ml after [a] qaphwâ after pi or pin mêinkhalêi after myî, myi?, cu?, or tî ...... >8'
kakak tiri.
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• Production Grarnrnars for the Kinship Terminologies of Burrnese and several Indonesian Languages Blair D. Palmer, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, McGill University, Montreal
NIarch, 1997
_1\. thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies
and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of 1.1aster of Science.
•
@Blair Palmer, 1997.
1+1
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• Abstract
Previously, J. Lambek et al. have used Production Grammars to study the kinship terminology of English, Hindi, Sanskrit and i\rIalagasy. This technique is applied here to the kinship terminology of Burmese and four closely related Indonesian languages: Indonesian, Javanese, rvJadurese and Sundanese. The production grammars are then compared, noting differences between Burrnese and the others, and differences within the group of Indonesian languages. Particular attention is paid to the reduction rules, as they are indicative of the structure of the grammar. It was found that although differing in the structure of its kinship descriptions, Burmese is quite similar to the Indonesian languages on the level of reduction rules. A computer program was used to check the grammars and to generate sample derivations. Finally: kinship data is included for four other Indonesian languages.
•
i
• Resurné
J. Lambek et al. ont déjà utilisé des < > pour analyser les termes de parenté en anglais, hindi, sanskrit et malgache. Leur technique est appliquée ici au.\: termes de parenté en birman et en quatre langues indonésiennes: l'indonésien, le javanais~ le madurais, et le sundanais. Les différences entre le birman et les autres seront étudiées, ainsi que les différences à même le groupe des langues indonésiennes. En particulier, les règles de réduction, qui sont indicatives de la structure de la grammaire, seront étudiées. Il fut découvert, bien qu'il y ait des différences dans la structure des < >: que le birman est très similaire au."'( langues indonésiennes au niveau des règles de réduction.
ün
program d'ordinateur a été utilisé pour vérifier les grammaires et pour engendrer des exemples de dérivation. Enfin, des termes de parenté en quatre autres langues indonésiennes sont inclus .
•
11
• Ackno"W ledgelllents
l would like to thank my language informants for generously spending their time with me, including those people who helped me \Vith languages not appearing in this thesis. J\JIy time in Indonesia was enhanced by the friendship of Pak Inyo Gadjah
~,tIada,
Fernandez~
cooperation~ assistance
and
Pak Sutarjo, and Pak Al. Sutjijana at Universitas
Yogyakarta.
1 am grateful to the support of the National Science and Engineering Research Council for financing my studies. Thanks to Leonard and Nicolas for being stimulating and supportive in the office. l \vish to thank my thesis supervisor Jim
Lambek~
without whom none of this
would have happened. Ta NIother, Dad, Dean, Luke and Lise. Vou are the rock that l lash myself even if the rape is long. Thanks for aIl the encouragement and love. Ta Sinta, thanks for being in my life.
•
iii
to~
• Contents
1
2
Introduction
1
1.1
The languages .
1
1.2
Relations....
2
1.3
Production Grammars
4
Burmese
8
2.1
Kinship Data
8
2.2
The Consanguineous Productions
9
2.2.1
Structure Rules .
9
2.2.2
Reduction Rules
9
2.2.3
\Vord Assignments
Il
2.2.4
!\tIorphologicai Rules
Il
2.3
2.4
•
2.5
The AffinaI Productions
12
2.3.1
Structure Rules
12
2.3.2
Reduction Rnles
13
2.3.3
vVord Assignments
13
2.3.4
NIorphological Rules
14
Discussion of Consanguineous Productions
14
2.4.1
Structure Rules
14
2.4.2
Reduction Rules
16
2.4.3
vVord Assignments
2.4.4
Morphological Rules
. . . .
16 16
Discussion of AffinaI Productions IV
17
• 3
Structure Rules .
2.5.2
Reduction Rules
18
2.5.3
vVord Assignments
19
2.5.4
NIorphological Rules
2.6
Cousin Terms
2.7
Examples
. . . . . . .
.
.
. .
17
19
. .
.
20 :22
Indonesian
28
3.1
Kinship Data
3.2
The Consanguineous Productions
28
3.2.1
Structure Rules
28
3.2.2
Reduction Rules
30
3.2.3
\Vord Assignments
3.2.4
~/Iorphelogical
.
.
28
.
30
.
31
Rules
3.3
Steprelation Preductions
3.4
The AffinaI Productions
3.5
•
2.5.1
.
31
. . . .
31
.
·
3.4.1
Structure Rules .
3.4.2
Reduction Rules
·
32
3.4.3
\Vord Assignments
·
32
3.4.4
NIorphoIogicai Rules
·
31
.
·
33
.
Discussion of Consanguineous Productions
33
3.5.1
Structure Rules
33
3.5.2
Reduction Rules
3.5.3
\Vord Assignments
3.5.4
wIorphological Rules
34
· .
.
3.6
Discussion of Steprelation Productions
3.7
Discussion of AffinaI Productions
·
· .
· .
36
· . . ·
·
35
. ·
36 37
3.7.1
Structure Rules .
37
3.7.2
Reduction Rules
37
3.7.3
"Vord Assignments
38
v
•
3.7.4 3.8 4
.
.
39
.
43
4.1
Kinship Data .
4.2
The Consanguineous Productions
44
4.2.1
Structure Rules
44
4.2.2
Reduction Rules
4.2.3
\Vord Assignments
4.2.4
NIorphological Rules
43
.
. .
4.3
Steprelation Productions
4.4
The Affinai Productions
.
.
44
.
.
44
48 49 .
.
49
4.4.1
Structure Rules
49
4.4.2
Reduction Rules
4.4.3
'Nord Assignments
50
4.4.4
NIorphological Rules
50
.
