land development and raise the housing price and enforce the boundary expansion of the city indirectly. If we can coordinate these states by some points of date such as the beginning of demolishing, constructing and the completion date, the recycled plants will find a market, the projects will get the continue supply of recycled products, and relocated residents will move into new residential right away. The continued renovation cycle will keep the relation of resources recycling stably. The schedule of urban land renovation We divided the urban land into many blocks with same size by the urban renovation cycle time and identify the number for each block. For the construction period can be shortened by prefabricated technology, we can approximately consider that demolition and construction can have the equal long time. Every three blocks can be combined into one group in certain point of time, and they demolish, construct and put into use at the same time. All the blocks` renovation will continue by this rolling mode (Figures 7/8). Block Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 … Demolish date start date of construction complete date of project

A B C D E F G H I B C D E F G H I J C D E F G H I J K Figure 7: The schedule of blocks` renovation

J K L

K L M

L M N

… … …

Figure 8: Schematic diagram for the movement of residents and recycled materials The use of land stock The construction quantity for each renovation blocks every year consists of two parts: The one is the area of demolishing residences, and the other is the new living space requirements which come from the increased population in this year. In the increasing stage of population, the building density of blocks will increase rapidly. In order to control the density`s growth not far from suitable range, we should put in some new land by calculation. We can also adjust the functional proportion of land. In the decrease stage of population, we will keep the suitable building density and return the peripheral land to eco-system.

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SUMMARY Facing the rapid process of urbanization, how to use the exiting land effectively and reduce repeated renovation will determine the using efficiency of nature resource. In this article, we predicted population peak to guard the construction density of renovation blocks. The classified of urban land provide the quantitative basis for the ecological loss and development costs of new land. With these data, we can draw the limited line for urban sprawl and keep the suitable building density during the renovation process. Basis on the urban renovation cycle time, we establish the schedule of blocks renovation, and coordinate the date of demolish construct and complete of projects, which make the relocated residents and recycled materials can circulate smoothly between blocks and make the recycled industry can be operate continuously, reduce the costs of intermediate process. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The study supported by the New Century Talents Foundation in 2011, Fund number is NCET-11-0049 REFERENCES Chen, M., 2011. 'Accelerating urbanization should not become the National Strategic choice during “the 12th Five Year Plan” Period: A discussion with Professor CHEN Yu-he', China Soft Science, vol. 3, pp. 2. Cui, X & Lu, Q., 2012. 'Development status and prospect of standardized desertification combating in China', Arid Zone Research, vol. 29, no. 5, Sep, pp. 913. Gillham, O., 2002. The limitless city: a primer on the urban sprawl debate, Island Press, Washington DC. Huang, K., 2009. 'Deepening the reform of the household registration system and rural migrant workers obtaining citizenship', Urban Studies, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 97. Jiang, J, Jia, S & Yu Y., 2009, 'On management of urban renewal', Urban Studies, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 57. Kai, Y., 2011. 'The view of master', The construction of china, vol. 11, p. 32. Lu, X & Wang, M., 2013. 'An analysis on the space structure of non-native permanent Population of Beijing Metropolitan Area in 2000-2010', Urban Development Studies, vol. 20, no. 10. Luo Q., 2013. 'Issues on cultivated land protection in the process of urbanization', Master's thesis of Huazhong Normal University. Mei, BQ., 2012. 'ZHUO Xue jin: Demographic transition is an opportunity for inflection', Chengdu Daily, 2012, Version 017. Shen, ZJ., 2008. 'The solve of short-lived building can`t been limited in the area of building', Urban studies, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 119. Wang, X., 2006, 'Contrastive analysis of counter-urbanization between China and developed countries', Resource Development & Market, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 353.

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ADAPTIVE CAPACITY OF BUILDINGS: A DETERMINATION METHOD TO PROMOTE FLEXIBLE AND SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION Rob Geraedts, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, [email protected] Hilde Remøy, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, [email protected] Marleen Hermans, Brink Groep, The Netherlands, [email protected] Evi van Rijn, Brink Groep, The Netherlands, [email protected] Abstract The subject adaptive construction has been on the agenda of the construction sector for decades. The adaptive capacity of a building includes all properties and qualities that enable the building to keep its (economic feasible) functionality during the technical life cycle, under altered conditions and needs. Meanwhile, the interest in flexible building has increased significantly from a broader perspective than before. This increased interest is caused by the high structural vacancy of buildings, the economic crises and the increased awareness of and interest in sustainability issues and the circular economy. The relationship between flexibility and sustainability is explicitly laid. Market developments demonstrate an increased demand for flexibility and sustainability as well as a growing awareness of the necessity of a circular economy in construction. This explicit sustainability constraint ensures a conscious look at the sustainable efficiency of flexibility measures. These measures are sustainable only if they are actually used during the life cycle of buildings. The Dutch Government, a number of companies and branches of the construction industry started a publicprivate initiative in 2012 to promote and accelerate sustainable building in the Netherlands with the project called: a method to determine the Adaptive Capacity of Buildings. The cause of the present research is the lack of a widely accepted method with assessment criteria for measuring the potential for adaptation into other possible functions during the life cycle of a building. In this research paper, a full report is given of the development of this method to determine the Adaptive Capacity of Buildings (the AC Method), the research methods used and the preliminary results. Keywords: adaptable, sustainable, flexible, vacancy, assessment method. INTRODUCTION Adaptive building and sustainability In recent decades the interest in flexible building, also called adaptive building, has grown substantially. In the Netherlands this interest is mainly caused by the structural vacancy of real estate, in particular office buildings, the economic crisis, the congestion of the housing market and the increased awareness of and interest in sustainability. A direct connection can be made between adaptive building and sustainability (Wilkinson, James et al. 2009, Wilkinson and Remøy 2011). Market developments show increased demands for flexibility and sustainability by users and owners as well as a growing understanding of the importance of a circular economy (Eichholtz, Kok et al. 2008). This explicit motive for sustainability by clients results in sharper requirements for sustainable profitability of measures that can be taken for adaptive building. Assessment criteria for adaptability were described in previous research (Geraedts and Van der Voordt 2007, Remøy and Van der Voordt 2007, Wilkinson, James et al. 2009, DGBC 2013). However, a comprehensive method for assessing the adaptive capacity of buildings is lacking. Most assessment tools that were previously developed focus on specific aspects of adaptability, like technical or functional aspects, or the adaptability of a specific kind of building. The aim of this research is to develop a method for assessing the adaptive capacity of buildings including technical, functional, economic and societal aspects. Definition of Adaptive Capacity The adaptive capacity of a building includes all characteristics that enable it to keep its functionality during the technical life cycle in a sustainable and economically profitable way withstanding changing

