and rejects basic premise of democratic rule; that in Abraham Lincoln's words; it is the government of the people, by the people for the people. Aside from the ...
Vincent A. Vermeulen An examination of some psychosocial implications of the imbalance in the employer/employee relationship in the new employment regime:
Abstract:
This paper examines the changes in the regulation and structure of paid work over the last decade. In particular it is concerned with the impact on unskilled and lower income brackets as well as the effect of the increase in permanent casual/part-time work. The paper looks at the psychosocial factors that influence and cause an imbalance in the employer/employee relationship. It also looks at the results of this imbalance and how it affects not only employers and employees but at the spill over effect on society. In essence the paper highlights the flaws of the laissez-faire labour market theory and explains how and why it has detrimental implications for all involved.
Page 1 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen Over the past decade there have been considerable changes in the regulation and structure of paid work. Among these changes has been the move towards less state intervention in regards to setting and regulating wages and conditions of employment. These changes have largely been due to the influence of rational economists who argue that employment relations are best left to the market. Among the changes has been an increase in permanent casual/part-time employment (including outsourcing and contracting). As a result, while there has been an increase in job flexibility there has also been a decrease in job stability and security. From a rational economist view point this is ideal as it should allow the labour market to operate as it should, allocating capital and labour where demand requires it.
Unfortunately the position held by rational economists
seems to be based on a number of incorrect assumptions. The first is that employers and employees have equal bargaining power. The second is the fluidity of labour and assumes the transferability of skills. Thirdly it assumes that everyone has a choice in the labour market and that workers are mobile. A fourth assumption is that of the labour market being a level playing field. The reality shows otherwise1. It also ignores a number of salient issues. Among these are; the obsolescence of skills as well as age and gender in regards to re/employability, the negative influence of competition and profit margins, the imbalance in the labour market and the negative impact on society. The result of these changes are extensive, among these are; increases in unemployment and periodic employment, greater work loads and hours worked, less job stability and security and, decreased occupational health and safety. Not only is there growing inequality in bargaining power but also, not only is there a lack of transferability of skills but often obsolescence of skills is an additional factor to consider. In a situation where unequal bargaining power gives an employer an advantage over employees (and is taken), an imbalance occurs which can have detrimental effects on both parties that can have repercussions that extend beyond the employer/employee relationship. In regards to imbalance of bargaining power, among the most vulnerable groups are those in the
1
Donaldson, Peter, Economics of The Real World, British Broadcasting Corporation & Penquin Books, London, 1973, p.144.
Page 2 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen unskilled or low paid bracket2. Women too constitute a particularly vulnerable group given the demands of motherhood as well as the continued inequalities and discriminations they suffer in employment. This paper will primarily focus on how negative psychosocial factors can exacerbate the imbalance between the employer/employee power balance. As part of this, will be an examination of how these psychosocial factors can be part of a vicious cycle strengthened by the new employment regime. The implication of physiological changes and how they can relate directly to an imbalance in the employer/employee power balance will be a vital part of the examination of the psychosocial element. Examination of these psychosocial factors will be related to how the changes in employment relations can affect this as well as the impact and implications of psychosocial factors both on employers and employees as well as on society as a whole. A secondary issue will be the impact of the trend towards permanent casual / part-time employment. In this regard the paper will look at some of the reasons for this development as well as some results and their implications. On an overall basis the paper will address the interrelation of these issues and address possible overarching impacts on the larger community. This will be in relation to issues of social justice, the widening income gap, the growth of a permanent underclass and the long-term sustainability and stability of such a society. Due to the interconnectedness of these factors some will be raised throughout the paper. The reasoning behind rational economists