economic (e.g. logistics of business systems such as universities, schools),. â structural (e.g. ...... Business solutions applied for supply chains under the conditions of the new economy lead to time ...... Apple Computer. Limited, Fujitsu Siemens ...
Security in Logistic Systems Andrzej Szymonik
Table of Contents Introduction 1 Logistic activities vs. security 1.1. Logistics – related security domains 1.2. The classification of hazards in the logistics system 1.3. Logistics in crisis situations 2. The logistic system 2.1. The essence of a logistic system 2.2 The models of logistic systems 2.3. Inter-organizational logistic systems 3. Security management in the logistic system 3.1. The essence and definition of security management in the logistic system 3.2. Phases of Crisis Management 3.3 Progressive Management 3.4.Conservative management 4. Tools facilitating logistic system management in macro and micro perspective. 4.1. Computer-aided decision making in security planning 4.2. Business Intelligence as a decision-making support tool in crisis situations. 4.3. The application of IT systems in decision making, within the field of security design. 5. The security of logistic systems in international requirements and standards 5.1. ISO 28000: 2007 - Supply Chain Safety Management System 5.2. ISO 26000: 2010 - Guidance on social responsibility 5.3. ISO 22301: 2012 - Business Continuity Management System 5.4. SQAS (Safety and Quality Assessment System) 5.5. Container Security Initiative (CSI) 5.6. C-TAPT - Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism 5.7. TAPA Certificates (Technology Asset Protection Association) 5.7. TAPA Certificates (Technology Asset Protection Association) 5.8. ISPS International Ship and Port Facility Security Code 5.9. ACI Advanced Cargo Information 5.10. Food safety 5.11. Authorized Economic Operator AEO 5.12. ISO / IEC 27001 - Information Security Management Systems
6 Supply Chain Security 6.1. The supply chain as a logistic system 6.2. Threats to supply chain functioning 6.3. Business continuity management in the supply chain 7. Security Considerations for external transport 7.1. Organization of transport of hazardous materials 7.2. Organization of oversized transport 7.3. Cargo security in land transport 8. Telematics in transportation processes 8.1. The nature and structure of Transport Telematics 8.2 Monitoring of truck transportation 8.3. Intelligent Transport Systems 9 Safety in internal transport and storage 9.1. General safety rules when handling internal transport equipment 9.2. Technical supervision during the operation 9.3. Requirements for the use of machinery by employees at work Literature index
Introduction Since the dawn of human existence, a human seeks, through thoughtful actions, to create the most favorable conditions for their existence. They tried to eliminate the hazards that would disrupt their living and functioning, by fighting them or simply accept them, as something beyond control and abilities. However, a human would never give up actions that would allow them to gain independence from the unfriendly impact of the forces of nature, or to get away from the civilizational threats. The detection of new security threats and the development of new tools and instruments for reduction and elimination of the negative consequences of crisis situations has become, among others, the mission of the universities, scientific institutions, various national and international institutions. It is them that bring it home to the public that the knowledge the managers have, their theoretical and practical preparation, as well as the means and measures they have at their disposal are the fundament of efficient and effective functioning – also as regards the security of logistics systems, that are realized within global supply chains. In recent years, the security-related issues related to logistics systems have grown in particular importance and have become the logistics primary goal. However, one needs to realize that the range of meaning of “security” is multi-layered and multi-faceted. The factors that would be of impact to the security of logistics systems are numerous. Some of them are repetitive and easy to identify, others surprise us as new and unprecedented. The hereby presented monograph – “Security in Logistics Systems” is an attempt to provide an answer to the what is the threat to logistics systems., how to manage them to prevent interference, how to use the tools and instruments to minimize the losses that might occur or prevent them from happening. The monograph contains nine chapters: 1.Logistic activities vs. security 2.The logistic system 3. Security management in the logistic system 4. Tools facilitating logistic system management in macro and micro perspective 5. The security of logistic systems in international requirements and standards 6. Supply chain security 7.Security considerations for external transport 8.Telematics in transportation process
9. Safety in internal transport and storage. They are an attempt to solve problems regarding the provision of required security level of the processes carried out within logistic systems. The monograph is addressed to the first-year logistics students, both in first and second cycle studies, extramural students and logistics managers of different management levels. I would like to thank my reviewers for help and positive evaluation. These words I address to Professor Joahim Foltys PhD and Professor Andrzej Świderski PhD.
1 Logistic activities vs. security 1.1. Logistics – related security domains Prior to approaching the essence of the issue, it is worth presenting two concepts: “domain” and “security”. The first one is defined as:
a range, an area, a field of action1;
a range of interests or activities of some person, institution or field of knowledge2. Words synonymous to domain are: range, sphere, field of activity3. In contrast, security is a mental state opposed to threat and fear. There are many
definitions of security and they depend on the subject area but, generally speaking, it is a certainty that the state of emergency will not occur as a result of various random events, whether predictable or unpredictable. Security is a condition that gives a sense of certainty and guarantees its preservation and opportunities for improvement. It belongs to the basic human needs. It is characterized by the absence of the risk of losing something particularly valuable to an individual - life, health, work, respect, affection, tangible and intangible property. Threats can be directed outwards and inwards; actions aiming at their prevention should come from the same directions. The area of interest of security that is associated with logistics, is very broad, which is due to, among others, the domains which it concerns. In professional literature, one encounters different dimensions of safety4. Given the nature of logistics, which provides the space and time utility, security may include a variety of processes and subjects involved. This approach allows to divide security into several groups, according to:
area of interest - security can be divided into: global (e.g. global supply chains), international (e.g. eurochannels, international logistics networks) national (e.g., military logistics, the Ministry of the Internal Affairs) local (e.g. logistics centers, hospitals, county fire departments);
the ratio of the area of taken security measures divides into: external (e.g. market suppliers and customers),
1
http://www.slownik-online.pl/kopalinski/7B67E4188EF88FC4412565BA000AFE26.php, 27.04.2013. Polish Language Dictionary, http://sjp.pwn.pl/, 29.04.2013. 3 http://www.slownik-synonimow.eu/?s=domena&x=0&y=0, 29.04.2013. 4 M. Cieślarczyk, Teoretyczne i metodologiczne podstawy badania problemów bezpieczeństwa i obronności państwa, AP, Siedlce 2009, pp. 149,150. 2
internal (e.g. manufacturing and storage processes);
fields where security occurs are divided into: industrial (e.g. company logistics) economic (e.g. logistics of business systems such as universities, schools), structural (e.g. management and control subsystems), energy-related (e.g. power gas, electricity, water systems), information (e.g. information systems, the Internet, intranets, traceability in the supply chain, upstream5) personal (e.g. receiver, consumer). Analyzing the two concepts (including the definitions put forward in the literature on
the subject) and the dimensions (classification) of security, some conclusions arise, regarding the content of the security domains. The first one. The thematic area, scope and sphere of security interest is broad, since as civilization advances, grows the number of threats-generating factors that are constantly changing, as changes the knowledge about them. New threats, unknown ones – threaten us. The ones that are existing and known are not dangerous, because we can prevent them. Some threats are moving away from us, the others approach - some become inevitable, while others are avoidable6. The second one. Security is a need not only of a single person, household, business or regional societies, but the entire international community. In the context of logistics, referring to the size (volume) of the entity, we may recognize the following categories of security interest range7: individual (personal) - private security domain (e.g. customer); micro-economic (e.g. micro-, small and large enterprises, etc.) - the domain of micro-economic security; the local economy (region, city) – the local security domain; macro-economic (companies, corporations) - the national security domain. The performed classification does not decide on the
distinctiveness of each
category, but facilitates the understanding and identification of areas of the knowledge field, which security is.
5
Upstream – the GS1 System standard in the area of supply between the manufacturer and the supplier of intermediate materials. 6 P. Tyrała, Zarządzanie kryzysowe, A. Marszałek, Torun 2003, p. 20. 7 Por. http://archiwum.komunalny.home.pl/archiwum/index.php?mod=tekst&id=7968, 29.04.2013.
All categories should be treated as a single system, where8:
parts (various categories) and their relationships form the structure of the system;
relationships between the domains and the whole are based on the fact that each part of the system is to contribute, to a certain extent and scope, to the success of the whole (success should be understood collectively, where the purpose or the beam can be realized only by the system, taken as a whole;
the same goal (or the same set of objectives) can be implemented in a similar way, or ways, in different systems;
the system is not isolated parts, i.e. that each part must be linked with one other part at least;
is a deliberate product, which may pursue one goal or a set of goals implementing the tasks associated with security. The security of a unit does not depend on themselves and their preparation, but also
on the surrounding proximal (micro scale) and further (macro scale) environment. The pillars of security for each of these categories, in the context of logistics, are9:
stability, which clearly favors the free market, democratic, and pluralistic right to ensure fair and equal treatment of all participants such as e.g. all members of the supply chain;
good prospect of survival (duration in the changing business conditions) allows to stimulate relations, in which the subjects participate (e.g. in the framework of virtual and network structures and) to optimize their relations;
opportunities and confidence of both duration and survival are increased by petrification (fixation) in the law, morality, all these values, behaviors and procedures that are conducive to business processes and their survival;
development and improvement of business processes, terms and relationships which includes entities involved in their dynamization, which promotes redundancy, flexibility and competition;
trust and trust management is the condition necessary for the subjects of all domains to open up to the environment and cooperate, as without it there is no long-term security. The third one. The field of security interest is the diverse environment with its
complexity, in which the subject operates. The issue of security (e.g., ecological, logistic, etc.)