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requirements and circumstances. The adaptive capacity is considered a crucial component when scrutinizing the sustainability of the real estate stock (Hermans 2013, p. 3). Sustainability depending on the long-term utility value of buildings A building that can accommodate different types of users during its whole life cycle has a long-term utility value. The long-term utility value is a crucial precondition for sustainability. The adaptive capacity of a building represents this utility value, the future attractiveness of the building. The adaptive capacity is not the goal itself, but the means to ensure the future use of the building. Societal perspective To consider the adaptive capacity of a building, the main focus is its future value. From this perspective, not only the present user or owner of the building is important, but also to a large extent the attractive force of the building for the next generation of users. The societal benefit of the future use of buildings forms the goal of this research project. To secure future use, the current users and owners need to be involved. Accountability and research methods This research aims at developing a determination method for the adaptive capacity of buildings (AC method), and is as such the first step in the development of instruments to assess specific projects. The AC method gives a clear insight and an overview of aspects that need to be concerned when assessing the adaptive capacity of buildings. The method combines existing knowledge (Berg 1981, Houtsma 1982, Geraedts 1989, REN 1992, Geraedts 1998, 2001, 2007, 2009, Schneider 2007, Beadle 2008, Wilkinson 2009, DGBC 2013) on flexibility and sustainability into one overview of important aspects to determine the adaptive capacity. The AC method has been developed after an extended survey of international literature about characteristics, definitions and assessment instruments of adaptive building, on the boundaries of adaptive capacity, sustainability and financial business cases for real estate. The literature survey has resulted in a number of basis schemes presenting relevant aspects and mutual relations of adaptability characteristics and instruments. The most important schemes are presented in this paper. Next to the literature survey, a substantial number of experts have been interviewed. The basic schemes shaped the input for discussions in two different expert panels: one with representatives of the clients (demand side) and one panel with representatives of construction companies and suppliers (supply side) in the construction process. The results from several discussions with both expert panels produced inputs for the AC method (Hermans 2013, p. 4) . Target groups The AC method for measuring the adaptive capacity of buildings offers possibilities for owners or investors in real estate to formulate wishes or demands about the adaptive capacity of buildings on the one hand, and assess the adaptive capacity of new or existing buildings on the other. Owners or investors usually are the actors involved in expressing the ambitions of the projects and they are responsible for choices made during the construction and utilization phase of the buildings. Depending on the nature and stage of the project, they can take more or less fundamental decisions about the adaptive capacity of the project. This method can be used for three different investment decisions: purchasing an existing building, constructing a new building, or renovating and transforming an existing building. Aim of the method The AC method offers building clients and investors a step-by-step procedure for: • Formulating the demand for the adaptive capacity of a building, • The assessment of the supplied adaptive capacity of offered solutions (in design or in a building), • The evaluation of the financial and sustainability impact of these solutions, • The determination of the most sustainable and efficient business case when dealing with adaptability. The AC method therefore consists of three different modules: 1. The determination of the adaptive capacity; formulating the demand for or assessing the supply of flexibility. 2. The determination of the financial-economic profitability.

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3.


The determination of the sustainability impact of the several measures.

In this paper, only the first module will be described: the adaptive capacity of buildings. This method does not yet lead to absolute statements about the adaptive capacity, but a definite judgement if a specific offered design or building fits a given demand for flexibility. The method to determine the adaptive capacity will be equal for each project, while the assessment criteria could be project or client specific. In this manner, new techniques and understandings can be easily processed in the near future.

Figure 1:

the accommodation cycle of real estate and the demand for change.

ADAPTIVE CAPACITY METHOD When a building no longer meets changing demand Real estate is a product with a high economic value and can be characterized by a very long technical life cycle with a large spatial-physical impact. That is why it is of great societal importance to use real estate as efficient as possible. To enable a high-quality use and a high occupancy rate, a building must be able to move along with qualitative and quantitative changes in demands for the specific accommodation. There are three basic ways to act when a building no longer meets the users’ needs (see Figure 1). 1. Adapt the location, building and/or unit (transformation/conversion); 2. Design and construct a new building; 3. Move to another and more suitable existing building. Perspectives of the demand for change The need for change has three different actor perspectives: the society, the owners and the users of the building (see Figure 2).

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Figure 2: The need for change from three different perspectives. From a societal perspective, the preservation of the use value of a building is of utmost importance. A building must be attractive for different generations of users as a guarantee for a long life cycle. The owner of the building would like to have a long-term profitability and for the users, it is important that their core business will continuously fit the building offered.

Figure 3: Several appearances of adaptive capacity and the focus of the AC determination method. Appearances of adaptive capacity The adaptive capacity can be split into three different appearances (see Figure 3): 1. Organizational flexibility The capacity of an organization or user to respond adequately to changing demands of the built environment; 2. Process flexibility The capacity to react to changing circumstances, wishes or demands during the initiative, the design and the construction phase; 3. Product flexibility The capacity of a building (the product) to respond to changing circumstances, wishes or demands during the use phase of the building.

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The demand: use dynamics and transformation dynamics The focus of the AC determination method is exclusively the product flexibility during the use phase of buildings. The target here is the translation of demand into transformation and use dynamics on three different levels: location, building and unit (see Figure 4). Use dynamics The demands for a building can be formulated by the demands of the users. The building must be able to move along in time with these (changing) demands. This may lead for instance to the demand that the building must be parcelled into smaller or bigger units or that specific facilities can be added to the units or building. This is called use dynamics. Transformation dynamics This concerns the demands for a building that should be able to accommodate totally different user groups or different functions in the near future. This may lead to specific demands for rearranging the building for different user groups. This is called transformation dynamics.