desire to deregulate the labour market is that it should according to rational economic theory, lead to a more efficient allocation of resources3 and lead to a more efficient and fair society4. However, the results do not bear this out. To begin with state intervention in the name of market forces has brought about increased unemployment as well as greater incidences of periodic employment. This has been due to a concerted move towards permanent casual/part-time employment and outsourcing or subcontracting by companies and governments. Employers have taken this approach mainly due to perceived savings that would be realised through decreased Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., “Introduction: Blue Collar Workers Are ‘At Risk’”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., (eds.), Job Stress and Blue Collar Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1985, p.1. 3 Donaldson, Peter, Economics of The Real World, 1973, p.144. 4 Keen, Steve, Debunking Economics: The Naked Emperor of the Social Sciences, The University of western Sydney, Sydney 2001, p. xxii. 2
Page 3 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen employee costs. These savings would be either due to not having to pay casuals, full-timer benefits as well as all other costs associated with maintaining staff (such as annual and sick leave entitlements, office space and administrative costs). Another development has been a move to more shift work to avoid overtime payments as well as to increase production. The side effect of this trend has negative implications for Employees on several fronts. First of all Employees are less secure in their jobs and may need to work several jobs to make a living. Another result has been increased workloads and work hours. This has been due to either an increase in shift work as well as the fact that with the increase in permanent casual employment, employees who need to hold two or more jobs work longer hours cumulatively. This of course does not include unpaid work and is an additional factor that needs to be considered. Women in particular are vulnerable in this regard as they have a greater share of this5. Outsourcing and sub-contracting have a similar effect.6 In the road transport industry in Australia for example, due to the highly competitive nature and over saturation of the market owner/drivers need to work longer hours and take on a greater workload (driving longer distances and/or loading and unloading freight) in order to make an income.7 They also need to compete for contracts, which adds the uncertainty of employment and income to their difficulties8. In the pursuit of the profit margin company employees are expected to do the same.9 Many owner/drivers aside from having few “formal” skills and little labour market power are ”locked in” to their jobs due to their rigs having been obtained through redundancy payments. Likewise employees while having mobility in job options are limited due to high unemployment 10. This illustrates the fallacy in the assumption of rational economists view of the labour market 5
Frankenhaeuser, Marianne, Lundberg, Ulf and Mårdberg, Reports from the Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, 1990, No. 726: The Total workload of Men and Women As Related to occupational Level and Number and Age of Children, Stockholm University, Stockholm, 1990, p. 8. 6 Mayhew, Claire and Quinlan, Micheal, Trucking Tragedies: Why Occupational Health and Saftey Outcomes are Worse for Subconractor Workers in the road Transport Industry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, 1997.p.1. 7 ibid, p.4. 8 ibid, p. 4. 9 ibid, p. 6-7. 10 ibid, p.4.
Page 4 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen and highlights the dilemma faced by those in such a situation. In essence they are trapped in a vicious cycle over which they have little or no control and where the options if any are untenable. In relation to these developments, it is important to note findings in psychological and general health. These reveal that the lack in predictability and job security has been identified as psychosocial stressors in work. 11 Work overload is recognised as potentially hazardous to health and in producing stress12 “in particular, under conditions of low personal control and inability to predict and plan ahead”.13 Women have been noted in a number of studies as carrying the heaviest load since aside from any paid work they also tend to be the primary care providers for children and have the bulk of household duties.14 However, it must be noted that in relation to women in particular “stress buffers” that can ameliorate some problems have been identified as; high self esteem and economic independence.15 Therefore, employees who are in situations where they have to work long hours (cumulative or otherwise) and have excessive workloads are at risk. Those who have little control over their choice of employment (and conditions) are also at risk. When all these factors are combined their negative impact is multiplied. Prolonged periods of such stress have been shown to produce pervasive and farreaching effects on individuals and society as a whole. Prolonged exposure to high levels of stress, especially in situations where the individual feels helpless to effect change has been linked to the development of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PSTD), and related psychological illnesses such as chronic depression16 and anhedonia17(the inability to feel pleasure). The phenomenon of helplessness is a symptom of PTSD and is closely tied to the