49
Discussion of Consanguineous Productions
51
4.5.1
Structure Rules
51
4.5.2
Reduction Rules
52
4.5.3
\Vord Assignments
53
4.5.4
ivIorphological Rules
.54
4.6
Discussion of Steprelation Productions
;J::J
4.7
Discussion of AffinaI Productions
.56
4.7.1
Structure Rules
56
4.7.2
Reduction Rules
57
4.7.3
'YVord Assignments
58
4.7.4
NIorphological Rules
58
4.8
•
Examples
Javanese
4.5
5
39
lVIorphological Rules
Examples
.
59
.
:J\IIadurese
5.1
Kinship Data .
64 . . . .
64
vi
- ') v._
•
5.3
The Consanguineous Productions · .
5.2.1
Structure Rules
-')') 8' (older stepsibling) , and 5 /, SlVI
qaphéicî
(E)PP>SF
qaméicî
(E)PPS(E)F
cîta
(E)PSF
qamà
~vISG--tqaG
in context #'" (cousin suffi..-x)#
CM4 SF# --+ (CNI5)
--1
#PPS#
---7
#PFcî#
- r (CVV4) -+ #qaméicî# • #R# -+ (CSI) -+ (CS4)
-t
--7
#PR#
CCF# --+ (CSI) ---7
(CSI) -+ #PPR# --+ (CSI)
--7
fFPPRC#
#PPRCF# --+ (CSI) --+ #PPPRCF# --+ (CSI) --+
#PPPRCCF#-+ (CSI)
-r(CS5)
--7
-7
----t
#PPPRCCCF# --+ (CSI) --+ #PPPPRC-
#PPPPSCCCF# ---t (C9) --+ #PSF-Bôunwûnkwê#
#P>SF-Bôunwûnkwê#---t (CrvI9)
--t
#cîF-Bôunwûnkwê#
---t (CNIII) --+ #cît6-eôunwûnkwê# • #R# -+ (CSI) --+ #PR# ---+ (CSI) -+ #PPR# -+ (CS4)
---7
#PPRCF#
---7
---7
(CSI) -+ #=PPRC#
(CSl) ---t #PPRCCF# --+ (CSI) --+
#PPPRCCF#-+ (CSI) -+ #PPPSCCF# --+ (C6)
---7
#PSF-hnawûnk\vê#
-+ (CS5) --+ #P>SF-hnawûnkwê# -+ (CNI9) --+ #cîF-hnawünk\vê#-+
•
(CiVIII)
---7
#cît6-hna\vûnkwê#
25
•
• #R#
(CSI) --+ #PR#
-4
--+ (CS4) --+ #PPS"NI#
-7
-4
~
(CSl) --+ #PPR# --+ (CSI)
(CS5) ---7 #PP>S"NI# --+ (AS2)
~
#PPS#
#§PP>Sr.:f#
--+ (A.R2) --+ #PP>S"NI# --+ (CM5) --+ #P"Nlcî# --+ (CvV3) -+ #qaphéicî#
• #R# ---7 (CSl) --+ #RC# ---7
---7
(CSI) ---7 #RCC# ---7 (CS2)
(CS4) ---7 #CCC"Nl# ---7 (C\V8)
---7
---7
#CCC#
#myî??:vI# --+ (CNlIO) ---7
#myî?yau?câlêi# • #R# ---7 (CSI) -+ #RC# --+ (CS4)
#CCCF#
---7
-7
---7
(CSl) -+ #RCC# ---7 (CS2)
~ #CCC#
(CvV8) --+ #myî?F# -+ (C1;fll) -+
#myî?mêinkhalêi# • #R# --+ (CSI) -+ #S# ---7
(AS7)
---7
---7
(CS4) -+ #SN1# --+ (ASI)
~ #SL.~{#
#FSl:.Nl# ---7 (ANI8) ---7 #kheNI# --+ (AivlIO) --)- #khêq6u#
• #R# -+ (CSl) ---7 #S# --+ (CS4) --+ #S·'[v1# --+ (ASl) --)- #Sl:.f,,-[# --+ (AS7)
-4
#lv1SEl\tI# --+ (AS5) --+ #NIS"'::vl#
---7 (C2v1I0) -+ #qakou#
• #R# ---7 (CSl) --+ #RC#
---7
(CSl) -+ #PRC# - r (CS.:!) --+ #PRCF#
--+ (AS2) --+ #EPRCF# ---7 (CSl) ---7 #EPRCCF# #L.PRCC~F#
--7
- r (CSI)
--+#~PSCCL.F#
--7
(ASI)
---7
--+ (AR4) --+ #EPSCCF#
--+ (ASl) ~ #EPSCC~F# --+ (AR2) ~ #PSCCL.F# -+ (.AS2) --+ #~PSCC'EF# --+
(AR2) --+ #PSCCl:.F# --+ (AR4) ---7 #PSCCF#--r
(C4) --+ #SCF-tawûnkwê# --+ (C"NI2) --+ #tuF-tawûnkwê# --)- (CN!ll) --+ #tumà-tawûnkwê# • #R# --+ (CSl) --+ #RC# --+ (CSl) --+ #PRC# --+ (AS2) -+ #EPRC#
•
--+ (CSl) ---+ #EPPRC# --+ (CS4) --+ #EPPRCNI# -+ (CSl) -+
#L.PPRCCl\tI# ---+ (CSl) ---7#I:PPSCCj\II# ---+ (AR2) -+ #PPSCCNI# 26
•
--; (CS) --+ #SJ\tI-hnawûnkwê# ---+ (CS5)
-T
#>SJ\tI-hnawûnkwê# --+
(C~vI3)
-T
#qak6u-hnawûnlnvê#
--+ #qaîvI-hnawûnk\vê# --+ (CNllO)
• #R# --+ (CSl) --; (CS4)
-T
-T
#RC# -+ (CSl) --+ #PRC# -+ (CSl) --+ #PSC#
#PSCF# --+ (ASl) --+ #PSCEF# --+ (C2)
tawûnh.\vê#--+ (AS2) --+
#2:S2:F-tawûn1.~ê#--1-
-T
#SY:..F-
(AR8) --+ #SF-tawûnkwê#
---+ (CS5) --+ #SY:..F# ---+ (A\V3)
---+ #mayî#
• #R# ---+ (CSl) --+ #RC# -+ (CSl) --+ #PRC# --+ (CS4) --+ #PRCi\;f# --; (CSl) --+ #PPPRCCj\I#
#PPRC~vl# --7
--+ (CSl) ---+ #PPRCClVI# -+ (CSl) -+
(AS2) -+#'L.PPPRCCrvl# ---+ (CSl) -+
#EPPPRCCC~[#
---+ (CSl) -+ #'L.PPPSCCClVl# ---+ (ASl) --r #2:PPPSCCCLlVl# --+
(C8) ---+ #ESENI-Bôunwûnkwê# --; (AR8) --r#Sl\I-Bôunwûnkwê# -+