8 9
Cf. Wstęp do informatyki gospodarczej, A. Rokicka-Broniatowska (ed.), SGH, Warsaw 2006, p. 32. Cf. M. Cieślarczyk, Teoretyczne i metodologiczne…, op. cit., p. 22.
connects the subject with its environment through various relationships that may be positive (favorable), negative (e.g. a threat), or neutral. From the security perspective, the environment can be divided into (Fig. 1.2):
material (road infrastructure, warehouses, raw materials, water, air, wood, soil, products in the wide meaning of this word, the production system, etc.);
energy-related (renewable and non-renewable);
social (related to workforce, occupational, concerning the place of residence, "proximal and distal", cultural, mental, symbolic, spiritual, organizational);
informational - as foundation, causing development, stagnation or decline of the previously mentioned types of environments. It is the varied environment that often may, individually, or in any combination with
another one, be a safety hazard. It is all kinds of combinations of components and relations of the environment that surrounds the object, that can be the source of the crisis affecting the security subject . 1.2. The classification of hazards in the logistics system Every action in logistics both in planning and real life is subject to uncertainties, which may be caused by the emerging danger (threats) or interference. By security threats in logistic systems we understand any action (phenomenon, event) that disrupts the implementation of logistics processes, which includes the flow of material goods, inventory maintenance, infrastructure, logistics flow, logistics costs and the flow of information. These types of events can occur individually or may be combined, creating a hazardous situation from a business perspective to the economic system and all participants of the supply chain. Threats can be directed outwards and inwards, and the same should be with the measures aimed at their disposal. Threats are constantly changing, and so is the knowledge about them. New threats, as well as the unknown ones, pose danger. The already-existing and known ones are not dangerous, because we are able to prevent them. Some threats are moving away from us, the other become inevitable, though others are avoidable10. Threats to the functioning of logistics systems can be divided into four groups. The first group includes natural disasters, and events caused by civilization, i.e. disasters, accidents and other consequences of human action or negligence. This group of
10
P. Tyrała, Zarządzanie kryzysowe, A. Marszałek, Torun 2003, p. 20.
threats include: fires, floods and flooding, strong winds and hurricanes, thefts, epidemics of human diseases, plants and animals diseases epidemics, radioactive and chemical contamination, mining disasters, construction and communication failures grids. The second group includes events threatening the constitutional order of the country/countries: terrorism, road blockades, illegal demonstrations, ethnic conflicts, mass migration. The third group includes mechanisms that are designed to destroy or distort the information transmitted, processed or stored for the purpose of logistics systems. Any disruption in the flow of information cause difficulties in the efficient and effective logistics management along the entire supply chain. The fourth group includes risks arising from the financial crisis that really affects everyone, including processes and logistics systems. Even an economy with great development indicators does not give certainty of security and the anti-crisis instruments have not so far been fully developed. These threats can have destructive impact on the euro logistics system, disrupting the flow of material and information. The disturbances may be divided according to11:
the place of danger - a subsystem: routes for all modes of transport (i.e. road, rail, air, waterways, maritime) points of modal12 logistics network often referred to as points of transport (such as warehouses, standalone container points, airports, seaports, logistics centers, etc.) ancillary equipment to facilitate maintenance of roads and transport points, management (e.g. lack of complete identification of hazards and effects, overestimation of capabilities, improper interpretation of results, the lack of tools to optimize and simulate operations, the rising price of energy and transport, unexpected bankruptcy of logistic providers, lack of control over employees who act unethically committing defalcation or other overuse of authority e.g. during the selection of suppliers), supplies (e.g., elongated, sub-optimal purchase and tender procedures excessively absorbing to the managers inconsistent criteria for supplier selection, supplier selection based only on the lowest price criterion, lack of timeliness in purchasing
11
Cf. P. Sienkiewicz, Teoria i inżynieria bezpieczeństwa systemów, [w:] Zeszyty Naukowe AON nr 1(66)2007, p. 254. 12 All stopping the products, i.e. storage points, transport nodes and factories, distribution networks etc., are called modal (most likely) points of a logistics network.
process, bad quality, price, quantity, assortment; bribery, lack of possibilities to obtain components for manufacturing, information system damage, lack of buffer stock), production (e.g. deficiencies in manufacturing systems, damage, losses, theft of resources, unavailability of skilled staff, production interruptions, failures, fires, floods, disasters, fraudulent product), distribution (e.g. new products, new manufacturers, theft, weather conditions, poor quality products, economic crisis, disregard for customer relationship management and for the flow of goods in the supply chain) transport (e.g. fire, explosion, transport accidents, washing the deck, problems with moving on due to weather conditions, inefficient means of transport, misfit internal transport, changes in regulations in transport management, theft, disaster), stock-related and inventory-shaping (e.g., theft, losses due to oversized inventory, fires, floods, construction disasters, power grid and system failures, damage to the automatic identification system), service packages (e.g., pollution, destruction of goods in transit due to improper selection of packaging, packaging failure due to bad weather conditions), handling customer orders (e.g., lack of inventory, incorrect orders and invoices, the inability to locate the product, late delivery, damaged goods delivered to the customer, the lack of response to complaints and delays, fires, theft, damage), information (e.g., loss of confidentiality, integrity, and possibility of disposal, natural hazards, such as fires, climate disruption, electrostatics, passive and active attacks, random errors);
duration: short-term, occasional hazards, long-lasting, growing hazards, repeated hazards.
physical properties: of materials (e.g. the introduction of the component causing the so-called bioterrorism, poor quality of production processes, transport or storage, e.g.
resulting from the diversity of applied quality systems in the same industry such as ISO, HACCP13, BRC14, IFS15, SQF16) information (e.g. damage to a computer system, failure of automatic identification, incorrect production-related data on the packaging) energy (e.g. gas, fuel), assets (e.g. financial crisis);
range: local, related to the logistics of a given economic system, which is for example a single link of the Eurologistic channel, extensive, along the entire supply chain.
1.3. Logistics in crisis situations Logistics in emergencies, as a new area of scientific exploration, as it differs from what we deal with in the usual stable and predictable times, with more or less probability of event occurrence. The differences concern the following areas17: • the entity to which the service is provided, such as people harmed in crisis situations, clients disadvantaged in a competitive market, businesses affected by the financial crisis;
13
HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points), This term defines a system of conduct in companies having to do with food, intended to ensure food safetyfor health, http://www.polhaccp.com/podstawy.htm, 05.01.2014. 14 British Retail Consortium (BRC) developed in 1998, Standards and Procedures for companies supplying food under its own brand to the network of British supermarkets. Currently, the new edition of the standards is in force: BRC No. 6/2011. This standard is known not only in Europe but also in other continents. BThe RC standard adds together the requirements contained in ISO 9001, Codex Alimentarius, GMP and GHP and defines those that impose the guarantee of security, as well as required, repeatable level of quality of the finished product. An additional element that draws a lot of attention is whether the product complies with nutrition law, as perhttp://www.haccp-iso22000.pl/brc.html, 05.01.2014. 15 IFS - International Food Standard a uniform safety standard, developed for all food producers and participants of the food chain, particularly for food establishments providing food to retailers under their own brand. The standard was developed in 2000, the Global Food Safety Initiative by the Federal Trade associations Trade BDH (Germany) and the Federation of Trade and Distribution FCD (France). The basic idea of the authors was to harmonize the standard rules for the assessment, audit procedures and rules of eligibility and suppliers. The standard has been developed as a tool for periodic, independent and objective assessment of the producers and distributors of food Currently IFS is a ticket to cooperate with a significant part of the commercial networks in Western Europe. It is particularly popular in Germany and France, and therefore required by the retail chains coming from that area, according to http://www.bheuroconsult.pl/go.live.php/PL-H16/ifsinternational-food-standard.html, 06.01.2014. 16 SQF is designed for the food-processing industry (SQF 2000) as well as for farms (SQF 1000). It is one of the global patterns of food safety and quality acceptable by the GFSI. It is especially popular in the USA and Australia. The system is very attractive because of the wide range of information available on the website www.sqfi.com together with complete, free documentation: code, guide, principles and conduct of the audit and other. SQF 1000/2000 - is divided into 3 levels of certification: Level 1 - the basics of food safety programs, prelevel 2 - HACCP certified, level 3 - total system safety and quality management, according to http://www.sigmaquality.pl/normy/norma/id/26, 07.01.2014. 17 E. Nowak, Logistyka w sytuacjach kryzysowych, AON, Warszw 2009, p. 18.