Murphy, Lawrence R., “Workplace Interventions for Stress Reduction and Prevention”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, p. 303. 12 Frankenhaeuser, Marianne, Lundberg, Ulf and Mårdberg, Reports from the Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, 1990, No. 726, 1990, p. 7. 13 ibid, pp. 7-8. 14 ibid, p. 9 15 ibid, p. 10. 16 Goleman, Daniel, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, John Bloomsburry, London, 1996, p. 204. 17 ibid, p. 206. 11
Page 5 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen level of personal control. The greater the feeling of powerlessness is, the higher the likelihood that and individual will develop PTSD and become helpless.18 In essence PTSD is a limbic disorder in which the brain production of neurochemicals is over activated19. One of the most far-reaching effects of PSTD is how it produces changes in brain physiology. This is why it is virtually impossible for those affected by PTSD and associated mental illnesses to recover let alone control their reactions and attitudes without medical intervention (medication or psychotherapy). One of the features of learned helplessness is that it appears to be a biological coping mechanism. That is, in cases of prolonged stress the continual activation of the fight or flight mechanisms is unhealthy. Therefore the body reacts by shutting down and simply accepting the situation. Seligman’s experiments in learned helplessness20&21 illustrate this (See Appendix 1) and have correlation to human reactions. The implications of this are multitude. Of primary significance, however, is how it relates to the employer/employee relationship. Since individuals suffering from such conditions feel helpless and in effect are resigned to their situation, there is little or no likelihood that they will do anything to affect change. Therefore in such a situation the employer/employee balance of power is severely biased in favour of the employer. Not only does this belie the whole premise of equal bargaining power in labour market theory, it has considerable ramifications. Apart from the implications for employees stress has negative financial implications for employers.22&23 First of all is the fact that stress reduces productivity24. This has an impact on quantity and quality. Absence from work 18
Peterson, Christopher, Maier, Steven F., and Seligman, Martin, Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993, p. 4. 19 Goleman, Daniel, Emotional Intelligence, 1996, p. 205. 20 ibid, p. 204. 21 Peterson, Christopher, Maier, Steven F., and Seligman, Martin, Learned Helplessness, 1993, p. 4, 26 & 77. 22 Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, pp. 9-10. 23 Arnold, John, Cooper, Cary L., and Roberton, Ivan T., Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace (3rd Edition), Financial Times Management, London, 1991, p. 422. 24 Reilly, N. P., and Clevenger J. P., “ Stress and Performance in Nursing: Implications for Productivity”, in Whitney, Paul and Ochsman, Robert B., (eds.), Psychology and Productivity, Plenum Press, New York, 1988, pp. 147.
Page 6 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen due to stress-related disorders and ill health likewise translates in to financial cost.
25
Likewise, overwork and longer hours have implications ranging from
safety to costly mistakes due to errors. Shift work (especially rotational shifts and night shifts) has been identified as particularly stressful.26 In relation to nurses and air traffic controllers this can have significant repercussions given the impact on mental efficiency and motivation (aside from the non work related implications).27 In these cases the employer is adversely affected. Thus it would be in employers’ interests to reduce incidence of stress. Unfortunately employer requirements for greater workload and longer hours are related to profit margins and the deregulation of work and safety requirements. This is another example of how laissez faire market economics has failed28. Rather than the market forces resulting in better safety standards, this has not occurred. In fact, self-regulation by the market has led instead in employers reducing costs via minimising safety requirements if not explicitly or implicitly encouraging their violation29&30 Another factor that needs to be addressed is the incidence of sabotage as an informal response by employees to stress and discontent.31 (See Appendix 1) This constitutes additional costs to the employer. Such behaviour is tied not only expression of frustration but as a reaction to perceived injustice. This is related to concepts of social justice, including the concept of a fair wage32. When people feel that they have been treated unfairly, this breeds resentment and can result in crime. In a way these are attempts to balance the scales through theft, misappropriation or vandalism. Cowdery notes the wider implications of this for society in that economically disadvantaged people are more likely to commit