(CS5) -+ #>SJ\!I-Bôunwûnkwê# -+ (Ci\13) --+ #qal\tl-Bôunwûnk,vê#--r (CNllü) --+ #qak6u-Bôunwûnkwê# • #R# ---+ (CSl) --+ #RC# --+ (CSl) --+ #PRC=I/= --+ (CSl) --+ #PSC# --+ (CS4) -+ #PSCr'iI# --+ (C2) --+ #SNI-tawûnkwê#--+ (CS5) --+ #8'
kakak tiri
S2:, I:>S
kakak ipar
SG-+PG&dhé CM3 PS,
3.4.2
Reduction Rules
ARl PI:--+P
AR2
P ~~P" _
ln con t ext
1
# ... #
AR3 EP --+P
before P or (*)S
AR4 CI: --rC
after CC or S
AR5EC--+C in context #' .. #
AR6 EC --+C' AR7 SE--+S
after P
AR8 ES--+S
before C
AR9
3.4.3
)'S~SE
in context #' .. #
Word Assignments
in context #'" # unless othenvise specified AWl :ENI--+suanlÏ AW2 EF --+isteri
•
AW3 CI:--+rnenantu
also in context & ... #
32
•
AW4
S:E~ipar
AW5
CL:P~bésan
3.4.4 in
Morphological Rules
conte)..~
#' .. #
AMI
EPG~PG&mertua
AlVI2
CC~~CC&CE
AM3 *SL--**S#ipar
3.5 3.5.1
Discussion of Consanguineous Productions Structure Rules
The pure stucture rules generate the provisional kinship descriptions: R-tprn+l ~ cn+l~
pmscn ,
PG~
PPG , PPPG,
*S~
P*SG
where m and n are non-negative integers. The only kinship descriptions which actually differentiate between aIder and younger siblings are the two final ones listed; *8 and P*SG. Thus we allow S to be changed to >S or S#tiri----+kakak tiri
'Ve have rules SI and 82 separately instead of just having P--+P'G since we can also get P' from Pl: (rule A.R2), and then we need ta be able ta add the gender. The term for step- (;tiri") can only be used with immediate family
relations~
thus
the context of #' .. # in rules 81 to 84. The use of & also prevents incorrect derivations with the steprelation terms. For
•
instance, before & was used, it was possible to generate the invalid term anak tiri tiri 1 among others (the BASIC program discussed in Appendix 1 actually generated 36
•
•
such terms). vVith the use of & however, we first generate C&tiri, and then cannot generate an additional
3.7 3.7.1
~tiri"
because of the context restriction in rule S4.
Discussion of AffinaI Productions Structure Rules
Using rules A.S3 and AS4, we can generate kinship descriptions of the following forms: (E)pm+l(EL (:L)cn+l(E), (E)prnscn(l:), EP*S, EPG, EPPG, EPPPG where m and n are non-negative integers. Rules ASI and AS5 are used for generating ENI, and EF. Rule AS2 generates the kinship description for the symmetric term ;~bésan",
which means "child's parent-in-Iawn , or "co-parent-in-Iaw". As a result of
this rule we can derive CE) CEP(E), using rules AS3 and AS4. vVe can reduce these resulting descriptions using rules ARl and AR5. The possibility of deriving EP*S explains the (*) in the conte)..-t for rule AR3; \ve use this rule ta eliminate the E. Rule AS4 cannot be used on a kinship description already containing Ivi or F. Rule AS3, however, can, producing EPG, EPSG, EPPG, EPPPG, and I:P*SG. I:PG is a relevant kinship description, and l: is dropped from the other kinship descriptions with rule AR3 as above. \Vith mIe AS5 we add gender ta the only
t"\yO
affinaI descriptions which require
it. For P*SEG, we first drop the E from PSE using rule AR7, only then adding gender and then seniority using the consanguineous production rules. In this way we reduce P*SEG before fully forming it. Thus there is only one affinaI term which requires a ne\v seniority mIe, namely SE (since ES will be reduced ta SI: \vith rule A.R9).
3.7.2
•
Reduction Rules
Rules ARI and AR2 interpret parent's spouse as either parent or step-parent. As the term for step- (Utiri") can only be used with immediate family relations, we
37
•
have the context of
# ... #
in rules AR2 and AR6.