• the functioning of the environments, which are, e.g. emergency response areas, the demand and prices that shape the free market; • the purpose of the operation, which is inter alia to ensure the survival of everyone affected, and in case of civilian logistics to achieve the planned objectives. Logistical tasks implemented under emergency situations mainly include projects for specific groups of risk presented in the previous section. Considering the object of the service, the environment, the main operational goals and the type of tasks implemented in crisis situations, I propose to adopt the following definition: Logistics in crisis situations is a scientific discipline that creates complete system solutions necessary to fully and rationally meet the needs of enforcement authorities and security management, taking into account the economic opportunities at the level required to provide the desired security for the specified entity. Logistics crisis must take into account such elements as: saving the health and lives of victims; time pressure; data incomplete for decision-making (interference in communication systems and disruptions of information transfer); unpredictable events; involvement of the mass media; negative attitude of the general public; external intervention in the course of events and activities; unscheduled tasks arising from the laws regarding states of emergency, states of natural disaster, the state of war; limited forces, resources, and more. Ensuring the optimal flow of goods and people in widely expanded logistics systems throughout crisis situations is necessary if a company wants to maintain and preserve its reputation/position, the value of the commercial brands it owns and the mass character of the sale. Logistics management in crisis situations will include such areas of the logistics chain as:
physical movement of people and goods;
ensuring survival of the victims in crisis situations;
maintaining optimal inventory;
information processes and decision-making (at tactical, operational and strategic levels);
infrastructure of logistics processes;
logistic and other costs. Each of these areas will react differently depending on the type of emergency, its
duration, extent, and frequency of occurrence. New logistic tasks will appear in this context, that embrace the four basic areas of action:
restructuring of logistics processes;
analysis and evaluation of flow directions (raw materials, semi-finished goods, products);
adapting the supply chain to the new conditions;
utilization of unexpected/unusual waste. The restructuring of logistics processes includes many projects, such as: eliminating
inefficient supply of raw materials, assemblies, sub-assemblies, the alignment of the processing system to the new strategy, the creation of solutions preventing destabilization of the crew depending on the market situation, negotiating new terms of public procurement, intensification of distribution of finished products for which there is a risk in the level of sales on the market in the long term. Reconstruction of logistic processes may include: defense against unjustified import of certain products onto the market, making determined steps to eliminate products not conforming to current standards restriction to some spheres of economic activity that are still attractive, intensification of efforts in the search for new markets. The analysis and evaluation of the flow directions (regarding raw materials or semifinished goods) should take into account, among others: the elimination of defective batches from production as well as taking comprehensive steps to withdraw the finished products from the market. Adapting the supply chain to new conditions requires the implementation of tasks arising from: the optimal selection of suppliers of raw materials, parts, subassemblies, assemblies, extension /substitution / changes in raw material as a result of the revision of standards, import regulations or supplier, a change of location of manufacture of the product, analysis and evaluation of all instruments regulating the sphere of logistics chain in the face of a new crisis situation that has arisen, regarding specific economic entities; changes in the infrastructure of logistics processes (internal transport, external storage, transport packaging,
information technology), changes in the distribution chain due to the acquisition of new outlets, the fight against monopolistic practices, changes in trade rules. Disposal of unexpected/unusual waste will require the implementation of tasks of: effective destruction of the contaminated products, utilization of products that do not keep the norms/standards, disposal of damaged items due to fire/flood or other emergency. All this poses considerable difficulties in logistics management, hence the aforeplanned enterprise resources (such as: materials, energy, information) are engaged in a different areas than it was intended in the original operational plans or strategies. The logistics economic systems should have the ability to react to internal and external changes in proximal and distal environment. Economic entities should also be focused on cooperation within the local security system, being the result of conscious forming positive socio-political relationships.
2. The logistic system 2.1. The essence of a logistic system All logistics processes should be viewed within a system approach which allows for a synergistic effect. Most often, the notion of a system is understood as a certain entity being part of a greater whole, created of elements that are linked in a way that gives it a particular distinguishable form, due to certain functions that are assigned to these wholes. The notion of a system may be defined in different ways: 1. A system is a whole created of a set of elements and the interrelations between them18; 2. A system is a set of objects (elements) mutually interrelated and/or with a comprehensive impact or perceived as one entity by the surrounding environment, treated as a whole. Each component is a separate relatively independent whole linked with other objects and the environment19. 3. A system is a set of elements and relations that occur between them, that interacts with the environment from which it is extracted, according to a particular set of rules. This system may be a process carried out according to particular principles, the set of principles by which a given class of similar processes is realized; a set of devices and technical measures created for realization of particular processes. A system is a set of goods and/or elements functioning as one whole entity. To some extent, the systems belonging to this category may be extended, and their elements may be replaced with others. This requires control or the connections over the system elements and their mutual adjustment20. Analyzing the definitions of the “system” notion, one may distinguish the permanent properties that occur regardless of the purpose, size or scope a given system has. These properties include mainly21:
relativity;
diversity;
complexity;
integrity (coherence);
centralization;
controllability.
18
P. Sienkiewicz, Geneza i rozwój koncepcji holistycznych i systemowych we współczesnej nauce, [in:] AON scientific periodicals, Warsaw 2003, no 1(50), p.56. 19 S. Paszkowski, Podstawy teorii systemów i analizy systemowej, WAT, Warsaw 1999,p. 7. 20 See. Słownik terminologii logistycznej, ILiM, Poznan 2006, p. 191. 21 Cf. Wstęp do informatyki gospodarczej A. Rokicka-Broniatowska (ed.), Warsaw 2009, pp. 34-42.
The logistic system is a concept based on the notions of a “system” and its “invariant properties”. The logistic system is defined in various ways, which stems from the fact that there is no unanimous definition of “system” and “logistics” and the diversity of the environments where logistic processes are carried out. P. Blaik defined a logistic set as a set of logistic elements the interrelations of which substantiate via transformation processes. Between these elements of specific properties, close interrelations occur, also in terms of organization. This means that in practice, the structure of a logistic process is coordinated only by those logistic processes which are subject to certain organizational solutions within a systematic approach22. According to E. Michlowicz, a logistic system is a purposefully organized and interrelated set of such elements (subsystems) as: procurement, production, distribution, transport, storage and recipient, along with the relations that occur between them and between their properties, conditioning the flow of streams, financial resources and information 23. The logistic system of the economic system24) may consist of the following subsystems:
SLSG =
where: PLZ - logistics supply subsystem; PLP - production logistics subsystem; PLD – distribution logistics subsystem; PLT – transportation logistics subsystem; PLM – storage logistics subsystem’; PKL – logistic costs subsystem; PZa – orders subsystem; PLR – recycling logistics subsystem; PE – ecological subsystem; R – a set of relations between the subsystems and between the subsystem and the surrounding environment.
22
See. P. Blaik, Logistyka, PWE, Warsaw 2001, p. 53. CF. E. Michlowicz, Podstawy logistyki przemysłowej, AHG, Cracov 2002, pp. 84 i 89. 24 An economic system is any open, dynamic socio-technical system, pursuing economic objectives in the sphere of manufacturing (companies, one and multi-sit enterprises, cooperatives, households) and services (banks, post offices, schools and universities, the army and the police), offices of state administration and local government, units providing maintenance and repair services, individuals. 23
A systematic approach allows to single out logistic subsystems and their elements. In professional literature, one may find many types and classifications of logistic systems, done according to different criteria. Basing on the institutional criterion, considering the general economic scale, one may distinguish the following logistic systems as25:
micro-logistic, i.e. comprising all logistic processes inside individual organizations; e.g. the logistic system of an economic entity, an institution, an economic system, such as the District Police Headquarters (CPP – Polish abbreviation) or the District Headquarters of the State Fire Service (KP PSP – Polish abbreviation);
macro-logistic, being the expression of the integration of logistic processes in the scale of the entire economy (such as the system functioning in the National Rescue Coordination Centre and Civil Protection Force, the logistic system of the Armed Forces)
external logistic system (intersystem), integrating logistic processes between the suppliers and recipients. Inside these logistic systems one may, in turn, extract and create partial systems,
according to the criteria of purpose and the degree of cooperation with an institution. An example of such systems may be:
The logistics of a manufacturing company/service provider;
Urban logistics;
Military logistics;
Police logistics;
The logistics of the State Fire brigade;
Logistics of public administration;
Logistics of rescue services;
Other. From the perspective of the logistic content, which include space-time and
quantitative-qualitative transformation, along with the realization of flows of goods and information, one may single out, within the scale of economic systems and logistic chains, the following logistic subsystems:
transport;
inventory shaping;
storage economy;
25
Cf. P. Blik, Logistyka…, op. cit., p. 75.
order handling;
social and welfare services;
utilization;
technical servicing;
other. Basing on professional literature and the above-presented material, one may formulate
the following conclusions
almost in every definition of a logistic system one may identify the following elements: management bodies, executive bodies, the purpose of the system, the elements of the system, system reactions.
every logistic system is a component of a given economic system and the element of many networks linked among themselves with physical flows and information;
every logistic system is a link in a supply chain;
the structure, the degree of centralization, the controllability and complexity of a logistic system depends on the type of economic activity of the economic system in macro and micro scale;
the integration of logistic processes in one system allows to analyze it as a whole (system analysis) – such approach puts in the first place the knowledge of relationships between the elements of a logistic system and allows to assess their influence on the level of efficiency and effectiveness of the entire system.
in case when particular disturbances occur within one of the subsystems, the root cause should be sought not only in themselves but also in the others.
2.2 The models of logistic systems In the model of a logistic system we can distinguish:
the object – in our situation, it will be a logistic process, or more precisely, the flow of material goods and information in an economic system, being i.e. a warehouse, a logistic distribution center, a company (the object serves its user, as it secures the execution of the process that leads to the emergence of a product for the customer).
user – who is a part of the reality surrounding the object; in our situation, it is a manufacturing company (thanks to logistic processes carried out and according with the 4R principle – the right place, time, quality and quantity – the production process will flow smoothly and without delays, according to schedule);
surrounding (environment) – the object and the user do not function in the void, as they are tied by relationships with others that influence their behavior.
connections – the ability to ensure functioning of the object (logistic processes) and the user (company) and their making connections with the surrounding (it’s market of suppliers and recipients), along with impacting the situations that arise there. The first fundamental property of an object is its ability for stable connections
(including the stochastic ones) with the environment (e.g. providing the company with components indispensable for production, in line with the “Just In Time” principle, or production directly for the customer and not for the warehouse). It is the ability to "make contact" with the environment and influence the resulting situations (e.g. market research, supply and demand forecasting). The connections may also have the shape of ties and relationships concerning the phenomena related to the object and the environment. This ability allows the given object to see particular phenomena that impact the effectiveness of its activities (e.g. customer satisfaction measurement, the efficiency of logistic processes). The connections with the environment may result from the internal causes of the object (e.g. the size of the components that are ordered depends on the demand on the manufactured goods) or are the result of external causes that establish or even enforce new connections (due to a market collapse, a financial crisis, actions taken up by the competition). The description of the object, i.e. the model may, in general, concern three aspects26:
functioning, i.e. the fulfillment of the tasks set by the user (providing space and time for the movement of the stream of tangible goods, i.e. provide everything wherever there is a need for it, along the entire production system);
morphology, i.e. the internal structure, composition of the components, the relation between the elements, the properties of the elements etc. (i.e. logistic sub-systems of supply, production, distribution and transport);
26
organization – including information transfer, the interactions of control algorithm.
CF. S. Paszkowski, Podstawy teorii systemów i analizy systemowej, WAT, Warsaw 1999, p. 19.