Fletcher, Ben “The Epidemiology of Occupational Stress in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, pp. 9-10. 26 Arnold, John, Cooper, Cary L., and Roberton, Ivan T., Work Psychology, 1991, p. 430. 27 ibid, p. 430. 28 Nader, Ralph and Smith, Wesley J., Collison Course: The Truth About Airline Safety, Tab Books, 1993, pp. 54. 29 Mayhew, Claire and Quinlan, Micheal, Trucking Tragedies, 1997, p.7 30 Nader, Ralph and Smith, Wesley J., Collison Course, 1993, pp. 54-55. 31 Murphy, Lawrence R., “Workplace Interventions for Stress Reduction and Prevention”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, p. 304. 32 Solow, Robert M., The Labour Market as a Social Institution, Basil Blackwell Inc., Cambridge, 1990, p.33. 25
Page 7 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen crimes.33 Thus resentment can find its focus beyond the employer/employee relationship34. Thus the imbalance in power between employers and employees and the resulting work relationship and structures have an impact on society as a whole. In regards to occupational health and safety, beyond the impact on employees and the costs to employers are the direct and indirect costs to society via workers compensation claims35 In addition to this, the relationship between the economic rationalist necessity of price competition and longer hours among other negative developments has been identified with safety hazards36. This endangers not only the employee via chronic fatigue but the rest of society who are either endangered by transport workers, health professionals and aviation workers to name a few. Another consideration is the additional tax burden37 due to having to deal with problems emanating from the occupational health and safety conditions that have arisen under the new regime. On an overall basis the cost to society in productivity and health has also been raised as being considerable.38 (See Appendix 2) Aside from financial costs and impact on health services 39 Kornhauser’s study clearly identifies job related stress as being the primary factor in workers’ mental health.
40
Furthermore there is the psychological strain and “spill-over
effect on others including suicide, accidents, and violence.41 Again those in lowlevel jobs are identified as being at risk.42 However, there are further and more fundamental issues that are affected by and lie at the heart of an imbalance in the employer/employee relationship. With an unequal bargaining power in favour of employer those most vulnerable 33
Cowdery, Nickolas, GettingJjustice Wrong: Myths, Media and Crime, Allen & Unwin, Crowsnest, 2001, p. 8. 34 Shostak, Arthur b., “Blue Collar Worker Alienation”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., (eds.), Job Stress and Blue Collar Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1985, p. 9. 35 Murphy, Lawrence R., “Workplace Interventions for Stress Reduction and Prevention”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, , 1988, p. 302. 36 Mayhew, Claire and Quinlan, Micheal, Trucking Tragedies, 1997, pp. 25-26. 37 ibid, p.26. 38 Arnold, John, Cooper, Cary L., and Roberton, Ivan T., Work Psychology, 1991, p. 424. 39 Beehr, Terry A., Psychological Stress in the Workplace, Routledge, London, 1995, p.7. 40 Fletcher, Ben “The Epidemiology of Occupational Stress in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, 1988, p.24. 41 Fletcher, Ben “The Epidemiology of Occupational Stress in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, 1988, pp. 37-38. 42 ibid, p.38.
Page 8 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen are workers xho have little or no bargaining power. These are the poor, the unskilled and those lacking mobility within the labour market. As already discussed this lack of mobility can be compounded by psychosocial factors. Cross national and cultural studies in poverty have shown that “psychosocial dimensions are central to poor people’s definitions of poverty.”43 There is a pervasive feeling of helplessness and vulnerability. World Bank studies have shown that the lower or non existent bargaining power of the poor means that they have to work for longer hours at lower wages.44 The longer term implications of such a situation is that the problem becomes intergenerational.45 The push for greater labour market freedom purported to herald a fairer and more equitable economic system has not eventuated. On the contrary, the swing away from government regulation and intervention and towards a free market has tended to increase inequality within countries”.46 Coupled with the psychosocial factors this points to a continued widening and deepening of the income gap. Given the intergenerational impact of psycho-socio-economic factors this is a grave issue as it points to the entrenchment of a growing permanent underclass. Socio-economic factors have been seen as having a correlation to health and occupation.