Rule AR3 indicates that the
grandparent~ uncle,
or aunt of one~s spouse is con-
sidered one's own grandparent: uncle or aunt. Rule AR4 is not quite the reciprocal of this: the spouse of one:s niece, nephew or great-grandchild is considered
one~s
own niece, nephew, or great-grandchild. Rules AR5 and AR6 interpret one's
spouse~s
child as
one~s OWTI
child. The spouse of one's uncle or aunt is considered one's ARï) , and the niece or nephew of
one~s
O\Vil
spouse is considered
child or step-
uncle or aunt (rule one~s
own niece or
nephew (ruIe AR8). Finally, rule AR9 expresses the equivalence of the two expressions for siblingin-law. Neither is more primary than the other; the decision of which \Vay to state the rule \Vas arbitrary. For such kinship descriptions as I:PPPSL:, the 8 and the two occurences of l: can be removed with rules AR3, AR 7, and then CR2. In the case of such descriptions as 2:SCCCL:, we use rules AR4, AR8, and then CRL These rules are also used to remove Sand 2: from various other kinship descriptions in Table L After using the reduction rules, we have affinaI kinship descriptions of the following forms: 2:G, 2:PG,
3.7.3
S~,
*82:, CL:P, C2:, CCl:.
Word Assignments
The terms for husband and wife are the only consanguineous or affinaI terms in one:s own generation which are differentiated on the ba.sis of gender. Otherwise,
a11 terms in higher generations do depend on sex of relative, and no terms in one's own or lower generations do. The term for
sibling-in-law~
or in conjunction with a sibling term (rule :\.1'13) .
•
38
ipar: can be used alone
•
3.7.4
Morphological Rules
Indonesian has four words for "in-Iaw". For siblings-in-law we have '';ipar:'; for
parents-in-Iaw~
"mertua" is used; for
children-in-Iaw~ "menantu'~;
in-Iaw, ;'bésan". wfenantu is used alone for
child-in-law~
and for co-parent-
whereas mertua is used
together with the consanguineous term for parent. Ipar can be used either alone or \vith the sibling term. It should be noted that whether we use the term "kakak or ;'adik ipar n depends not on the relative age of the speaker and the rather on the relative age of the siblings. Thus a is referred to as "adik
ipar~'
can also be used with
"cucu~'
3.8
woman~s
ipar'~
relative~
but
husband's younger brother
even if he is older than the woman herseIf. wIenantu (grandchild), to give us "grandchild-in-law".
Examples
The following examples were generated by the BASIC program which was written to simulate the production grammar. The program itself is discussed in Appendix l. Substitute symbols were used for the syrnbols of more than one character (eg. S"L#
#>S#ipar#
---7
(C\iV7) --+ #kakak#ipar#
• #R# --+ (CSl) -+ #RC#
---7
(CS2) -+ #CC# -+ (.-\.84) ---+ #CC'E#
---7
(AlvI3)
---7
--+ (ANI2) -+ #CC&C'E#
---7
(A83) --+#"LCC&C"L# ---+ (AR5)
---7
#CC&C'E# --+ (A vV3) --+ #CC&menantu# --+ (A83) --+ #ECC&menantu# T
--+ (AR5) --+ #CC&menantu# --+ (CvVll) --+ #cucu&menantu# • #R# --+ (CSl) --+ #S# --+ (CS5) --+ #>S# --+ (C"V7) --+ #kakak# • #R# ---+ (CSl) --+ #RC# ---+ (CSl) --+ #SC# --+ (C~14) --+ #kepCan# --+ (C"VlO) --+ #kepanakan# -+ (CNI5) --+ #keponakan# • #R# --+ (AS2) --+ #C2:.P#
--T
(A\V5) --+ #bésan#
• #R# ---+ (CSl) --+ #S# --+ (CS5) --+ # 8 in context #PP ... #, #(P) ... G#, #PP ... CC#~ or #PPP... CCC#,
CS6 8-7>S, S(E)
mbah dhé
PPS(E)r-.r
pak dhé
P>S(E)F
bu dhé
PSM
PP>SCC~l
adhi
PSC
naksanak
PPSCC
misanan
kangmas misanan
PP>SCCF
mbakyu rnisanan
ppSCCCM
kangmas rnindhoan
PPP>SCCCF
PPPS(2:)F
bu dhé maratuwa
EPSJ\iI
:S>SE:LvI
>SEF, E>SF
kangmas ipé
1
mbakyu ipé
SC~kepCan
ClVIll
sec -rCC&>SC
CM12 G-r
after adhi
CM13 kepanakan---+keponakan CM14 bapak-rpak CM15 ibu ~bu
in any context
before &dhé or &lik
before &dhé or &lik
CM16 keponakan---+ponakan
after &
CM17 anaksanak-tnaksanak
•
48
•
4.3 SI
Steprelation Productions
P~P'
in context
# ... #
~ 82 P'--+P'G·ln cont eXil
# ••• #
83 S--+>S', S or SCC(C) to >S#(P)PPSCC(C) and need to add gender. Otherwise we insert gender first, then seniority. Javanese has more distinctions based on seniority than the other Indonesian languages studied, with distinctions occuring at the +2, +1, 0, and -1 generations. In fact, Javanese is the only language of the live to have a distinction at a generation below O. NIany kinship descriptions of the form outlined above do not appear in the data, for one of t'wo reasons. Either they can be reduced to kinship descriptions which are in the table, or they belong to generations which are not accounted for in the table. VVhile the production gramnlar allows kinship descriptions to be generated for any generation, the ones which do not appear in the table do not seem to correspond to terms which are a part of the day to day vocabulary of a native
•
speaker. Thus they are not dealt with here. The native speaker would understand
51
•
the kinship description P 8 SC 5 , for example~ but may not have a kinship term for it. The grammar is the same in this respect. There is often more than one way to generate a given kinship description. vVe give several ways to generate PPSC: R-4PR-4PPR-4PPRC-4PPSC R-4RC-4PRC~PPRC-4PPSC R-4PR-4PRC~PPRC-4PPSC
In the Introduction, certain combinations of symbols were mentioned as being ambiguous or redundant. The context restrictions prevents those combinations (SP, CS, SS, PC, CP, PL:, L:C) from occuring, except for the final two. \Ve will have reduction mIes for dealing with those two, as we wish to deai with both possibilities for PE, namely P and pl, and both possibilities for L:C, namely C and C' ). We insert a gender after only those kinship descriptions which distinguish on the basis of gender. These are P, PS, >S, and S. For both consanguineous and affinaI relations, only relations from the
speaker~s
own generation or an older generation
are distinguished on the basis of gender.