Enterprise
RZ
PLP
PLR
OSG RRiZSW
Flow of goods
Fig. 2.1: The logistic model of the economic system - flow of goods Source: own.
PLD
RO
PLZ
PLZ
PLP
Enterprise
PLD
RO
RZ
PZL
PLR
RRiZSW flow of information
Fig. 2.2: The logistic model of the economic system - flow of information Source: own.
OSG
Considering the content of the tasks and the nature of the economic system (in our case within the manufacturing sphere) one may build a dynamic logistic model that would show the course of the real (flow of goods) and information-related processes of a manufacturing company. (Fig. 2.1, Fig. 2.2). In such model, logistic subsystems may be depicted (objects of):
management (PZL);
supply (PLZ);
manufacturing (PLP);
distribution (PLD);
recycling (PLR). The first of them is the steering one, while the remaining ones are executive ones. The
functioning of an economic logistics system would not be possible if the surrounding (environment) was not taken into consideration, along with the connections (relationships) which include:
external supply (the supply market – RZ)
recipients of manufactured goods (the customers market – RO);
companies dealing with recyclable materials, waste management (recycling and recyclable materials market – RRiZSW);
the influence of the surrounding of the economic system – OSG (proximal, e.g. competition, legislation, the economic condition of the country, the socio-political environment, the level of technology; distal: e.g. the global economy and infrastructure, international institutions, economic alliances, the global financial market, legal conditions) which we may divide into such of which the user has full information and those unknown to him (so-called threats). In such system, the process that takes place is the quantitative and qualitative
transformation in the phases of the flow of the stream of goods, within the subsystem of supply, production, distribution and utilization (Fig. 2.1). An important function within a logistic model of the economic system is played by the subsystem of management, which deals with planning, coordination and executive logistics (associated with the real processes) Thanks to information exchange between the logistic subsystems of the company (PZL, PLZ, PLP, PLD, PLR), the supply and customers market and the economic system surroundings (OSG) one may manage planning and executive logistics efficiently and effectively (Fig. 2.2) The information streams concern:
the logistic processes carried out by the executive subsystems;
reports on the level of realization of logistic tasks;
cooperation between all the logistic subsystems of the economic system;
relations between the demand and supply market, as well as between the remote and distal environment.
2.3. Inter-organizational logistic systems The development and implementation of the management concepts which go beyond the company, brings about new possibilities of cost reduction, increasing the efficiency level and creating the potential for the company future success27. This opinion is based on observation of these enterprises that actually cooperate within global economy. The process of analysis and systemic approach, with the basic assumption of this theory that no organization is self-sustaining and isolated from the environment28, allows to perform a classification of logistic systems (as regards the number and type of institutions that form the structure), into the following logistic systems and subsystems29:
micro-logistic (intra-organizational, related to logistic processes that occur within one single company);
meta-logistic (inter-organizational, a system being the integration of micro-logistic subsystems of the cooperating companies within the logistic chain, the example of which may be car manufacturing);
mezzo-logistic 9inter-organizational, being the result of vertical integration of metalogistic subsystems, the example may be the logistic system of armed forces);
makro-logistic (inter-organizational, integrating logistic processes taking place throughout the entire economy);
external logistic system (intersystem, integrating logistic processes between suppliers and customers). From the content of the literature on the subject and the analysis of the practical
approach of logistics managers one may conclude that concepts such as: supply chain, supply network, logistic chain, international logistic systems, the meta-, mezzo-, macro-logistic system or external logistic systems are used interchangeably, as in fact it is difficult to see visible changes between them. Huge dynamics and space in which inter-organizational
27
P. Blaik, Logistyka, PWE, Warsaw 2001, p. 167. Cf. J.A.F. Stoner, R.E. Freeman, D.R. Gilbert Jr, Kierowanie, PWE, Warsaw 2001, p. 79. 29 F. P. Blaik, Logistyka … op., cit., p. 73. 28
logistic systems function does not really allow to assess which of the mentioned systems we are dealing with in the given moment. From my point of view, the terminology should be simplified and unanimity introduced, thus I propose to use the following terms:
intra-organizational logistic systems;
inter-organizational logistic systems; or:
micro-logistic systems;
macro-logistic systems. The justification for the above is that we are now witnessing the changes in the
approach to company management, and therefore also in logistics. The new economic environment, where traditional, network and virtual companies function (along with the combinations of the afore-mentioned) is shaping through globalization, which is characterized by30:
multidimensionality (globalization takes place in several areas of social life, e.g. economy, politics, culture, military-related areas);
complexity and multithreading (globalization includes four processes: the erosion of U.S. dominance, financial market development, the internationalization of enterprises, the rise of the global problem of ecology);
merging (a strict combination of functioning of entities dispersed all over the world and increasingly more intense connections based on trade, agreements, investment and production, inter alia thanks to the development of the Internet and Intranet network as well as new information and communication technologies; actions taken in remote countries have a significant influence on the situation in other places);
international co-dependence (it is possible to coordinate the functioning of integrated international systems, where the development of the given subject – state/company – becomes inextricably linked to the operation and success of the economic activity abroad).
relationship with the progress of science, technology, organization (development of technology is the development of means of transport, communication, production of new or upgraded products, the implementation of flexible and highly efficient methods of production, new methods of management, organization and distribution, accelerated the spread of techniques, technology, innovation worldwide);
30
Cf. C. Królewicz, Globalizacja w aspekcie odpowiedzialności indywidualnej człowieka. Wyzwania procesu globalizacji wobec człowieka, Katowice Academy of Econmomy, Katowice 1999, pp. 16-18.
compression of time and space ("shrinking" of the world, participation in events on all continents, high mobility of people, the availability of goods from around the world, reducing the time and space of strategic importance in the development of globally competitive companies in the long-term impact on the development of individual countries and regions of the world);
the dialectical nature
(the interrelated and mutually conditioned sub-processes and
phenomena tend to clash, oftentimes having contradictory character, e.g. – globalization – fragmentation,
integration
–
disintegration,
globalization
–
regionalization,
homogenization – differentiation etc.);
multi-levelness (the world economy is the highest level, where different tendencies forming the process of globalization are aggregated and transformed );
international range expansion (the formation of multinational network and virtual companies which cooperate with one another regardless of their location; the use of international standards); All inter-organizational logistic systems need to adjust themselves to different kinds of
requirements regarding customer service in particular countries and regions of the world, taking into account, simultaneously, the geographical location, the climate, the availability of logistic infrastructure in the given area, in the context of timeliness of deliveries or accessibility of spare parts in case of failure. Here, the support may be marketing information and direct contacts with foreign customers, brokers, customs offices etc. It is important to be aware of the fact that inter-organizational logistic systems to a great extent reflect the culture, customs, tradition, the course of economic and social development and the infrastructure of a given region of the world. Taking the above aspects into consideration has a meaning for the organization and modification of logistic processes. They also depend on the technological progress, means of transport and their organization, as well as the use of information technologies. In view of the globalization of the market economy and world trade, a continuously relevant issue is the standardization of products and services, codification and indexing of raw materials, products and materials. For this purpose, trans-national, trans-governmental organizations are created; most countries integrate between themselves with the thought to, under the aegis of e.g. European Union or GS1 create and improve trans-organizational logistic systems beyond artificial political, economic and customs-related divisions. The globalization of the market, the development of technologies and specializations
of production, its growth with increasing individualization of order handling, shortening product lifecycles, reduction of middle-size shipments with simultaneous extension of their route of delivery to customers delivery to the customers is what makes new requirements arise within the area of logistic services. It is the development of logistics which determines which kinds of services are priority in trans-organizational supply chains, to ensure their highest quality level, efficiency and the lowest cost of realization. Today, it is hard to imagine supplies ordering and preparation, developing the simulation route of the means of transport, estimating costs and revenue, selection of cargo and containers, standardization of product codes and the way to read them or transaction settlement without computer software. An example may be the Partnertech31 company, currently having ca. , in areas such as telecommunications, medicine, banking, and recycling. In this particular case, orders are made automatically. After receiving information on stock being used up, the company passes it on to the supplier who finds out via electronic channels that replenishment of given assortment needs to be provided. Shortly after obtaining the information, the supplier sends shipment with the goods back to the producer. Modern storage facilities which are inseparable elements of trans-organizational systems are erected as single-storey buildings far from the centers of big agglomerations, but near the more important road and rail nodes. The suitable equipment inside the magazines, including shelves up to several meters up, do not require the use of cranes; they are supported by various types of forklift trucks and roller systems. Hydraulically raised ramps designed for loading and unloading automatically adapt to different sizes of vehicles; the level of inventories is controlled by computers, which systematically notify the owner of the stored products and the warehouse personnel about the level of inventories and possible need of replenishment. The procedures of for taking orders, calculating the cost of storage and transportation are also realized with the help of computer software. Thanks to the global network, the data concerning the above-mentioned activities reach all interested and authorized parties – the participants in global supply chains, regardless of their location. Modern companies which are the links of trans-organizational supply chains and 31
The Partnertech company in Sieradz is part of an international Swedish corportation, which has its plants mainly in Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Finland), as well as in the USA, the UK and Poland; also, has a business partner in China.
participate in the global competition, are obliged to respect the global rules of operation32. These rules are based on the increase in pressure to use information technologies in all areas of business activity and the company’s contacts with business partners (virtualization of processes, among others), integration and cooperation with the use of the Internet, elimination of intermediate subjects and functions and real-time economy. Those enterprises that use the Internet infrastructure for business, are its part or use the offer of the three basic segments of the new economy, that is:
users;
telecommunications businesses;
providers.
These offer on-line access services in the broad meaning of the term, providing the resources and possibilities that the Internet has, allowing businesses to be run in line with the so-called “5C”33 principles, namely:
coordination;
commerce;
community;
content;
communication.