Figure 4:

Framework AC method for the demand (for use and transformation dynamics), and the supply (of rearrange, extension and rejection flexibility) on three different levels (location, building and unit).

The supply: rearrange, extension and rejection flexibility Within the method, the flexibility of the supply is translated into three spatial/functional and construction/technical characteristics. They determine if a building can meet the requirements: rearrange flexibility, extension flexibility and rejection flexibility (see Figure 4). • Rearrange flexibility To which degree the location, the building or the unit can be rearranged or redesigned. • Extension flexibility To which degree the location, the building or the unit can be extended. • Rejection flexibility To which degree (part of) the location, the building or the unit can be rejected. Supplied by spatial/functional and construction/technical characteristics Two types of characteristics influence the three possible flexibilities of a building as described: spatial/functional and construction/technical characteristics. Furthermore, three different levels of scale will be taken into account: the whole building as the collection of all user units, the units within the building and the location of the building as far as it influences the use and the adaptability of the building. Figure 4 shows the framework of the assessment method for the adaptive capacity. On top, the demand for change is shown and at the bottom the supply with the characteristics of the building, which determine if the building can meet the flexibility demands.

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Demand and supply: two target groups The demand for adaptive capacity by the owner or by the users of the building and the flexibility supply that meets these demands is shown in Figure 5. The previously mentioned third target group - the society - will not be taken into consideration any further. The other two target groups will also cover the societal demand for the adaptive capacity of buildings.

Figure 5:

Demand for and supply of adaptive capacity translated to two target groups.

SEVEN INDICATORS FOR TRANSFORMATION DYNAMICS - OWNER The AC method uses seven Transformation Dynamics Indicators from the perspective of the owner of a building (E) to formulate his wishes and demands for the adaptive capability of the building and the user units (see Figure 6).

Figure 6:

The 7 Transformation Dynamics Indicators from the perspective of the owner of a building (E1-E7), joined together in Rearrange Flexibility, Extension Flexibility and Rejection Flexibility

E1. Reallocate / redesign This factor comprises wishes/demands concerning the change in size or division of user units within a building (join, split up or rearrange); wishes/demands concerning the possibilities of changing the design, the arrangement on building level and/or the possibilities of changing the functions on building level.

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E2. Grain size This factor concerns the wishes/demands about the possibility to change the number of user units in a building (increasing or decreasing).

E3. Facilities This factor concerns the wishes/demands for the change of the facilities in the building and/or outside the building at location level.

E4. Quality This factor concerns the wishes/demands for the change of the layout and finishing per user unit or per building (upgrading).

E5. Expansion This factor concerns to which extent the use surface of a building can be increased in the future (horizontal and/or vertical).

E6. Rejection This factor concerns to which extent the use surface of a building can be decreased in the future (horizontal and/or vertical).

E7. Transfer This factor considers whether or not the building can be transferred to another location.

SEVEN INDICATORS FOR USE DYNAMICS - USER The AC method uses seven Transformation Use Dynamics Indicators from the perspective of the users of a building (G) to formulate their wishes and demands of the adaptive capability of the units and the building (see Figure 7).

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Figure 7: The 7 Use Dynamics Indicators from the perspective of the users of a building (G1-G7), joined together in Rearrange Flexibility, Extension Flexibility and Rejection Flexibility. G1. Redesign This factor concerns the wishes/demands for changing the layout of the user units in a building and/or the functions of the user units in the building.

G2. Reallocate Internal This factor concerns the wishes/demands for the changing the location of the user units in a building.

G3. Relation internal This factor concerns the wishes/demands for changing the internal relation with other users/stakeholders in the building.

G4. Quality This factor concerns the wishes/demands for changing the layout and finishing (look and feel) of the user unit in a building.

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G5. Facilities This factor concerns the wishes/demands for changing the facilities in the user units, in the building and/or at location level.

G6. Expansion This factor considers to which extent the use surface of a user unit in a building should be extendable in the future (horizontal and/or vertical).

G7. Rejection This factor considers to which extent the use surface of a user unit should be contractible in the future (horizontal and/or vertical).

ASSESSMENT VALUES In the AC method, a value is given for each assessment aspect of the spatial/functional flexibility characteristics and the constructional/technical flexibility characteristics when formulating the demand for flexibility or assessing the supply of flexibility. There are four possible values: 1=Bad, 2=Business As Usual (BAU), 3=Better, 4=Good (see figure 8).

Figure 8:

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The 4 possible assessment values of the spatial/functional flexibility characteristics and the constructional/technical flexibility characteristics.



Example assessment of spatial/functional flexibility - owner (A) Figure 9 shows an example of some of the assessment values of the spatial/functional flexibility characteristics. For the owner of a building in total 36 different indicators (A) have been formulated with associated values for assessing this type of adaptive capacity.

Figure 9:

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An example of some of the (36) assessment values of the spatial/functional flexibility characteristics for the owner of a building (A-indicators).



Example assessment of construction/technical flexibility - owner (B) Figure 10 shows an example of some of the assessment values of the construction/technical flexibility characteristics. For the owner of a building, in total 49 different indicators (B) have been formulated with associated values for assessing this type of adaptive capacity.

Figure 10:

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An example of some of the (49) assessment values of the construction/technical flexibility characteristics for the owner of a building (B-indicators).



Example assessment of spatial/functional flexibility - user (C) Figure 11 shows an example of some of the assessment values of the spatial/functional flexibility characteristics. For the user of a building, in total 29 different indicators (C) have been formulated with associated values for assessing this type of adaptive capacity.

Figure 11:

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An example of some of the (29) assessment values of the spatial/functional flexibility characteristics for the users of a building (C-indicators).



Example assessment of construction/technical flexibility - user (D) Figure 12 shows an example of some of the assessment values of the construction/technical flexibility characteristics. For the users of a building in total 33 different indicators (D) have been formulated with associated values for assessing this type of adaptive capacity.

Figure 12:

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An example of some of the (33) assessment values of the construction/technical flexibility characteristics for the users of a building (D-indicators).