4.5.2
Reduction Rules
Great grandchildren of
one~s
siblings are considered one's own great grandchil-
dren. The same happens for generations below this one. Thus the term for greatgrandchild also means
~'child
in the third descending
generation'~.
Siblings of great
grandparents are considered one's o\vn great grandparents, so the reduction is symmetric. Rules CRI and CR2 express this. In Indonesian, this reduction OCCl1rs at the +2 and -2 generations also. So the Javanese language distinguishes siblings of ancestors and descendents a little more than does Indonesian. There is no cousin reduction rule, as we had for Indonesian. In J avanese, one distinguishes first, second, and third cousins, and after that, the relationship is
•
considered distant. According to one informant, the term "naksanak" is sometimes used to refer to aU cousins, regardless of how distant.
52
•
After performing aIl possible
reductions~
our kinship descriptions will be of one
of the following fOrills: R-7pm+2, Cn + 1 ~ pm+lscn + 1 , PP*Sl P*SG, PG, *S(GL SC~ *SC~ scc, PP*scc~ ppp*sccc where m and n are non-negative integers.
4.5.3
Word Assignments
The term
'~mbah:'
is a shortened form of
"'sirnbah'~~
which is still llsed in sorne
parts of Java. For father and mother, we have the sarne terms as for Indonesian. "kangmas'~
and
~'mbah.Jll~'
are oftened shortened to
~'mas~'
and
~~mbak" respectively~
and these latter terms aiso function as respectfui terms of address for non- relatives of one's approximate age. The term "adik:~;
'~adhi"
is obviously similar ta the Indonesian
the "dh n sound is not a part of the Indonesian language.
In Javanese, oIder sibIings are distinguished by gender, whereas in Indonesian they are not. In both languages, younger siblings are not distinguished by gender. vVith respect to gender distinctions in general, in conversation one might ask how many of one's
~'adhi"s are
male and how many are female. The answer would be, for
example, "'three female, one male"; ie, there is no specifie terru for brother" etc. Although the term "adhi brother
("lanan~'
means "male" or
lanang~
"man~'),
'~male
younger
would be understood as younger
it is more normal usage to say only
"adhin , and then the sex can be asked in a separate question if necessary. The term for second cousin, "misanan", cornes from "pisan" roughly meaning "once:!, with the cousin,
sufIi..~
:~mindhoan",
"-an" which converts the word to a noun. The term for third
similarly cornes from "pindd' ("twice").
Javanese has terms for ancestors and descendents up ta ten generations from the speaker. The terms for the ascendents are the same as for the descendents but wi th '~mbah"
added to the ascendent terms and "putu" ta the descendent terms. Sorne
of the terms seem rather creative, for instance "debok-bosok", which means "rotten
•
banana tree 17 • We see buyut again, being used in similar fashion as in Indonesian. The & in certain contexts here prevents the formation of invalid kinship terms. 53
•
If & were not
used~
PlVI#maratuwa~ by
form~
we could
for
example~
bapak maratuwa rnaratuwa from
appending an extra E. But with the use of & we have
PNI&rnaratuwa~
\vhich cannot then be used to produce bapak maratuwa rnaratuwa 7 because of the context restriction in mIe ANIl. The & indicates that there is already a kinship term follO'wing
so we cannot form another compound preceding it.
Morphological Rules
4.5.4 As in
it~
Indonesian~
unde and aunt are differentiated according to the relative age
of the relative and the parent. :~dhé~~
cornes from the J avanese
from the J avanese ~'little
Older uncle becomes
"cilik'~ l :~little7~.
~~gedhé",
~~pak dhé~~.
rneaning "big'7.
Thus older uncle is
The adjective
Similarly~
;~big father~~ ~
"lik" cornes
younger aunt is
rnother" and so on. In Javanese we have a similar construction for siblings of
grandparents. Grandparents are not distinguished according to "big grandparent" and
~~little grandparent'~_
gender~
According to informant
so we have
testimony~ the
cousin of one's parent is often referred to \vith a term for uncle/aunt (seniority determined by relative age of intervening siblings as usuaI).
Similarly~
the chiid
of one's cousin is often referred to with a term for niecejnephew. Thus it seems that we could postulate a reduction rule similar to that in
Indonesian~ PSC-7S~
in certain contexts. But here it would not be used ta reduce nth cousins ta first causins~
as the J avanese distinguish up to third cousins.
The term for first cousin, '~nak~~ 7meaning ~~child" ~
and
'~naksanak~~ ~
:~sanak'~~
can be broken ioto two morphernes,
rneaning
"'sibling~
[14L as carried out in rules
CN'I7 and CNI17. Second and third cousins can be referred to by a combination of
a sibling term and the appropriate cousin term, for example "kangmas
mindhoan'~.