47
Coupled with the fact that psychosocial factors create an
inescapable vicious cycle, there is the danger that such an underclass would be difficult to raise out of such depths. The implications for those who fall into this segment of society are considerable. Psychosocial factors have been identified with decreased participation in the democratic/political process by lower/working class48 (See Appendix 3). This, is of course due to their psychological state of mind which as noted has a tremendous impact on their ability to take part in activities. Their 43
Narayan, Deepa with Raj Patel, Kai Schafft, Anne Rademacher, Sarah Koch-Schulte, Voices of the Poor. Can Anyone Hear Us?, Oxford University Press for the World Bank, Oxford, 2000, p. 266-267. 44 ibid, p. 267. 45 ibid, p. 267. 46 Stewart, Frances and Berry, Andrew, “ Globalisation, Liberalisation and Inequality: Expectations and Experience,” in Hurrell, Andrew and Woods, Nagaire (eds), Inequality Globalization and World Politics, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999, p. 186. 47 Fletcher, Ben “The Epidemiology of Occupational Stress in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, 1988, pp. 21-22. 48 Lundberg, Margaret J., The Incomplete Adult: Social Class constraints on Personality Developments, Contributions in Sociology, Number 15, Greenwood Press, Connecticut, 1974, p. 94-95.
Page 9 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen sense of powerlessness and acceptance of the status quo impedes them for participation in the political process. Inasmuch as it is a reflection of the psychological state of mind of such groups, this is an observation that has been long made by others such as Gallet in relation to the effects of poverty.49 It has also been noted in World Bank proceedings, the example being in relation to American politics, in that, those more likely to benefit from a change in system do not participate in the political process that would effect this change50. Elster succinctly points out that “ for citizens to use their political rights to achieve economic security, they already need to be economically secure.”51 As such, this effect cannot be ignored because of the profound impact it has upon the democratic process. Given the numeric proportion of these marginalised and disempowered groups, the fact that they do not participate is not as significant as the fact that they do not feel that their participation is necessary let alone possible and capable of affecting change. The belief that it will not make any difference in itself undermines democracy in that it questions and rejects basic premise of democratic rule; that in Abraham Lincoln’s words; it is the government of the people, by the people for the people. Aside from the undermining of the foundations of democratic government one also needs to consider the negative implications of those who fall into the deprived sub culture of this underclass 52 (See Appendix 4), and their implications for the stability of society as a whole. If the income gap increases and more and more people become affected by impoverishment due to the inequity in the economic system this could have severe repercussions for society. As previously mentioned such negative impact ranges from increased costs in terms of health and public safety to economic costs. In regards to public safety this extends from increased policing costs due to increased crime as well as increased costs to deal with perpetrators of crime (court and incarceration).
49
Gallet, Paul, Freedom to Starve (trans. Rosemary Sheed), Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1972. p. 24. 50 Elster, Jon, “The Impact of Constitutions on Economic Performance,” in Bruno, Michael & Boris Pleskovic (eds.), Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1994, pp. 213. 51 ibid 52 Lundberg, Margaret J., The Incomplete Adult, 1974, pp. 16-17.
Page 10 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen Further to these costs will be the social cost of an increase in societal violence and criminals. The economic costs aside from those already mentioned will include the shrinking of markets as less people will be able to afford goods and services. This is linked in part to the move of jobs offshore and to developing countries. This is largely due to cheaper labour costs often unhampered by health and safety or environmental restrictions. It could be argued by economists that this is a prime example of market forces at work. However, reality is that it ignores the harm that taking advantage of such conditions have on societies and the global community as a whole. To conclude, it is clear that there is an imbalance in the employer/employee relationship. This imbalance enables employers to take advantage of employees and can create a cycle of helplessness that is compounded by the changes in employment regulation and structure. The psychosocial factors emanating from this have negative implications for both parties involved and have a spill over effect into society. The short term benefits to employers of cheaper labour costs are far outweighed by the negative manifestations of the imbalance. While on one hand the employer suffers losses it is the employee who suffers more and society in the long run that bears the burden of the psychosocial results. These societal dysfunctions and costs are complex and multifaceted, however, they are intrinsically tied to psychosocial factors besetting those who fall in the most vulnerable segments of society. The imbalance in the employee/employer relationship lies at the root of the psychosocial problem. Any attempt to ameliorate the issues of psychosocial factors leading to and compounding poverty need to acknowledge this first.