ADAPTIVE CAPACITY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY PROFILES It is obvious that the described AC method enables the users to make so-called demand or supply profiles. A demand profile can be made for a specific programme of a new adaptive building or a programme for an existing building that needs to be transformed into a new, alternative function. A supply profile can be made to map the adaptive capacity of an existing building. The profiles can be compared to each other to see if a match between the flexibility profiles is possible (see Figure 13).

Figure 12:

An example of a demand and supply profile to see if there could be a match between the wishes for future adaptability and the building supplied.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE NEXT STEPS As shown in the previous examples, the Adaptive Capacity method is a first important step in the development of instruments to formulate adaptive demands and to assess adaptive supplies. In the next steps, this method will be transferred to easy to use and implementable instruments. Communication, verification, validation The next step is discussing and evaluating the AC method with the owners and users of buildings and with the construction companies involved. The steering group behind this research project and the two already engaged expert panels - one with representatives of the clients (demand side) and one panel with representatives of construction companies and suppliers (supply side) - could play an important role in this next step. Instruments for small and large projects Further developments will also look into the implementation of the AC method for small and rather simple projects and large complex projects as well. For smaller projects, it will be sufficient to define an assessment only on a limited number of crucial aspects, while large complex projects ask for a more detailed analysis of the capacity to change. Instruments for different sectors of building types The AC method can be specified for different sectors within construction. Different building types like hospitals, schools, office buildings or residential housing may lead to the use of a selected and specific group of assessment aspects. To stretch the method to the urban context The urban context is essential for the use value of buildings. The current method is limited to a small number of assessment aspects of the location of buildings. It would be very interesting to look into the urban context in more detail. The need and demand of changing buildings in a condensed urban context to changing circumstances is far higher than for buildings located in a suburban area. Develop a standard for the adaptive capacity

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Finally it is not unlikely that professional owners and clients in construction feel the urge for a standard describing the adaptive capacity of buildings. Such a default standard could be developed to change over time if developments concerning the flexibility of products are evaluated further. Also non-professional owners and clients are potential users of such a standard with default values to use in practice. These standards could be developed per sector in construction. REFERENCES Beadle, K, Fuster, A, Madden, P, Gibb, A & Austin, S., 2008. ‘Critical parameters for adaptable buildings; from small houses to big buildings - Workshop Report’, Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough. Berg, HC v d, Noorman, ThM., 1981. Een aanpasbaar gebouw ontwerpen. SBR 82. Stichting Bouwresearch, Deventer, 95. DGBC, 2013. Concept flexibility assessment module, Dutch Green Building Council, Rotterdam. Eichholtz, P, Kok, J, Quigley, M & Berkeley, CA., 2008. ‘Doing well by doing good? Green office buildings, Berkeley Program on Housing and Urban Policy, Berkeley, W08. Geraedts, R., 1989. Verkavelbare Dragers en Kosten, Stichting Bouwresearch, Rotterdam. Geraedts, R., 1998. Flexis; communicatie over en beoordeling van flexibiliteit tussen gebouwen en installaties, Stichting Bouwresearch, Rotterdam, 68. Geraedts, R., 2001. ‘Upgrading the flexibility of buildings’, CIB World Building Congress. Wellington. Geraedts, R., 2009. ‘Future value of buildings’, 3rd CIB International Conference on Smart and Sustainable Built Environment, A. v. d. Dobbelsteen. Delft University of Technology Delft, The Netherlands. Geraedts, RP& Van der Voordt, DJM., 2007. A tool to measure opportunities and risks of converting empty offices into dwellings, Sustainable Urban Areas, Rotterdam. Geraedts, RP & Van der Voordt, DJM., 2007. Transformatiepotentiemeter, Transformatie van kantoorgebouwen, Rotterdam, 010. Hermans, M, Geraedts, R, Van Rijn, E & Remoy, H., 2013. Bepalingsmethode adaptief vermogen van gebouwen ter bevordering van flexibel bouwen, Brink Groep, Leidschendam. Houtsma, EO., 1982. ‘Flexibiliteit in gebouwen; C22-1’, Stichting Bouwresearch, Rotterdam, C22-1, p. 154. Remøy, H& Van der Voordt, T., 2007. ‘A new life - conversion of vacant office buildings into housing’, Facilities, vol. 25, nos. 3/4, pp. 88-103. REN, 1992. Real estate norm, Stichting Real Estate Norm, Nieuwegein. Schneider, T & Hill, J., 2007. Flexible housing, Architectural Press Elsevier, Oxford. Wilkinson, SJ, James, K & Reed, R., 2009. ‘Using building adaptation to deliver sustainability in Australia’, Structural Survey, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 46-61. Wilkinson, SJ & Remøy, H., 2011. Sustainability within use office building adaptations: A comparison of Dutch and Australian practices, Pacific Rim Real Estate Society, Gold Coast, Bond University.