As a result, virtual supply chains are created within the inter-organizational logistic systems, inextricably linked to the physical distribution of products taking place in the traditional supply chain and the associated information flows. In virtual supply chains a synergic effect is obtained of combining the properties of the Internet, the wide application of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) as well as the efficiency of traditional SCM (Supply Chain Management) solutions. E-business solutions are implemented in the areas of planning, design, supply, manufacturing, trade and logistics. An important role is played by new forms of selling, implemented mostly through online stores. Trade documentation is sent in an electronic form, while the products are delivered by courier service (which allows for lowering costs and prices, shortening the time of realization of orders etc.) The observation of the processes taking place in the USA and the Asian (especially in Japan, Hong-Kong and Taiwan) leads to a conclusion that the supply chains of companies operating in the globalized markets of highly industrialized countries exhibit a number of very 32 33
D. Tapscott, Gospodarka cyfrowa. Warsaw, Business Press 1998, pp. 52-85. Ibid., p. 65.
distinct features of a pull-type systems and base on four basic trends34:
transformation of logistic models based on inventories and high scale of production (manufacture-to-supply) into logistic models based on replenishments (or referred to as a production to order, manufacture-to-order);
implementation of Customer Direct Delivery (CDD) solutions;
outsourcing of logistics functions and processes for the so-called third and fourth parties to the transaction (3PL, 4PL);
elimination or significant reduction of intermediate functions, particularly storage; a result of noticeable reduction in the weight of individual supplies for the increase in their abundance and diversity. Logistic systems based on inventories were characteristic for typical companies of the
second half of the last century. However, the increasing demands of customers in terms of product variety along with the shortening of product life cycles on the market, enforced resignation from the economies of scale, scheduling based on forecasted demand or maintaining stocks in warehouses or distribution centers. Also it imposed reductions regarding costs of poor planning, unnecessary storage or needless transport operations. A challenge for inter-organizational logistic systems is to keep the inventories on an appropriate level along the entire chain, not only in a given company which would be one of the links. Cooperation along the entire supply chain ensures continuity of sales, reduces the costs in each link and is beneficial for everyone. Information regarding inventories, passed on with adequate timing, eliminates unavailability and allows to avoid the costs incurred by excessive storage. Such situations (i.e. excessive inventories or their shortage) stem from, inter alia, errors in planning, demand forecasting or lack of information on current sales or production. The further diversification of other trends, especially the increase in use of Internet technologies led to the development of modern logistic solutions enhancing manufacture-toorder (production realized on order). This triggered the necessity to change the way the suppliers and transport companies function, which have been forced to adjust themselves to the requirements of the rapidly developing on-line business. The modern replenishment-based logistic models refer to the philosophy of coordination of the product-manufacturing processes with the transactions currently done in sales points and direct placement (delivery of products to the customer directly from the 34
U.S. Office of Freight Management and Operations, Business Logistics: From Push to Pull Logistics, http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov. 12.08.2013.
production company). These types of solutions force companies to alter their production and distribution systems. In consequence, the lever of stock
inventories is dropping, with
simultaneous increase in in-transit inventory. In Poland, we are currently dealing with blended models. On one hand, we still observe strong push-system elements, e.g. in the automotive industry or in the segment of final goods; on the other hand, there occur features of pull systems, visibly growing in force within the area of services related to automotive parts and supplied distribution35. The switch into direct-delivery supplies is typical for the developing Internet business and is typical mainly of individual customer sector, where the needs are growing rapidly. This is done This is done without intermediate storage operations and distribution channels (directto-consumer-business). For example, according to estimates by DuPont, 70 to 80% supplies carried out within the U.S internal market in 2000 were direct-to-customer36. This trend allows U.S companies to reduce the so-called last mile delivery costs, treated as too high and difficult to accept for most entities on the market, lowering the value for the final customer and causing unnecessary rise in the product prices. Together with the dynamic development of on-line stores, this trend contributes to the growing importance of companies that provide transport services for small low-value packages directly to specified address or with the use of consolidation centers for home deliveries, created for that purpose, or cross-docking centers. The unquestionably leading position on the American market belongs to FedEx and UPS, while in Poland the leader still remains Poczta Polska. The outsourcing of logistic processes and functions for the so-called 3rd and 4th party (3RD Party Logistics, 3PL,4th Party Logistics 4PL) has stemmed from the dynamic growth in the accessibility of IT systems and applications in the companies. The possibilities offered by SYSTEMS OF B2C, B2B or EDI type have in effect caused the development of e-logistics and e-SCM systems. A typical subject, being the third party of the transaction, offers functions that are complementary in the processes of physical exchange of goods that takes place in the producer-customer relationship. In turn the subject being the fourth party of the transaction integrates the three mentioned entities, offering such solutions which none of the three partners would be able to offer to the others independently (at the assumed level of expectations as to the quality, modernity, speed, etc.). Therefore the 4th party partners in the transaction most frequently
35
Z. Pastuszak, Czwarta strona transakcji w procesach fizycznej dystrybucji, the „Logistyka” Magazine no 5/2008, p. 64. 36 U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration, http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov. 12.09.2013
offer highly advanced IT solutions, making it possible for the customer to establish direct contact with the producer and integrating partners as regards the process of logistic operations realization37. The effect of using the services offered by 3PL and 4PL is that a company gains opportunities to concentrate their limited resources on their essential business, separating auxiliary functions, eliminating the deficiencies in internal logistics and IT solutions, as well as gaining access to complex logistic networks , the parameters of which exceed he financial capacity of the company or are beyond the company needs arising from strategic business targets. Reducing the volume of individual supplies in favor of their frequency and diversity is the main factor reducing the role of traditional magazines and distribution centers, simultaneously increasing the role of cross-docking and efficient transportation (especially courier services). The stimulator of this process is the growth of e-commerce importance, the development of 3PL and 4PL services and the pressure on the delivery directly to the end customer. These changes also contribute to transport restructuring and changes in the dynamics of its development in particular sectors. Business solutions applied for supply chains under the conditions of the new economy lead to time efficiency, contribute to value creation for cooperating companies and enable maximum adjustment of the offer to the needs of the market. Modern supply chains have a number of advantages. They make it possible to obtain low inventory levels, reduction in the freezing of resources and - in consequence – the decrease in product prices and the increase of value for the customer. However, the growing level of in-transit inventories requires the use of efficient transport services and adequate IT infrastructure, that guarantees effective cooperation within collaborative networks. his requirement translates into the need to ensure the smooth integration of information among all partners within the supply chain of the enterprise. Therefore, the role of third and fourth parties of the transaction is growing. Thanks to them, the solutions applied become pull-type systems in characteristics, while the company may concentrate on its core business. The observed outsourcing trends within the supply chains will certainly intensify together with
the development of information technologies and e-commerce and have
increasingly bigger influence on the way supply chains would function, also in Polish companies. Much as ignoring them with poorly developed infrastructure may mitigate the
37
http://www.logistics-aug.com/. 22.09.2013.
effects of committed negligence, in case of its rapid development it may cause perturbations in company activity, and – in extreme cases – their removal from the market.
3. Security management in the logistic system 3.1. The essence and definition of security management in the logistic system The state of security is nor a stable situation – it is a commodity provided to the economic system once and for all. In the real world, constant threats exist, both from the forces of nature and from both intended and unintended effects of human activities. Therefore, each logistic system needs to develop within its activity the possibility of prompt reaction to any changes in internal and external environment, including the possibility to cooperate with other entities within the security system. This statement is nothing new, since as early as halfway through the last century P. Drucker, when putting forward his criteria for the selection of organization type and its design, claimed that an enterprise should be sustainable, able to survive the time of confusion and with the ability to adapt to the new conditions38. The adopted strategy of logistic functioning of an economic system should not be focused solely on the realization of logistic processes and cost reduction, but it should also include the issue of modern threats. The logistic security system of a given subject should be adjusted to its potential threats and the required safety level, necessary to be provided. Therefore, both the quality and quantity of the measures essential to ensure the required safety level to a given entity within the area of logistic activities, their organization and the way the actions (or processes, more exactly) are carried out, after the threat is revealed (an event has occurred), depends on its type and scale, as well as the prognosis of the likelihood that other kinds of threats might occur as well. The logistic system security is a state that gives a sense of confidence and assures the following:
The flow of physical goods and services; in consequence the fulfillment of material needs of the supply chain participants, along with the 7R rule39;
The flow of goods for the needs of logistic process management;
protection and survival during a dangerous situation (threat);
adaptation to new circumstances (flexibility in unplanned situations).
38 39
Cf. http://www.anonimus.com.pl/P.Drucker.html, 12.10.2013. „7R” – right product , right quantity, right condition, right place, right time, right custome, right price.
The security level of a logistic system of any given economic entity depends both on this entity itself and its closer environment (e.g. direct suppliers and customers) as well as more remote environment, which is subject to the condition of the risks of the cooperating participants of the economic networks, both in local and global aspect. The security of a logistic system is related to:
The level of preparation and resistance of an economic system, suitable to counteract emergency situations (the main focus remains on recognition, monitoring, data analysis and right decision-making within the area of logistic activities);
The quality of the created and functioning security system – understood as a set of powers and means that provide the level of security that would be acceptable for the logistic system; A given level of security for an economic logistic system may be obtained in many
ways – not only by the provision of certain effectiveness as regards direct counteraction to the events that occur. Thus, we have the possibility to shape the level of logistic security within the economic system by its management, which may be defined as a set of coordinated activities, undertaken simultaneously to the occurrence of a threat (disturbance), aiming at logistic resources, with an intention to achieve a goal which might be the security of supplies, reduction of risks, meeting the requirements posed by the cargo owner and the protection of the brand or the position on the market. In this case, the changeable values would be the parameters that include factors influential to the security level of the system, connected with40:
Prevention to possible security threats;
Preparation of the logistic system in case these security threats activate;
Resources counteractive to these threats;
Removal of the event consequences. Prevention of possible threats to a logistic system security includes:
Formulation of the security policy;
Risk assessment41 during the logistic processes duration;
Management plan and identified risk reduction plan;
40
PCf. E. Kołodziński, Istota inżynierii systemów zarządzania bezpieczeństwem, http://www.uwm.edu.pl, 10.04.2013. 41 Risk - the conditions in which the logistician knows the presumed probability of the efficiency of their actions, according to:A. Szymonik, Logistyka jako system racjonalnego pozyskiwania wyrobów obronnych, AON, Warsaw 2007, p. 130.