Page 11 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen
References Arnold, John, Cooper, Cary L., and Roberton, Ivan T., Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace (3rd Edition), Financial Times Management, London, 1991. Beehr, Terry A., Psychological Stress in the Workplace, Routledge, London, 1995. Bluen, Stephen D., and Barling, Julian “Psycological Stressors Associated with Industrial Relations”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, pp. 175-205 Bruno, Michael & Boris Pleskovic (eds.), Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1994 Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988. Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., (eds.), Job Stress and Blue Collar Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1985. Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., “Introduction: Blue Collar Workers Are ‘At Risk’”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., (eds.), Job Stress and Blue Collar Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1985, pp. 7-6. Cowdery, Nickolas, Getting justice Wrong: Myths, Media and Crime, Allen & Unwin, Crowsnest, 2001. Donaldson, Peter, Economics of The Real World, British Broadcasting Corporation & Penquin Books, London, 1973 Edwards, Jeffrey R., “The Determinants and Consequences of Coping with Stress”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, pp. 233263 Elster, Jon, “The Impact of Constitutions on Economic Performance,” in Bruno, Michael & Boris Pleskovic (eds.), Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1994 Flanders, Alan, Trade Unions, Hutchinson’s University Library, New York, 1952. Fletcher, Ben “The Epidemiology of Occupational Stress”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, pp. 3-50.
Page 12 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen Frankenhaeuser, Marianne, Lundberg, Fredrikson, Mats et al., Reports from the department of psychology, Stockholm University, 1987, No. 666: Stress on and Off the Job As Related to Sex and Occupational Status in White Collar Workers, Stockholm University, Stockholm, 1987. Frankenhaeuser, Marianne, Lundberg, Ulf and Mårdberg, Reports from the department of psychology, Stockholm University, 1990, No. 726: The Total workload of Men and Women As Related to occupational Level and Number and Age of Children, Stockholm University, Stockholm, 1990. Freire, Paulo (trans Myra Bergman Ramos), Pedagogy of the Oppressed: New Revised 20th Anniversary Edition, Continum, New York, 1998. Gallet, Paul, Freedom to Starve (trans. Rosemary Sheed), Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1972. Garber, Judy and Seligman, Martin E. P., (eds.), Human helplessness: theory and Application, Academic Press, New York, 1980. Goleman, Daniel, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, John Bloomsburry, London, 1996. Herriot, Peter, The Employment Relation: A Psychological Perspective, Routledge, East Sussex, 2001. Hurrell, Andrew and Woods, Nagaire (eds), Inequality Globalization and World Politics, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999. Keen, Steve, Debunking Economics: The Naked Emperor of the Social Sciences, The University of Western Sydney, Sydney 2001. Leukel, Francis, Introduction to Physiological Psychology, The C. V. Mosby Company, 1972. Levitan, Sar A. & Belous, Richard S., More Than Subsistence: Minimum Wages for the Working Poor, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1979. Lindsay, A. D. Karl Marx’s Capital: An Introductory Essay, Oxford University Press, London, 1925. Lundberg, Margaret J., The Incomplete Adult: Social Class constraints on Personality Developments, Contributions in Sociology, Number 15, Greenwood Press, Connecticut, 1974. Mandel, Ernest, Introduction to Marxist Economic Theory, Pathfinders Press, new York, 1969. Mayhew, Claire and Quinlan, Micheal, Trucking Tragedies: Why Occupational health and Saftey Outcomes are Worse for Subconractor Workers in the road Transport Industry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, 1997.