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RESEARCH ON PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN THE REGENERATION OF HISTORICAL ARCHITECTURE—A CASE STUDY OF HUANGTIAN VILLAGE, ANHUI Xiaomeng Xing, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, China, [email protected] Abstract With the passage of time as well as the development of the economy, more and more new buildings have been erected around us. Meanwhile ones that bear the context of history are demolished on a large scale. Now historic buildings are existing in a dilapidated way because of the age, or saved in museum mode manners. However, by and large these efforts treat the symptoms, rather than addressing the root cause, the historic buildings are declining further, so we have to find a better cultural form to save them. Historic buildings are different from other works of art; they have lots of utility function closely relating people’s life. The reason why the buildings that have long history are declining is their internal function cannot satisfy the needs of modern life very well. For the regeneration of historic buildings, the public need to be involved, so that the vitality of historical buildings can be played better. Through the case study led by Professor Ou Yang Wen on Huangtian Village of Anhui- a study of a typical village regeneration in Huizhou culture characteristics, the article analyses that public participation is important for the regeneration of historic buildings by means of theoretical research, field research and comparative research methods, combining the protection of historical buildings and the residents living needs, to seek pioneering ways for the regeneration of historic buildings. Keywords: historic building, rehabilitation, public participation. INTRODUCTION The related concept involved in the study 1. Historic building Historical architecture refers to the fact that the building has a certain historical, scientific and artistic value, reflecting the city history and culture and local characteristics. Historic building, the witness of the history of city development, continued the context of city, and they are closely related to people's lives in a certain historical period, a certain region. 2. Regeneration of historical architecture Regeneration of historical architecture is going to endow new functions to historical buildings, so that they can adapt to requirements of the new era. At the same time, it is a new attempt at building image and environmental art design. 3. Public participation The public participation of this study is based on the policy support of historical building protection planning and public participation in the way of practice. Research background With the development of the time, more and more historic buildings have been destroyed by large-scale economic construction. There are also many large building projects in the name of saving old historic buildings. And the protection of local history has been ignored in many places. Some historical buildings, which have been identified to protect, are only kept in the preservation model of a museum without activity. And the old form is not suitable for the needs of modern people, repair to protect is not understood by the public. Neither of those ways can bring new vitality to historic buildings, nor protect these buildings in the best way. The needs of people have been ignored for a long time. In China, historical buildings have been protected by the top-down approach, which relies on experts to put forward conservation advocacy, government provided funding, professional personnel to provide technical support. The lack of a correct understanding leads public to misunderstand the protection of historic buildings. Which also causes many difficulties when implementing the protection work? In order to strengthen the mass base of historic buildings regeneration, the demands of the public need to be considered. What’s more, the public should be introduced into the process of historic buildings regeneration.

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RESEARCH METHOD 1. Theoretical research method To collect data and research relevant laws of historical building protection and regeneration. And to analyse experience from other domestic regions, which are in terms of public participation in historical building protection. At the same time, to have a thorough understanding of historic buildings evolution in Huangtian village of Anhui province. 2. Field research (On-the-spot investigation) method Through the study of Huangtian village in Anhui province, in the form of visiting and investigation, to grasp the existing saving state of Hui style architectures in Huangtian village. Hui style architecture has existed for a long time, built in Anhui province and named after this province. We entered the local residents’ home to issue questionnaires and ask for information. Analyzing of field measurement is also important. We collected opinions of participation in the historic buildings regeneration from residents and non-governmental organizations, to learn about the public cognition of the method of historic buildings protection and the development status of existing historical buildings. 3. Practice analysis method Through field investigation of Hui style architecture of Huangtian village, to summarize the way of public participation in historical building renewal. Refer to other cases of public participation in historic buildings regeneration in domestic regions. By using the method of comparison, research the subject pluralism and method diversity in public participation. So we illustrate the important role of public participation in historical building regeneration. Research purpose and meaning Through the study of public participation in the Hui style architectures protection on Huangtian village of Anhui province, we look for the possible method of treating historical building protection. Which can effectively protect the historic buildings and make it adapt to people modern life better? The ultimate goal is to mobilize public power to protect historical buildings and to form more effective living conditions. It is important to provide effective ways and methods to for public participation in historical building renewal. Ⅱ.CASE STUDY ON HUANGTIAN VILLAGE OF ANHUI PROVINCE Evolution of historical architecture of Huangtian village Huangtian village, which is located in the southeast of Jingxian in Anhui province, is a typical characteristic of Hui style villages in the southern Anhui province. Huangtian ancient building group was announced as the sixth batch of national key cultural relic’s protection units by the state council in 2006. Huangtian village has four hundred years of history since the Ming dynasty when the person who named Zhu. It has an ancient bridge, temple, ancient revetment, and as many as 100 buildings of ancient dwellings. There are 56 ancient buildings in Huangtian village which were declared in the sixth batch of national key cultural relic’s protection units list. The 56 ancient buildings were built in the Qing dynasty. Problems impeding historic buildings 1. The damage of nature Ancient buildings over a long period always lack maintenance and bear the destruction of the natural wind and rain. So a lot of buildings walls crack and beams and pillars have to bear different degrees of cracking. What’s more, roof breakage is very common. Termites and powder insect also bring serious damage to historic buildings. 2. The lack of maintenance Due to most buildings belonging to private owners in this village, buildings have been uninhabited since many people move to the city to live. With the wind and rain erosion, damage is very serious. Due to a lack of maintenance, some houses were partially damaged and a small amount of buildings collapsed. And the buildings continued to be in use are in constant expansion, the continuity of the ancient building group is facing some problems. 3. The lack of management Public buildings collapsed a lot due to a lack of management and monitoring, and the amount of maintenance funds required.

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4. Space transformation Residents want to increase the living area. They also hope to improve the living conditions, such as lighting and ventilation. Residents installed modern living facilities independently, and activities of tinkering with construction happened quite often, which need to be guided . The situation of public participation in historic buildings regeneration 1. The public's awareness of active participation in historic buildings regeneration Among the architectures which were identified as historic buildings in Huangtian village, some of the properties were still unchanged, and belonged to private property. But under state funding and government policy support, the residents talked about daily maintenance of historic buildings, which makes the historical architecture irradiate new vitality. As a traditional village with Hui style buildings group, most of the buildings belonged to private property and the historic buildings were still residential. By household survey we learned that, because the local roof is Chinese style tile piled on the roof, which was easily damaged, and easy to cause leakage of rain in the house, so every year, local residents replaced grey tile autonomously. Although factories now produce glazed tile, as local residential building was regarded as historic buildings, residents still used the traditional Chinese style tile when replacing the roof material, the residents take on the responsibility of the protection of buildings. They maintain houses regularly which has protected the traditional architectural forms effectively. This is the result of resident’s consciousness for historical building protection, and the enthusiasm involved in their lives increased actively. Interest groups participate in the protection of historical buildings There are buildings belonging to public property among the identified history buildings in Huangtian village, such as the Fifing family temple. The main body of public participation in this kind of building is replaced by the travel company. Huangtian village has intensified the efforts on tourism development in recent years, in the hope of using the method of historical building to attract tourists to increase local