It is important to note that the terrn used is determined not by the relative age between speaker and
relative~
but by the seniority between the intervening siblings.
Thus if rny grandfather's oider brother has a granddaughter, l vvill refer ta her as my mbakyu misanan, even though she rnay be younger than me (her "roots" are
•
older). As in
Indonesian~ we
have "keponakan" for nephew or niece , but in Javanese
we also have the compound farm "putu
ponakan~~
54
for
SCC~
in which
"keponakan7~
•
is shortened. This production is accomplished by rules
C~/rll~ CNII0~
CvV9,
C~'113~
and CNI16. Rule
C~/fI2
allows us to drop gender after aclhi, as younger siblings are not
distinguished on the basis of gender (gender is assigned before seniority in the production of 8ivI#kuwalon---+kangmas kuwalon
As for Indonesian, we have rules SI and S2 separately instead of just having P---+P'G since we can aiso get pl from PL: (rule AR2), and then we need to be able to add the gender. The term for step- ("kuwalon") can only be used with immediate family relations, thus the context of #' .. # in rules SI to 84. The use of & also prevents incorrect derivations with the steprelation terms. For instance, before & was used, it was possible to generate the invalid term anak kuwalon
kuwalon~
among others (the BASIC program discussed in Appendix 1
actually generated such terms).
\Vith the use of &
however~
we first generate
C&kuwalon, and then cannot generate an additional ;'kuwalon:1 because of the context restriction in rule 84. Rule S8 allows for the generation of the term "mbok kuwalon" rather than ;'ibu kuwalon" .
•
55
•
4. 7 4.7.1
Discussion of Affinai Productions Structure Rules
Using rules A83 and A84, we can generate kinship descriptions of the following forms:
(2:)pm+l(2:), (2:)C n+ 1 (2:),
(~)pm8cn(2:), (2:)PP*SCC(2:)~
(E)PPP*SCCC(EL
I:PP*S,EP*S,EPS,PS~,*SCE
where m and n are non-negative integers. (E)PPP*SCCC(E) can he reduced to
ppp*SCCC using rules .A.. R3 and AR4. (E)PP*SCC(E) cannot he assigned a kinship term. l am not certain whether one:s wife's second cousin (or indeed third cousin) should he referred to as one's own second (third) cousin or as
one~s
sibling-
in-Iaw, or neither. PSI: is reduced to PS by ARï, EP*S and EPS are reduced to the saille thing, by AR3. *SCE can be reduced to *SC "vith rule AR4. EPP*S is a relevant kinship description. Rule ASI is for generating E. Rule AS2 generates the kinship description for the symmetric term
~'bésan",
\vhich means
~~child's
parent-in-Iaw" ~ or "co-parent-
in-Iaw", aiso used in Indonesian. Rule AS4 cannot be used on a kinship description already containing NI or F. Rule AS3, however: can, producing EPG, EPSG, EP*SG, and ESG. EPG and
EP*SG are relevant, and l: is dropped from EPSG with rule AR3 (this goes on to be given a consanguineous terrn; if we \vant to form the affinaI one, we must append
I: to P*SG)o. ESG is a dead end since seniority can only be added after converting :ES to SE, but we cannot do this because of the context restriction (before adding gender). vVe could add (G) to the context, but we do not since there is an alternate way of dealing \vith E*S. vVe generate the term for E>SG by converting ES directly to SE and continuing on ta get >SEG. vVith rule AS5 we add gender to two affinaI descriptions which require it, and cannot get it from anY'vhere else (for instance, we can get EPG by appending E ta
•
PG). Ta generate the correct term for P*SEG, we first drop the I: from PSI: using rule ARï, only then adding gender and then seniority using the consanguineous
56
•
production rules. P*SEG itself is never generated; but we arrive at the correct kinship term for it. Thus there are only two affinaI terms which require a new seniority
rule~
namely SLG (since ES \vill be reduced to SL: \vith rule AR9) and
ESEG. vVe could even eliminate this Iast
ane~
anly inserting seniority after using
rule ANI7 (withaut the *).
4.7.2
Reduction Rules
The reduction rules here are similar ta those for Indonesian. \Ve will point out severa! differences. Rules ARI and AR2 interpret parent's spouse as either parent or step-parent. As the term for step- ("kuwalon") can only be used \vith irnmediate family relations: we have the context of
#_ . _# in rules AR2 and
Rule AR3 indicates that the great grandparent af
one~s
i\R6.
spouse is considered
one's own great grandparent. The S is present in the context restriction only to prevent a dead end in the case of generating EPS; the uncles and aunts of spouse are not reduced to
one~s
one~s
own uncles and aunts. This rule is different to
Indonesian in that Javanese has a term for spouse's grandparent,
50
the reduction
rule only cornes into effect at the +3 generation; and also in Indonesian we do merge spouse~s
uncles and aunts with our o\vn uncles and aunts. Rule 4 is the same as
for Indonesian; the spouse of one's niece, nephew or great- grandchild is considered one's own niece, nephew, or great-grandchild. So now there is symmetry where in Indonesian there was not. This suggests severai possibilities: that "'cucu menantu" has been introduced into Indonesian from Javanese (from "putu mantu:'L or that perhaps there was also a term in Indonesian for EPP which has fallen out of use. Rules AR5 and AR6 interpret
one~s spouse~s
child as one's own child or step-
child. The spouse of one's uncle or aunt is considered one's own uncle or aunt (rule
ART), and the niece or nephew of one's spouse is considered one's own niece or nephew (mIe .ARS). Thus E*SC is never produced; we reduce ESC directly to SC. Finally: rule AR9 expresses the equivalence of the two expressions for sibling-
•
in-law. Neither is more primary than the other; the decision of which way to state the rule was arbitrary. 57
•
For such kinship descriptions as
î:PPPPPPS~~
the S and the two occurences
of L: can be removed with rules AR3, AR7, and then CR2. In the case of suell descriptions as :ESCCCCI:, we use mIes
AR4~
ARS, and then CRI.