Detection, identification, inventory and control over possible threats;
Forecasting the likelihood of crisis situation occurrence (e.g. based on data warehouse, with the use of IT systems)
examination of the risk acceptance level in the economy and among supply chain participants;
Defining the type and scope of action to prevent threats within a given area, e.g. transport, storage, supply;
Providing training for people dealing with logistics in the micro- and macro-scale (a singular economy or all participants of the supply chain, in its upper and lower part).
3.2. Phases of Crisis Management When analyzing the events related to an emergency situation, we find out that the borders between subsequent “peaceful” and “undesired” states are fluent and difficult to grasp. However, certain symptoms of a crisis may appear much earlier, suggesting the oncoming crisis situation. This condition is often called pre-crisis phase. In this phase, in addition to continuous monitoring of the situation, the main effort is focused on preparatory activities and hedging, which consequently should lead to the elimination (neutralization), or at least reduction, mitigation and minimization of the crisis effect. The length of the pre-crisis depends on whether the crisis could have been predicted or not (predictable and unpredictable crises)42. The subsequent stage is already the phase when the emergency situation occurs, where the threat may be one-off in character (e.g. gas explosion, avalanche, a disaster at the construction site) or continuous with prolonged duration of action (e.g. floods, draughts, civil unrest). The duration of the crisis will depend on the nature of the crisis and the measures taken. The post-crisis phase requires certain actions, forces and means to remove or overcome the consequences of the crisis. One may distinguish three sample groups of undertakings43:
42
A. Skarżyński, Próba ogólnej systematyki sytuacji kryzysowych oraz wybranych towarzyszących im działań techniczno organizacyjnych, materials from the 9th International Science and technology Conference of Military Engineering, t. 1 Zarządzanie i organizacja działań w sytuacjach kryzysowych. Ratownictwo i ochrona ludności, Warsaw 2000, pp. 45-46. 43 Ibid, pp. 44-45.
organizational activities regarding organization, planning, logistics, personnel selection, security sites, communications etc .;
raising funds (sources of financing), e.g. from the State Budget, international assistance, sponsors, own resources;
gaining forces and technical means, e.g. qualified teams, materials and technical equipment, medical equipment and supplies, the possibility to use the infrastructure (roads, ramps, airports, bridges, hospitals). The praxeological approach to crisis management is nothing but a good management
under pressure, which includes actions to obtain the information needed to explain the problem and a number of specific actions44: 1.
Assessment of the situation (to answer the question: what exactly is happening
and why, what might happen if no action is taken, how fast one should begin to act, whom it may concern, what resources are available). 2.
Preparation of the initial action plan and alternative plan development, in case
of unexpected twists and turns. 3.
Appointment of a crisis team to deal with the situation (the assignment of roles,
responsibilities and powers of attorney to act). 4.
Preparation of the crisis command center (or calling it to action if it has
previously been prepared); 5.
Preparation (running) of a communication system allowing for immediate
receipt of the information and sending commands to the members of the crisis team and to all other persons involved in the operation. 6.
Getting rid of marginal and questionable problems (delegating them to the non-
crisis cells). 7.
Development of detailed action plans (schedules, immediate and long-term
solutions, alternative plans). 8.
Constant supervision over what exactly is happening (immediate response, but
no panic). 9.
Continuous assessment of actions undertaken and the reactions they caused (for
plan modification and swift implementation of preventive and corrective actions).
44
Ibid., pp. 57-58
Considering the tasks included in the definition describing crisis management, provided in the Act on Crisis Management, the phases of the management in question are divided into four groups: The first one – prevention, i.e. anticipatory actions, that eliminate or reduce the likelihood of crisis occurrence. This includes:
Identification and inventory of the risks and determination of their sources;
hazard risk analysis and forecasts of its potential impact;
continuous monitoring of phenomena that could pose threat;
Identification of prevention phase priorities;
Planning of preventive measures;
Preparation of appropriate legal regulations;
Securing the financial expenses in the budget;
Support for applied research and technology transfer;
Raising public awareness and universal education in the field of risk prevention;
Creating a system of incentives and financial restrictions, proper use of resources;
Providing leadership and coordination. Prevention refers to activities which eliminate or reduce the likelihood of a disaster
to occur, or lessen its effects. The second one – preparation, where the key element is the development of emergency response plans, which describe who would be doing what and when, with the use of what means or forces, on what legal grounds (before, during and immediately after the crisis event). Preparation also means the provision of specialist resources and means of response, such as management position, emergency communications system, alarm system and emergency response personnel, as well as the evidence of resources of forces and means useful for emergency response. Activities in this area include:
developing emergency response plans;
creation of organizational, technical and financial conditions for efficient crisis management;
organization of communication and monitoring systems;
organization and maintenance of warning and alarm systems;
creation of conditions that ensure survival in crisis situations as regards materials, water and energy supplies;
creating the conditions that ensure the functioning continuity of public administration and emergency infrastructure;
creation of a database allowing for forecasting, simulation and visualization of threats that might potentially result in the emergence of crises, risk analysis;
developing law enforcement principles for crisis situations, in relation to the population, non-governmental organizations and the private sector;
training and improvement of the entities within the national rescue service intended for emergency operations. The third one – response, that takes place after the real threat or emergency event
occurs. Its aim is:
launching the entire Crisis Management Team (permanent and temporary workgroups);
launching preventive actions that would prevent or minimize possible damage;
initiating procedures, adequately to the threat that occurs, enforcing the rescue operations with adequate forces and measures.
Organization and coordination of activities as regards humanitarian aid and psychological protection of the society;
Continuous current update of the database system and operational infrastructure of the forces and means involved in the integrated rescue actions;
organizing protection of food, drinking water and other goods necessary for survival;
organizing and launching of an escape system, temporary accommodation and supplies for the rescue services and affected population;
gathering reports on the results of rescue operations;
coordination and management of the crisis-related activities, up to finding out the reasons underlying the occurrence of the threat;
keeping relevant up-to-date documentation (e.g. an event log); The response phase requires:
keeping the discipline of information circulation;
gathering information and keeping the record of operations;
avoidance of hasty action;
professional information (an ombudsman);
prognoses for the turn the events might take;
prediction of the consequences of the decisions made;
accounting for the legal implications of decisions made;
assurance of public institutions functioning. The fourth phase – restoration, is the final phase of the crisis management cycle.
The restoration process is continued until all the systems are brought back to their original condition, or better. Restoration is divided into a short-term and long-term one. The short-term one is to restore the systems necessary for life to minimum operating standards. The long-term restoration/rebuilding may take many years to complete the reconstruction of the entire affected area. At the same time, the process should be carried ut in such a way that the affected area would be less vulnerable to disaster, should it occur in the future. The tasks within this phase may include45:
Assessment of the damage and losses resulting from disasters and crises;
Commissioning programs of individual and collective assistance for the injured population, including the organization of legal counseling and psychological assistance points.
Providing the immediate functioning of public use devices and buildings and municipal infrastructure.
Reconstruction of the emergency infrastructure;
Launching of the financial aid programs for victims;
Restoration and replenishment of resources as well as the restoration of rescue services readiness;
Preparation of reports and analyses regarding the activities taken by the civil security units during the response and restoration phase;
Modification of the civil defense plans, emergency response programs and procedures. The security system should be adjusted to its potential threats and to the required level
of safety that needs to be provided. Therefore, the quantity and quality of rescue means, necessary for the provision of the required level of safety, their organization and the way the rescue operations (or processes, to be more exact) are carried out after the threat occurs (an event takes place), it depends on its course, phases, type, scale and the forecast of the possibility that other types of threats might also occur. 3.3 Progressive Management
45
Cf. http://www.sedziszow.pl/?c=mdTresc-cmPokaz-258, 06.02.2013.
In crisis management, we are dealing with an open system. Among the features of the environment that may influence its structure, one may mention46:
Complexity of the environment, meaning the awareness of how many and how varied elements are included in it;
Uncertainty of the environment, which is directly related to dynamicsand instability, while we can enumerate four types of sources of uncertainty that characterize every economic system.
Uncertainty that stems from the lack of knowledge and skills in problem-solving, especially if those problems appear unexpectedly;
Uncertainty in the organization-environment relationship, due to difficulties in recognition of phenomena and events that appear, basically, in a way that is independent of their victims;
Uncertainty that comes from the lack of compatibility between task network and information network, e.g. in consequence of wrong or incomplete data from the scene.