Picture 1: The Chinese style tile

Picture 2: The Chinese style tile

income. In this way, it also wishes to use the funds to improve the overall environment of historic buildings better. Ancient villages have developed as tourism sites. The tourism company named Hauling was established in 2010 in Huangtian, a private enterprise. The company is responsible for ancient village tourism affairs. As the Qifeng family temple is contracted by the travel company, the daily responsibility of maintenance and rehabilitation repair has be borne by the travel company. All of this protection should be under the constraint by the protection of laws and norms. In order to avoid causing damage to historic buildings and villages and to keep the original character with overall context and continuity conditions, historical building protection and regeneration utilization shall be burned by the different main body. Public participation in function regeneration of historic buildings With the development of time, if only to maintain the original state, the vitality of historic buildings will not continue. This way of protection is just to maintain a natural pleasure without adapting to changing times and public needs. It is necessary to give new connotation to historic buildings. So that it keeps pace with the times. Huangtian village has four hundred years of history since the Ming dynasty when the person who named Zhu. It has kept an ancient bridge, temple, ancient revetment, and as many as 100 buildings of ancient dwellings. Historical Picture 3: added toilet

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houses have been in their old form intact, at the same time, we also need to consider the development of the buildings application of the public. Residents living in Huangtian village created application on their own way, combined with their needs, in the process of actual using of historic buildings. What has brought new vitality to historic buildings? Because of the limitation of conditions, such as lack of indoor toilets, residents rebuild original buildings by increasing the indoor toilet, which have improved the quality of life. By this way, they made the historical architecture more suitable for their life. Ancient architectures of Huangtian village have been relatively closed. The walls all around were enclosed and almost little window on the outside wall. They used to be built by using fire seal hard mountain, and centering on the patio, only with narrow patio today lighting and ventilated. The kitchen has been generally placed on either side of the outdoors. Both sides of the exterior wall tiles have been decorated with extremely rich local characteristics. In order to maintain the traditional forms of local building, the kitchen is unfavorable to open a window on the wall. It is great that local residents found their own solution in the process of actual using. They opened a small hole in the roof of the kitchen, and then use the glass instead of the clay to cover on the hole, but still in the same form of Chinese style tile. By this way, they solved the problem of the day lighting of the kitchen cleverly. Public participation in the image regeneration of historic buildings The ancient settlement of Huangtian village was the family named Zhu. The ancient village has a complete preservation of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Ancient buildings group covers an area of 20000 square meters. Buildings of Huangtian village combined into yard by multi-channel. Buildings were relatively closed with internal patio, rainwater flow into the patio from four directions along the roof. Buildings were built by timber frame. The most representative characteristics are the local unique water tiling covering on the wall of the outdoor. With the unceasing change of environment, the buildings have also suffering from the destruction of the human and the natural such as wind and rain. Because of the change of family structure and the new requirements of residential building, historic buildings have not completely adapted to the life of people. With the quality of life have improved, people need more space and the division of functions. In Huangtian village, space is relatively small and auxiliary space, such as toilet is lacking. Some villagers built the same style rooms which were next to the original building, including indoor toilet, shower and so on. Historical buildings have been very good to keep the original form, and the size of the building group has continued to expand. Public participation in environmental regeneration of historic buildings Buildings of Huangtian village still adopt the form of herringbone layout. Ancient architecture built along the river. Roadways connected with each other. The construction of the ancient building group has fully respected nature. After a hundred years, with the renovation of the two adjacent villages by residents, the village has taken shape with a beautiful water system landscape. It also reflected the thinking mode Picture 6: added bedroom of sustainable development since ancestors constructed the village. Huangtian village is famous of Picture 8: village "Chongxi Huoqing" tea. There are large areas of tea gardens.

Picture 7: added bedroom

The traditional way of tea has been kept by residents. Residents of Huangtian village have continued creating a rural landscape, with paddy fields and tea plantations as the greening basement. So Huangtian village has ket a good natural environment. The public has protected ancient architectural complexes and space forms of Huangtian village, and at the same time, residents also have protected the local family activities, folk habits and lifestyle. What has ensured the developing