Page 13 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen
Miller, Suzzane M., « Why having Control Reduces Stress : If I Can Stop The Roller Coaster, I Don’t Want To Get Off”, in Garber, Judy and Seligman, Martin E. P., (eds.), Human helplessness: theory and Application, Academic Press, New York, 1980, p.p. 71-96. Monk, Timothy H., and Tepas, Donald I., “Shift Work”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., (eds.), Job Stress and Blue Collar Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1985, pp. 65-84. McGarity, Thomas O., and Shapiro, Sidney A., Workers at Risk: The Failed Promise of the Occupational Safety and Health and Administration, Praeger Publishers, Conneticut, 1984. Murphy, Lawrence R., “Workplace Interventions for Stress Reduction and Prevention”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, pp. 301339. Nader, Ralph and Smith, Wesley J., Collison Course: The Truth About Airline Saftey, Tab Books, 1993. Narayan, Deepa with Raj Patel, Kai Schafft, Anne Rademacher, Sarah KochSchulte, Voices of the Poor. Can Anyone Hear Us?, Oxford University Press for the World Bank, Oxford, 2000. Peterson, Christopher, Maier, Steven F., and Seligman, Martin, Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993. Quinlan, Michael, The Implications of labour Market Restructuring in Industrialised Societies for Occupational Health and Safety, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, 1999 Ross, N. S., Constructive Conflict: An Essay on Employer-Employee Relations in Contemporary Britain, Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 1969. Reilly, N. P., and Clevenger J. P., “ Stress and performance in nursing: Implications for Productivity”, in Whitney, Paul and Ochsman, Robert B., (eds.), Psychology and Productivity, Plenum Press, New York, 1988, pp. 127-155. Rycroft, Charles, Anxiety and Neurosis, Pelican Books, Harmondsworth, 1968. Seligman, Martin E. P., Helplessness: On Development, Depression & Death, University of Pennsylvania, New York, 1992. Shostak, Arthur b., “Blue Collar Worker Alienation”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Smith, Michael J., (eds.), Job Stress and Blue Collar Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1985, pp. 7-18.
Page 14 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen
Solow, Robert M., The Labour Market as a Social Institution, Basil Blackwell Inc., Cambridge, 1990. Smith, Richard, Unemployment and Health, Oxford university Press, Oxford, 1987. Stewart, Frances and Berry, Andrew, “ Globalisation, Liberalisation and Inequality: Expectations and Experience,” in Hurrell, Andrew and Woods, Nagaire (eds), Inequality Globalization and World Politics, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999, pp. 151-186. Teicher, Julian, Peter Holland and Richard Gough (Eds) Employee Relations Management: Australia in a Global Context, Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest, 2002. Torres, Raymond, Towards a Socially Sustainable World Economy: An Analysis of the Social pillars of Globalisation, International Labour Office, Geneva, 2001. Viscusi, W. Kip, Risk By Choice: Regulating Health and Safety in the Workplace, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1983. Wallace, Meredith , Levens, Mary and Singer, George, “Blue Collar Stress”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, pp. 53-76. Whitney, Paul and Ochsman, Robert B., (eds.), Psychology and Productivity, Plenum Press, New York, 1988.
Page 15 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen
Appendix 1 Source : Murphy, Lawrence R., “Workplace Interventions for Stress Reduction and Prevention”, in Cooper, Cary L., and Payne, Roy (eds.), Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Willey & Sons, Chichester, 1988, p. 304.
Page 16 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen
Appendix 2 Source : Arnold, John, Cooper, Cary L., and Roberton, Ivan T., Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace (3rd Edition), Financial Times Management, London, 1991, p. 427.
Page 17 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen
Appendix 3 Source: Lundberg, Margaret J., The Incomplete Adult: Social Class constraints on Personality Developments, Contributions in Sociology, Number 15, Greenwood Press, Connecticut, 1974, p. 95.
Page 18 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen
Appendix 4 Source : Lundberg, Margaret J., The Incomplete Adult: Social Class constraints on Personality Developments, Contributions in Sociology, Number 15, Greenwood Press, Connecticut, 1974, pp. 16-17.
Page 19 of 20
Vincent A. Vermeulen Postscript:
With the increasing interest in and acceptance of psychosocial factors and their potential negative impact on society, one would hope that there will be moves to address these in a constructive manner in relation to employment relations and society as a whole. Unfortunately, given the trend and history of employers and those in authority of using such knowledge to their advantage it is more likely this will not happen. This is of particular concern given the implications of treatment of adverse changes to brain physiology through medication. Perhaps the spectre of Soma raised by Huxley should no longer be regarded as mere Science Fiction but something to be guarded against.
Page 20 of 20