Uncertainty related to the ambiguity of regulations, including the ministerial and governmental ones, as well as those from the local government. Managing such system requires information, which is characterized by correctness,
usefulness, selectiveness, completeness, punctuality, communicativeness, availability and is up-to-date. Crisis management requires not only good and useful information. One needs to consider47:
The pressure of time
The fact that the events might take place faster than the response;
the existence of restrictions on access to information, with the increase in demand for it from the governing bodies and the general public;
the sense the leadership may have that they are not able to stand up to the changes that take place (panic may occur);
the existence of a clearly visible conflict between the interested parties;
the adaptation of previously developed scenarios for action in a given situation gains significant meaning;
46 47
the decisions might be made under stress, limited information and increased risk level;
Cf. A. Koźmiński, W. Piotrkowski, Zarządzanie, Teoria i praktyka, PWN, Warszw 1996, p. 658. E. Kołodziński, http://www.ptib.pl/, 01.04.2013.
the occurrence of limitations to the collective decision-making rules. Such complex system requires a specific, individual and creative approach in
management, which may be:
progressive;
conservative. The term: progression means gradual growth, gradual increase, moving forward,
making progress48. A progressive action is characterized and distinguished by49:
a tendency for independent and spontaneous problem-solving, most often by the use of trial-and-error approach50;
the tendency to profess and proclaim the idea of progress and the ability to implement them;
going away from stereotypes, schemes and analogies; Progressiveness is the opposite of non-modernity, backwardness, stereotyping,
conservatism, reservation and traditionalism51. One might say that ideal progressive management takes place when the crisis situation has been foreseen and efforts are made to eliminate it before it even has the chance to take place. The main motto of such model is: “prevention is better than cure, both in economic and social terms”. This kind of management is most desirable in the pre-crisis phase. It is at that stage, where, apart from the continuous monitoring of the situation, the main effort is focused on the preparatory and hedging activities which consequently should lead to the elimination (neutralization), or at least to reduction, mitigation and minimization of the crisis outcome. The duration of the pre-crisis phase depends on whether it was possible to foresee it (predictable and unpredictable situations)52. And it is at this very stage that we should search
48
http://web2.ling.pl/progress,%20human, 27.03.2013. http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl/26581, 28.03.2013. 50 The trial and error method; a spontaneous, intuition-based way to solve tasks and problems, which consists of performing the seemingly chaotic steps until the desired result is obtained (in different fields of science and practical activity trial and error is the basis of many other methods of discovery and problem solving - in mathematics known as the method of successive approximations), according to: http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl, 25.03.2013. 51 Cf. http://megaslownik.pl/slownik/synonimy_antonimy/16887,progresywn, 04004.2012. 52 A. Skarżyński, Próba ogólnej systematyki sytuacji kryzysowych oraz wybranych towarzyszących im działań techniczno organizacyjnych, materials from the 9th International Science and technology Conference of Military Engineering, t. 1 Zarządzanie i organizacja działań w sytuacjach kryzysowych. Ratownictwo i ochrona ludności, Warsaw 2000, pp. 45-46. 49
for new solutions in techniques, technologies and management methods for crisis situations; this most accurately describes a progressive action. Decision-making, done by a progressive manager, is accompanied with risk. He/she is the one to find courage to take uncertain actions which may not be in line with other people’s opinions or generally adopted principles. The result may be achievement of success or utter failure, related e.g. to lives and health of people. Oftentimes, the work of a progressive manager dealing with crisis situations (such as e.g. cooling systems breakdown in the damaged Japanese reactors of the Fukushima power station in March 2011) may be compared with decisions taken by a cardiac surgeon53. The manager, selecting one of the possible variants in the non-random way, takes risky decisions, often under time-pressure, with the purpose to “cure” the system, the company or to eliminate a huge threat, resulting from e.g. the emission of radioactive substances to the atmosphere. Decision-making must be accompanied by creativity confidence in the proceedings, the relentless pursuit for the intended purpose. It is a huge responsibility, not only for oneself, but e.g. for the entire team running the cooling system of the reactor under high radiation, threatening with the loss of health or even life. Oftentimes, the decision is subject to criticism, fears, loss of position, authority or job – it may be followed by discontent of the general public that might lose trust in not only the local government, but the national leaders as well. It is important not rapidly, decisions need to be well reconsidered, accounting for the results and outcomes of the actions to be taken. Only, just as in the work of a cardiac surgeon, often hard-pressed for time, the manager, using accessible data, prognoses, simulations, needs to rely on his/her knowledge, experience and intuition in order to choose the variant of a given action that has not been so far tested in practice, and monitor its outcome. As the very name suggests, an emergency/crisis situation is a state that requires immediate action; if we do not do something in the given moment, a second later might be too late; as we know, making up for mistakes brings about huge costs, not only financial ones, but also the social ones, which oftentimes are related to what is most precious for us, i.e. human health and life. The crisis situation requires from us decisiveness and determination, there is no place there for the so-called populists who promise results that would be in line with what the
53
Cf. http://fedcba.ning.com/group/oifsb/forum/topics/zarzadzanie-progresywne, 29.03.2013.
majority of the population would expect, in order to gain their support and gaining influence or power, while having no backup or improvement plan. On the other hand, the manager cannot act freely as they choose; their actions should be subject to control, to avoid misuse of power and irreversible negative consequences of their conduct. In our considerations, a cardiac surgeon may hurt a single person, while the person that manages the responses to crisis, who has lives and health in their hands, of many people, just like in case of the failure of the Japanese power-station Fukushima 1. Progressive management should primarily concern forecasting of crises
and the
application of tools and instruments that might eliminate them, or at lease reduce the outcome. Progressive management should use:
broad access to internal and external security tools, including intelligence, police, judiciary institutions, the economic, financial and diplomatic means;
research results and new technologies. An efficient modern and effective progressive management requires information
systems that support monitoring, identification and prevention of threats to the security of the citizens, including the information and decision-making-related rescue service and crisis management processes, as well as effective managing of the emergency rescue and crisis response department.
3.4.Conservative management The world conservatism comes from the Latin conservare, which means to preserve, save54. The Polish Language Dictionary describes conservatism as strong attachment to tradition and reluctance towards changes55. The antonyms of this word56: liberalism, progressiveness, but not progression, so one may assume that these two tendencies are mutually complementary (unlike what has been stated in chapter two). And therefore, a conservative way of management distinguishes itself with the acceptance of the general state, the system of values, slow implementation of new rules, as well as the attachment to the already existing, proven system. The implemented process of planning, organizing, leadership, controlling the managing and executive organs takes place in a manner that is already tested and approved both by the major links and by the opinioncreating institutions.
54
http://www.wosna5.pl/konserwatyzm, 03.04.2013. Słownik języka polskiego, wg http://sjp.pwn.pl/slownik, 03.04.2013. 56 Słownik synonimów i antonimów, http://megaslownik.pl/slownik/synonimy_antonimy, 03.04.2013. 55
Thus, conservative way of managing distinguished acceptance of the constitution, the system of values, the slow introduction of new rules, as well as attachment to an existing, proven system. Implemented the process of planning, organizing, conducting, controlling the steering and executive bodies is done in a way that has already developed, tested and approved by both primate cells and opinion-making institutions. This type of management is most useful in phase:
a crisis in which the threat can be either one-time or continuous, with a prolonged duration of action (the duration of the crisis will depend on the nature of the crisis and of the action taken);
post-crisis, which requires certain actions, forces and means to remove or overcome the consequences of the crisis, one can cite three examples of the projects57:
activities in organizing, planning, logistics, personnel selection, security sites,
communications etc.;
raise funds (sources of financing), for example. Budget, international
assistance, sponsors its own resources;
gaining strength and technical means, eg. Qualified teams, materials and
technical equipment, equipment and medical supplies, the possibility of use of the infrastructure (roads, ramps, airports, bridges, hospitals). The statement on the usefulness of conservative management in the crisis and postcrisis phase is based on a proven life maxim that experimenting and introducing new methods, especially innovative ones, on a living body tends to be very risky and costly at times. While making a system analysis of conservative and progressive management one may present several conclusions58: The first one: the ideal action in critical situation should be a combination of conservative and progressive management. Finding a compromise between these different management styles is the perfect way to make decisions in a crisis situation. Any decision should be well thought out and subjected to an objective opinion of persons in whose surrounding a given issue is to be implemented. Decisions taken under time pressure often prove to be a failure. Time cannot be reversed, while the consequences may be unpredictable. Both the knowledge and experience that we have allow us for the “deeper thought” i.e. allow for a
57 58
Ibid, pp. 44-45. CF. http://fedcba.ning.com/group/oifsb/forum/topics/zarzadzanie-progresywne, 04.04.2013.
more accurate assessment of the situation and choose the course of action that would be most useful and satisfactory. The second one: The conservative management method is characterized by the acceptance of the general circumstances and system of values; the slow implementation of new rules and attachment to the new system is based all along on what is safe and already tested. The progressive behavior is very daring, innovative, modern. The third one. Crisis management is the activity of the units, an element of safety management which relies on crisis prevention, preparation for taking control over them by means of planned actions, reaction in case crisis should occur, removal of its effects and recreation of resources and infrastructure. It is nothing else than a response to the state of crisis that occurs in the company or in another organization, both due to the forces of nature and as a result of human activities. To resolve the situation, one should always question themselves: how to face the problem logically and in an organized way? The identification of a crisis situation in terms of its complexity is not possible, among others due to incomplete information, which is difficult to obtain. Therefore, the comprehensive assessment of the situation needs to include the interaction between various systems (among others, the technical and human ones). In solving a crisis situation, we most often deal with conservative decisions, i.e. doing something that has been done many times before. Thus, we achieve a learning effect, i.e. the more often we do something, the better and faster we do it. Conservative management is as if the mechanism that ensures a certain feeling of comfort , because through its rational realization, we often (though not always) prove to ourselves the rightfulness of the proceedings (the so-called Effect of Predictability). The fourth one. In crisis situations, the conservatists will apply the old schemes, based on “tradition”, on principles. However, what if this does not bring the expected results? They will reach for new solutions, and this is how a group of people with positive attitude will emerge. There are good and bad sides to both groups’ behaviors, and in such case the best thing is to compromise – select the best features. We more often choose those tested conservative courses of action for crisis situations. However, without progress, there is no development (or it is slow)and what we get is the tedious realization of whatever should be done “right now”. There is no strict division into conservative and progressive regulations. In each situation, whether we want it or not, elements of both approaches need to be applied.
The fifth one. When managing a crisis situation, one should make use of a range of interdisciplinary, professional, purposeful and coordinated interactions that facilitate the achievement of our goal. The interdisciplinary character of these actions result from the characteristics of the crisis experience, especially as regards the phenomenon of the crisis spreading onto the closer and remote surrounding. This is the reason for the fact that in crisis management, apart from routine and experience, the use of tested methods (conservative approach) what sicience and research bring is also crucial (progressive approach). The sixth one. In conservative management, the procedures applied and operational methods are usually tried and tested.