Alter using the reduction rules, we have affinaI kinship descriptions of the following forms: ~, ~PG,
4.7.3
:EP*SG, I:PP, EPP*S, *SEG, S:E, î:SE, E*SEG, CEP, C:E, CCE.
Word Assignments
Javanese has one term for
~'spouse:'
rather than separate terms for husband and
wife as in Indonesian. Javanese "ipé" resembles Indonesian :;ipar". Javanese has the term
;;pripéan'~
for ESE, which Indonesian has no separate term for (it seems
that "ipar" is often used). One could suppose that "pripéan" is also used for SES.
4.7.4
Morphological Rnles
J avanese has five terms for "in-law". For parents- in-law and grandparents-in-law (and siblings of each), "maratuwa" is used; for siblings-in-Iaw we have "ipé"; for children-in-law, :;mantu"; for co-parent-in-law, we have "bésan"; and "pripéan" for the spouse of one's spouse's sibling. ivIantu is used alone for child-in-Iaw, or with "putu" (grandchild), ta give us grandchild-in-law. ivlaratuwa is used together with the consanguineous term for parent, sibling of
parent~
grandparent or sibling of
grandparent. Ipé can be used alone, or \vith the consanguineous sibling terms (rule ANI5). As with the ather Indonesian languages studied here, whether we use the term :;kangmas ipé" or ':adhi ipé" depends not on the relative age of the speaker and the relative, but rather on the relative age of the siblings. Thus a woman's husband's younger brother is referred to as "adhi ipé" even if he is aIder than the woman herself. "Pripéan" can he assumed to have "ipé" as a root, and can also he used alone or with the consanguineaus sibling terms (rule AivI6) .
•
58
•
4.8
Exarnples
The foIlowing examples were generated by the BASIC program which was written to simulate the production grammar. The program itself is discussed in A.ppendix 1. _..\.ccents were omitted in the computer generations~ but have been since illserted
belo,v. 8ubstitute syrnbols \Vere used for the symbols of more than one character (eg. (ARI)
(CS4) -+ #PF# ---+ (CvV3) -T
(S7)
-T
#anak&kuwalon#
-T
• #R# -+ (CS3)
• #R#
(S4) ----+ #C'#
-T
-T
-T
-T
#ibu#
(CSI) ----+ #RC# ----+ (CSI) -+ #RCC# --> (CSl)
(CNIII)
#P#
#CC&>SC# -+ (CvVII) ----+ #putu&>SC#
-T
#SCC#
-T
(CNIIO)
---+ #putu&kepCan# ----+ (CVV9) -+#putu&kepanakan# ----+ (CNI13) ----+
#putu&keponakan# ----+ (CNII6) -+ #putu&ponakan# • #R# -+ (CSl) -+ #RC# -+ (CS2) -+ #CC# --> (CvVll)
-T
#putu#
• #R# ----+ (CS3) ----+ #P# ----+ (CS4) -+ #PF# --> (AS3)
-T
#EPF#
-+ (ANIl) --+ #PF&maratuwa# ----+ (CvV3) --+ #ibu&maratuwa# • #R# ----+ (CSl) ----+ #S# ----+ (CS4) -+ #S1:.{# --r (CSG) -+ (CW4)
-T
- T #>S~'1#
#kangmas#
• #R# ----+ (CSl) ----+ #8# --+ (CS4) ----+ #S?YI# --r (S3) --+ #>S'I.:v1# ----+ (S6)
-T
#>S?YI#kuwalon# ----+ (CvV4) ----+ #kangmas#ku\valon#
• #R# ----+ (CS3) ----+ #P# ----+ (SI) ----+ #P'#
-T
(S2)
- T #P/~.'1#
----+
(S5) ----+ #PlVI&kuwalon# ----+ (CvV2) -+ #bapak&kuwalon# • #R# ----+ (CSI) ----+ #S# ----+ (CS4) -+ #SF# --> (CS6)
-T
#SE~I# ~ (A~vI7)
(:\.S5) -+ #ESE!Yf# ---+ (AS6)
#ES"2:.# -+
#>S!vI#pripéan# -+ (CvV4) -+ #kangmas#pripéan# • #R# -+ (CS1) -+ #PR# -+ (CS1) ~
(CSl) -+ #PPPPR# -+ (CSl)
~
~
#PPR# -+ (CSl) -+ #PPPR#
#PPPPPR#(CS3)
~#PPPPPP#
---+ (CivIl) -+ #mhah#DDDDDD# ~ (CvV15) -+ #mbah#udeg-udeg#
• #R# -+ (CSI) -+ #RC# -+ (CS1) ~ #RCC# -+ (CSl) -+ #RCCC# -+ (CS1) -+ #RCCCC# ----+ (CSl) -+ #RCCCCC# -+ (CSl) -+ #RCCCCCC#~ (CSl)
CCC#
~ (C~vI2)
-+ #RCCCCCCC# -+ (CS2) ----+ #CCCCC-
-+ #putu#DDDDDDDD# -+ (C"YV17) ---+ #putu#gropak-
senté# • #R#
~
(CSl) ---+ #PR# -+ (CSI)
~
#PS# ---+ (CS4) ----+ #PS"P.-I#