Picture 4: glass tile

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Picture 5: kitchen



protection of the village and the vitality of human environment? The problems in the process of public participation in regeneration of the historical buildings 1. The shortage of the government in promoting the public participation Local governments were not paying enough emphasis to the importance of public participation. The office often instead the public thoughts of their own ideas or just permit the public to participate in go through the motions. It is wrong to ignore the important point that the public is the predominant body in historic buildings protection. 2. The lack of consciousness of public participation Many people have a relatively low level of understanding of historical building protection. Sometimes it is difficult to get the public into an agreement with government management institutions when individuals and personal interests are conflicted in the historical buildings. It seriously affects participation. Conservation and utilization of historic building needs government policy intervention and financial support. It also needs to mobilize residents to maintain and utilize historic building consciously, so the public awareness of the protection of historical buildings shall be strengthened. 3. The lack of public participation in the display of historic buildings In order to regenerate historic buildings of Huangtian village, the role of public participation needs to be played better in cultural inheritance. The charm of Hui style architecture should be fully displayed to attract visitors to the village. As Huangtian village lack organized management, residents need to be organized to participate in tourism. It is also important to increase interactive activities among tourists and residents, and arouse the enthusiasm of residents to the protection of cultural relics. CONCLUSION Conclusion regarding public participation in historical building regeneration Through the analysis of the Huangtian village in Anhui, the public plays a considerable role in historical architecture regeneration in our country. Public participation in the regeneration of historic buildings is the guarantee of better adaptation to historical building renovation. From today until the future, coordinated with public demand and new vitality, historical building is not only simply retaining the old form, but continues to develop. There are many historic buildings in our country, which are rich in historical value and cultural value. Because the number and type and the situation is complex, some timely repair and protection of historic buildings are obstructed if we lean on government comprehensive regulation alone. What’s more, a lot of historic buildings are still residential or private property, so it is better to encourage the public to preserve and repair historic buildings on their own initiative. This way is the new idea in historic building renewable. The outlook in public participation in regeneration of historic buildings At present, more and more people pay close attention to the living environment and the future of historic buildings. Under the encouragement from the government, the public is also more and more conscious in involving in the work of historic buildings regeneration in the form of personal or family. So we are likely to put each person's strength into the regeneration of historical architecture. This is the best way to protect these buildings which record the history. It also protects and inherits good history and civilization around us. (The pictures used in this thesis were taken by the author during the research in Hungtian village). REFERENCES He, Chen-jia., 2010. Beijing traditional courtyard buildings to protect and re-utilization Beijing Forestry University, Beijing. Li, Hong-yan., 2008. ‘Conservation and regeneration of historic buildings in China’, Huazhong Architecture, pp. 30-33. Liu, Jing., 2007. ‘Public participation in the history cultural heritage protection’, Chongqing University, Chongqing. Xu, You-wen & Sun, Ji-wei., 2000. Reincarnation of old architecture—a progressive concept in conservation of historical’, Time Architecture, March, pp. 23-25. Yang, Mian., 2010. Research on rehabilitation of historic building in urban renewal -A case study on Wuhan Tiandi’, Wuhan Huazhong University of Science and Technology.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ORIGINAL RESIDENTS IN THE PROTECTION AND RENOVATION OF HISTORICAL DISTRICTS Jiawen Li, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, China, [email protected] Abstract Nowadays, with the development of society and people's growing recognition of traditional culture, people pay more attention to the cultural value of historical districts. The government has started to implement the protection and renovation of historical districts. It has long gone that the historical districts are demolished and new buildings are constructed quickly. But tourism development and commercial revitalization have become a new orientation of the historical districts by the government due to economic interests and the people's surface recognitions. As a result, the original residents tend to be away from their land under this situation. To some extent, their life quality is improved and the historical districts are well protected and renovated. This greatly changed the characters of the historical districts. The vitality of the historical districts disappears as well as the original significance of historical districts themselves. The original value of them is neglected. What is most important in the protection and renovation of historical districts is paying attention to the inherent significance of their existence. Attention should be paid to humanity. The original residents are the carriers of local cultural heritage. This thesis expounds that we should not only pay attention to the spatial style and the building appearance, but also attach importance to the original value and the inheritance of their culture. It analyses the important role of original residents in regaining the original vitality of historical districts. This article lists and analyzes typical cases in order to find a way to settle original residents. As a result, we can recall government and people's concerns about the original residents during the protection and renovation of historical districts. Furthermore, this would push the original value and culture of historical districts. Keywords: historical districts, original residents, authenticity. INTRODUCTION Historical districts are city areas which preserved a certain number and size of the historical remains. They have typical and relatively complete historical features as well as certain city function and the lifestyle of the city. Under globalization, economic construction and tourism development has become the main theme of historical district development. This caused a fundamental change in structure and the environment. With the rapid development of economy, the nature of historical districts has changed greatly, which both has advantages and disadvantages. To a certain extent, economic development can be a great opportunity to stimulate private capital. But heritage faces a great threat due to the excessive pursuit of tourism efficiency and the ignorance of historical value. The protection of the original residents and their traditional way of life is most important. 1.

The lack of concern around original residents is the main problem of the protection and renovation of historical districts

Historical district protection is a relatively new subject in China. Because many city planning and construction departments are not very familiar with this subject, some misunderstanding and practices occur. These errors often cause irreparable damage to the historical districts. Most historical districts in China have lots of historic buildings and the original residents have lived there for centuries. But today’s main point of historical districts is building protection, which ignores the protection of original residents. Nowadays the demolition and rebuilding of historical districts has disappeared. But most governments are moving the original residents from their home and transforming the historical districts into tourism and entertainment facilities. This practice is completely wrong. Historical districts lost their traditional way of life

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and customs. This means they lost the authenticity of life. It is another kind of false behavior that we transform the original lifestyle into histrionic and imitative activities. The original historical charm of historical districts would be lost. We should make the long-term planning of the development of historical districts and protect the original residents as well as their buildings. So that we can reach the goal of protecting traditional style and promoting the development of cultural, economic and social harmony. The way to solve the problem Intellectuals have put forward the value standard for protection and renovation of historical districts recently. They have changed their mind from ‘one-sided protection’ to ‘total consideration’. They changed their focus from the protection of local buildings and natural landscape to folk culture and folk authenticity transmission. They pay attention to not only the material cultural heritage and natural culture heritage but also the intangible cultural heritage. Studies on the value identification of historical districts have come to a scientific, comprehensive, diversified academic height. Experts said historical districts should have three characteristics: Integrity style, the authenticity of history and the authenticity of life. The concept of ‘authenticity’ in the field of architectural heritage can be dated back to the ‘Venice charter’ in the 1960s. After that the principle of ‘authenticity’ has been recognized by all countries in the world. It has become an important principle of inspection of world cultural heritage. Historical districts are not only the living and dwelling places of the past but also the natural and organic part of social life. The historical district is still and will continue to play its function. The authenticity of life has two evaluation standards. The first one is the proportion of the original residents which can be quantified. The other is the proportion of the traditional lifestyle. We should pay attention to the revivification of historical districts. I think we ought to work mainly on population control to solve this problem. Historical districts must have a reasonable population size and population structure. In my view, it is necessary for the regional government to study the zone location of historical districts. And then define what kind of people are allowed to move out. So that they can adjust the population structure and protect historical culture. It is also of vital importance to pay attention to the combination of public participation and local tourism. We should improve the material and cultural level of the original residents. Only this can improve the ability of national culture protection and local civilization. The protection of historical districts should fully mobilize the enthusiasm of the original residents and emphasize the principle of public participation. It is the original residents that reflect the spirit of historical districts. To achieve the purpose of coordination development we must get the support and participation of original residents during the protection and renovation of historical districts. Finally, we should make it clear that the ultimate goal of protecting and renovating the historical districts is to make the original residents live better. The Lijiang model Lijiang is attracting the world's attention because it is not only a historical city of China but also a world cultural heritage site. Lijiang experienced an earthquake and it has been reconstructed. Today Lijiang has become a ‘three heritages’ titled city. The style of Lijiang is the most basic performance of authenticity. The Naxi culture is the source of Lijiang’s vitality. The status of Naxi culture in Lijiang society, economy and life is ineffable. The development of tourism industry makes the city population structure change. 80% of Lijiang’s people are the Naxi and they have their own language, language, religion, folk characteristics etc. The Naxi people believe in Dongba religion which is the old city residents’ soul and spiritual ballast. This is a very important factor for the continuation of traditional culture and folk customs. The Naxi people inherit their traditional culture and folk custom age after age. They are the real carriers of traditional culture. Nowadays some of Lijiang’s original residents have begun to move out due to the interests or works. They get into new cities for life. Meanwhile, they rent their house to people from other places. One of the tour guides said the number of hotels in Dayan (one area in Lijiang) increased rapidly from dozens in 1997 to more than one thousand in 2006. It is clear that some invisible carriers have got out of the city quietly.