---+ (CS6) ~ #PA'tYI# -+ (CjVI6) -+ #PNf&lik# ~ (CvV2) ----+ #ba-
pak&lik# ----+ (C rvf14) ---+ #pak&lik# • #R# -+ (CSl) -+ #PR# ---+ (CSl) -+ (AS3) -+ #"E.PSF#
•
~
(AR3)
~
~
#PS# ---+ (CS4)
---t
#PSF#
#PSF# -+ (CS6) -+ #P>SF#
-+ (C~'15) -+ #PF&dhé# --t (CvV3) ---+ #ibu&dhé# -+ (CivI15) ----+
#bu&dhé# 62
•
• #R# --1-
(CSl)
--1-
#PR#
--1-
(CSl)
--1-
(CS6) - r #PP>S# -+ (CrvI3)
=fI=PPR#
--1-
~
#PP&dhé#
--1-
(CSl)
-t
#PPS#
--1-
~
(CvVl)
#mbah&dhé# • #R# --1-
(CSl)
--1-
(CS6)
#PR=fI=
-7
--1-
(CSl)
#PPR# - r (CSl)
--1-
#PPSivI~kaka1
CWIO >Sf-rembhu' CWl1 S:
S'~ S ----r
ln cont ext # ... #
S, S"E---+dahuan AW4 CLP---+besan AW5 CL--+minantu
•
85
•
Morphological Rules
6.4.4
in context # ... #
AMI :EPG-7PG&mitoha AM2 SG, S' --r>S#tere--+lanceuk tere
vVe have rules SI and 52 separately instead of just having P--+P'G since we can also get P' from PE (rule AR2), and then we need to be able to add the gender. The term for step- (;'tere:') can only be used with immediate family
relations~
thus
the contexts of #' .. #' The usage of & also prevents the generation of such terms as "abah mitoha tere': and "anak tere tere:' which were generated by the BASIC program, before & was used. \Vith the use of & however, we frrst generate C&tere, and then cannot generate an additional "tere': because of the context restriction in mIe S6.
•
89
•
6.7
Discussion of Affinai Productions
6.7.1
Structure Rules
Using mIes A.S3 and AS4, we can generate kinship descriptions of the following forms: (~)pm+t(l:)~ (~)cn+l(~L
(E)pmscn(E), EP*S(G), (E)P*SC(E), (E)PP*SCC(L),
EPG,EPPG where m and n are non-negative integers. Rules ASl and ASS are used for generating ~NI,
and EF. Rule AS2 generates the kinship description for the symmetric terrn
:'besan", which means ':child's parent-in-Iaw" , or this rule we can derive
(~)C~P(E)~
:~co-parent-in-Iaw". As
a result of
using rules AS3 and AS4. vVe can reduce these
resulting descriptions using mIes ARl and ARS. The possibility of deriving EP*S explains the (*) in the cantext for rule AR3; we use this rule ta eliminate the I:. Rule AS4 cannot be used on a kinship description already containing ?vI or F. Rule AS3,
however~
can, producing EPG, EPPG, and EPS&PPSCC#--+ (CvVI6) - r #>S&mindo# ---+ (CS5) -+ #>SJ\tI&mindo#
-+ (CvVI2) ---+ #akang&mindo#
•
• #R#
---t
(AS2) ---+ #CEP#
---t
(AvV4) ---t #besan#
92
•
• #R#
--7
(CSl)
--7
#PR#
--7
(CS3) -+ =ff=PP# -+ (CS4) ----+ #PPNI#
-+ (AS3) -+ #EPP?YI# -+ (A.R3) -+ #PP"NI# -+ (CYV3) --+ #aki#
• #R# -+ (CS3) ----+ #P# -+ (AS4) -+ #P'L.# -+ (.\S3) --+ #'L.PE# -+ (.ARI) -+ #l:,P# - t (A85) -+ #EP"NI# -+ (Aj\-II) --+ #PNI&mitoha#
--+ (CvV5) -+ #abah&mitoha# • #R# -+ (CS3) -+ #P# -+ (CS4) -+ #PF# --+ (CvV6) --+ #emak# • #R# -+ (CSI)
--7
#RC# -+ (C82) -+ #CC# --+ (C\VI9) -+ #incu#
• #R# -+ (CSl)
--7
#RC# -+ (CSl) -+ #SC# --+ (CvV18) --+ #alo#
• #R# --+ (CS2) -+ #C# -+ (CvV17) --+ #anak# • #R# --+ (CSl) --+ #PR# --+ (CSl) --+ #PRC# --+ (CSl) --+ #PRCC# --+ (CSl) --+ #PPSCC# --+ (CS6) --+ #PP>SCC# --+ (C2\I3) --+
#>S&PPSCC# --+ (CvV16) --+#>S&mindo# --+ (CS5) --+ #>SF&mindo# --+ (CvV13) -+ #teteh&mindo#
• #R# --+ (CSI) --+ #PR# -+ (CSl) --+ #PRC# -+ (CSI) --+ #PRCC# --+ (CSI)
--7
#PPSCC# --+ (CS6) --+ #pp LEN(K$) THEN F == a IF F == 0 THEN 800 FOR l = 1 Ta (LEN(K$) - LEN(R$(Q, 1))) + 1 IF l\tIID$(K$, I, LEN(R$(Q, 1))) == R$(Q, 1) AND l - LEN(R$(Q, 3)) > LEN(R$(Q, 1)) + LEN(RS(Q, 4)) S'j\lI
bli kualon
>S'F
embok kualon
-1
SL, E>S
kaka ipar
SF
nya'tuha, nya'teungoh
PSFCiVI
akang bawa
PJ\,I>SJ\;ICF
akang boru
Il
1
-1