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More attention should be paid to traditional culture rather than materials in Lijiang’s protection. So we should care much about the carriers of the protection of traditional culture. Thoughts and suggestions on the protection of Lijiang The ancient city is not an antique or ‘old model’. We need to find the ‘alive’ factors. The regional architecture is a carrier of local culture and culture is the soul of the living area, while the original residents are important carriers of the local culture. The disappearance of the original residents would cause the dislocation of local culture. We should study the humanistic factors hidden behind the buildings as well as visible space and buildings. Culture does not exist independently in a vital place of cultural heritage. Every culture has its carriers. The development of commerce and replacement of population structure would cause the absence of cultural authenticity. We should find a path to readjust the population during historical districts heritage protection. The suggestions for the protection of original residents of Lijiang: Let original residents realize the value of their traditional culture. So that the great pride and consciousness of their culture could be inspired, which would make the original residents willing to stay in the historical districts. To make the Naxi people participate in the development and protection of ecology and culture of the historical districts as soon as possible. Let people participate in the historical districts protection and development is not only the development planning and decision-making in tourism. What is important is letting original residents share the benefits of tourism development. Make the original residents develop industry which can connect modern tourism or cultural industry on their own. And a specified and suitable management mode should be established. Help to improve the housing conditions of original residents, which includes the improvement of infrastructure construction and housing area. Promote the original residents’ recognition of history, culture, heritage buildings. And create a new cultural environment. Strengthen the limitation of historical districts’ shops. Commercial land should be limited strictly in and around the historical districts, especially tourism business land. Land should be in accordance with the planning control. Every effort should be made to improve the tourism service quality. We should build services facilities according to high standards of the world cultural heritage rather than expanding the construction of land blindly. Only through protecting the original residents, can the authenticity of historical districts be really kept. Lijiang's overall protection and planning do benefit not only itself but also other city historical districts. It means a lot to the curbing of historical districts’ reduction or even disappearance. CONCLUSION The historical districts and their way of life and traditional custom is an important performance of historical districts’ authenticity and the carrier of historical culture. The original residents’ philosophy, moral values, ecological values and aesthetic values is the core worth of the historical districts. The traditional culture which is carried by the original residents attracts both Chinese and foreign tourists. Our concern about the fate of the original residents decides the future development of historical districts. I expect that we could arouse more people to care about the original residents and find the significance they give to historical districts.

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PART 6 : CIB W110 INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING The second Programme Partner linked to the international Council for research and innovation in Building and Construction (CiB) is: CiB W 110 informal Settlements and Affordable Housing. This international research group engages with issues of sustainable livelihoods and community participation in informal settlements as well as how the exchange of technology may be achieved towards the development of the physical, social and economic conditions of human settlements. The commission also explores topics on the provision of affordable housing across the whole housing market. Happy ratna Santosa, Professor in Architecture, is Head of the laboratory of Housing and Human Settlements at the institut Teknologi Sepuluh nopember, indonesia (2008-present). She has (2003-2007) and Head of the Population and Environmental research Centre (1988-1997). Amira Osman, Associate Professor at the university of Johannesburg, is the uiA 2014 Durban General reporter. She studied at the university of Khartoum, obtained a diploma from the institute for Housing Studies (iHS), rotterdam and a PhD from the university of Pretoria. She is a registered architect and rated nrF researcher.

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CIB Comissions as those contribute to defined Priority Themes and have their focus in certain Areas

CIB Priority Themes

Areas of Scientific Interest BT

GEN CIB Task Groups and Working Commissions TG59

People in Construction

TG72

Public Private Partnership

TG74

New Production and Business Models in Construction

TG78

Informality and Emergence in Construction

TG79

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TG80

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Global Construction Data

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Building Healthy Cities

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TG88

Smart Cities

TG89

Construction Mediation Practice

TG90

Information Integration in Construction

W014

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W023

Wall Structures

W040

Heat and Moisture Transfer in Buildings

W055

Construction Industry Economics

W056

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Construction in Developing Countries

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Culture in Construction

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W117

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W118

Clients and Users in Construction

W119

Customised Industrial Construction

W120

Disasters and the Built Environment

Extend of Involvement of Task Groups and Working Commissions

SC

IDDS

RU

BCT

BBE BPh

DB

BP BE

MOE

LPP

Abbreviations of defined Themes and Areas Priority Themes

Areas of Scientific Interest

Same of the Activities and Outcome of this Task Group or Working Commission may be

SC

Sustainable Construction

GEN

GENERAL ISSUES: Innovation, Information, Education

of special importance to the respective Theme or Area

IDDS

Integrated Design and Delivery Solutions

BT

BUILDING TECHNIQUE

BCT

Building and Construction Technologies

Resilient Urbanisation

BPh

Building Physics

BBE

BUILDINGS AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DB

Design of Buildings

BE

Built Environment

BP

BUILDING PROCESS

MOE

Management, Organisation and Economics

LPP

Legal and Procurement Practices

Activities and Outcome of this Task Group or Working Commission in principle always are of special importance to the respective Theme or Area

RU

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we support:

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CIB Commissions Commissions CIB

Members can choose to participate in a selection of over 50 Commissions in the areas of Building Techniques, Design of Building and the Built Environment, and Building Process. CIB Commissions Examples of recently establishedare: Commissions are: W104 Open Building Implementation W107 Construction in Developing Countries W110 Informal Informal Settlements Settlements and and Affordable Affordable Housing Housing W116 Smart Smart and and Sustainable Sustainable Built Built Environments Environments W119 Customized Industrial Construction

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