While all kinds of innovations (progressive
management) in solving difficulties are definitely recommended, as they allow to view the problem from different perspectives and find still new solutions, this however surely involves bigger costs and other unexpected consequences which might result from the decision taken. A good approach to crisis management is the modification of classic principles, where some changes that account for the current situation are introduced dynamically, which allows to adjust and introduce corrections to the decisions taken; this contributes to the simplification of the processes and eliminating some of its stages. However, the decisions taken are not always right, and for that reason the alterations made in decisions should be adjusted dynamically, depending on particular critical situation; one needs to be prepared for failure and be aware of the responsibility that the decisions incur. Modern management in economic systems is based on information, however in terms of its quantity, not quality. In crisis management, the paradigm of size must be abandoned, while instead all is used that allows for quick reaction and prevents all adverse effects resulting from the threats posed. One may describe it as a surprise counteraction to everything that is unfavorable for a human and the environment.
4. Tools facilitating logistic system management in macro and micro perspective. 4.1. Computer-aided decision making in security planning The ease of access of user-friendly information technologies has brought about the possibility to apply computers in security design decision-making. Modern applications allow security managers to build, analyze and use models, graphs, checklists, tables; develop and control the realization of the entire project. The manager has discovered a computer is like very efficient supporting personnel59.
It is reliable;
It works non-stop and does not demand to be paid extra;
It does not complain;
Discretely (without malicious comments), it indicates formal mistakes that have been made;
What is most important, it does not criticize the ideas of the boss behind their back. However, the help from the computer depends on the type of decisions it is supposed
to support. Decisions where automation makes sense are the following:
Simple, well-structured decisions, e.g. demarcation of the shortest route to the unloading location, making another order;
Decisions which require precise logic, for example: selection of emergency providers, selection of the transport outsourcer;
Multivariate decisions, based on logic and high number of combinations to analyze (a computer, when provided with the required criteria, will do it faster and more efficiently), e.g. selecting storage location for hazardous substances, or the designation of the TRS (toxic radioactive substances and the most desirable configuration for access blockades);
Decisions, where the time needed to take them is beyond the physical capability of a human e.g. the distribution of early warning signals among the interested entities, segregation of electronic mail, distribution of malware alerts. Decisions which need to be made by a human being (though they may be aided by
spreadsheets, databases, decision support systems and expert systems) include:
59
W.T. Bielecki, Informatyzacja zarządzania, PWE, Warsaw 2001, p. 10.
Poorly structured decisions, where heuristics and intuitions are the tools to be used, e.g. whether to sign a long-term or one-off agreement, which company to choose for inventory management;
Decisions which have impact on human feelings, behaviours or reactions, e.g. negotiations with the pirates;
Decisions that require particularly high intelligence or creativity, e.g. coming up with new projects in the face of the oncoming crisis or finding out new protection methods against the hackers in the cyberspace. The necessity for a human to participate in making the above-mentioned decisions
stems from the fact that some of the skills humans have still cannot be done by any computer60:
Common sense;
Abstract thinking;
The ability to mobilize oneself and others;
The skill of creative thinking; In turn, computers gain a significant advantage with:
Very quick logical and numerical processing;
Quick search through very extensive sources;
The ability to perform comprehensive calculations;
Almost absolute accuracy;
Very accurate simultaneous use of a large number of rules;
Recognition and comparison of complex images;
The possibility to copy data and objects at fast pace;
The ability to communicate with many places at once. One has to admit that the above-mentioned factors are convincing enough for the
decision maker to use a computer while taking the decision, however this needs to be done in a conscious and controlled way. Every decision-maker (a manager, a logistician or an entrepreneur), in order to make the right decision, needs to be able to verbally describe the decision problem to be solved. He
60
Ibid., p. 88.
also needs to know what kind of decision situation they are to deal with. The right assessment of the problem will allow for the right solution. Then, the decision problem needs to be translated into formal (mathematical) language. This is not difficult as the specialist software packages are equipped with computer systems, asking questions, allowing for the proper implementation of data, the final formalization of which will be made by the computer. An important element of the computer-aided decision support process is the interpretation of the obtained solution. The packages provide numerical solutions and their meaning is dependent on the meaning of the input data. Besides, they provide an entire range of additional information insulting from the so-called sensitivity analysis, which allows the decision maker to figure out how "resistant" is the solution derived to changes in the input data. 4.2. Business Intelligence as a decision-making support tool in crisis situations. Business Intelligence (BI) is a very wide concept. Most generally, one may describe it as the process of transforming data into information and information into knowledge, with the use of a wide range of applications and technologies, which may be used to increase efficiency and effectiveness of particular operations, including the ones regarding the provision of safety61. BI is a comprehensive framework for all phenomena related to the use of tools which Business Intelligence provides for the support of the decision making processes. BI is not only IKT, but something more; it binds the activity of different entities in safety management area. The data, information, knowledge comes not only from the system as such, but also from beyond. Thanks to BI one is able to monitor and analyze safety level in a highly complex situation, while the data come from many bases and are incomplete. The area of use for this tool is very wide and may be used in many areas of life, not only in economy. The basic BI components include the key information technologies (ETL tools, data warehouses), the abilities of these key information technologies (OLAP techniques, data mining) and applications that facilitate decision making in economic systems. Thus, the effect of the use of BI tools in the security system is quick accessibility of information concerning:
61
http://www.zgapa.pl/zgapedia/Business_intelligence.html, 9.02.2013.
back-up suppliers and potential markets, in the case of a sudden collapse (e.g. due to the tsunami) existing supply markets and consumers;
backup logistics infrastructure, e.g. warehouses, production sites, in situations when the ones usually occupied have been damaged;
forces and means that may potentially be used in rescue, along with the elimination of their consequence (the example elements of this resource might be data regarding: of the number of people within the organization units of the system, technical equipment, hardware parameters, self-owned units’ infrastructure and besides: documentation of the units, the range of responsibilities for various functions, operational procedures in particular situations such as fire, flood, etc.
the current state of security threats within the given responsibility area – data coming from all kind of security monitoring equipment and from persons reporting the occurrence of events that require rescue operations (based on the monitoring data, the IT subsystem, using mathematical models and software simulators, works out prognoses and scenarios for the possible course of events). The effective exploitation of BI tools is strongly dependent on the creation of data
warehouses, which allows unifying and linking together all the data obtained from various IT systems used in the processes related to security provision. The creation of data warehouses de-burdens the transaction systems from processing the reports and allows simultaneous use of different BI systems. The concept is the following: the BI system generates standard reports and calculates the Key Performance Indicators, on the basis of which the hypotheses are put forward, and then verified through various cross-sections of data. There are various kinds of analytical tools created for this purpose (e.g. OLAP, data mining). BI is the tool of the managers and specialists dealing with data processing, analyses and strategy. In turn, the tolls enabling the on-the-go data processing (BAM – business activity monitoring) are addressed to the line managers, who expect information on the current state of the processes. The presentation techniques are tailored directly to the needs of the user. In order to avoid the necessity of reviewing endless lines of numbers, the visualization of the current state is realized in the form of pictures. Management dashboard is an attractive way to present results – the visualization of data and reports in the form similar to control panels in vehicles.
BI also includes solutions that take decisions basing on selected algorithms. These are functions of automatic response to identified legacy, built in the trading systems, e.g. send-out notifications of order completion or auto-generating an order when inventory level gets below a specified minimum (these kinds of operations are performed with the use of Electronic Data Interchange systems – EDI). The key Business Intelligence areas are62:
DW – data warehouses, - loading, ETL processing;
Data mining
Clearing data and data quality management;
OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) – multidimensional analysis and multi-dimensional data structures;
MIS (Management Information Systems)
Reporting – information visualization and dashboards for the management;
Statistics and technical data analysis;
CRM (Customer Relationship Management);
SIP (Spatial Information System);
DSS (Decision Support Systems)63; In practice, SAP Business Objects offers BI solutions which include a comprehensive
range of decision supporting functions, facilitating making adequate and conscious decisions, based on reliable data and analyses. All users – from analysis specialists to those who use the processes on a random basis – gain access to necessary information with minimal dependence from IT specialists and programmers. Thanks to these advanced solutions, the users in the entire security systems may look through data, format, search and analyze them, as well as share them within the entire organization if need be. The SAP Business Objects BI solutions include:
Planning and consolidation of economic activity;
Advanced analytics;
Manager dashboards and visualizations;
Reporting;
Ad hoc queries, reporting and analyses;
62 63
See. http://www.sap.com/poland/solutions/sapbusinessobjects/large/intelligenceplatform, 9.02.2013. BI does not include industrial automation systems..
Search and exploration;
Information infrastructure. Advanced analysis Advanced analytical tools designed for analysts bring out the real value of information
resources. These tools, based on advanced analytical mechanisms that can access both numeric and text data, allow a search of complex historical data through advanced graphical interface. Dashboards and visualizations SAP Business Objects can help to improve the delivery of results for a specific economic system, as it enables a consolidated view of key performance indicators and information. Interactive work on sophisticated visual representations of processes and performance makes it possible to radically change the way the activity results are displayed on Managers dashboards are used for “what-if” analysis and allow to look at various problems from a different perspective, as well as make more conscious choices. Reporting The majority of economic systems is now facing a similar issue: the needed information is there as such, but it is stored in dispersed inaccessible sources, in the format that is not fit for use; while the fundamentals of a widely understood BI strategy are the reporting functions which are to facilitate access to the most popular data in a safe and reliable format that is required. Queries, reporting and ad hoc analyses End users may interactively work with business information and receive answers to various queries ad hoc – they don’t need to understand the complex language of the databases or internal structures. The SAP Business Objects software includes products that allow generating queries and conducting integrated analyses, as well as designing reports ad hoc and sharing information via intranets and extranets. Search and exploration Information infrastructure A single integrated information infrastructure that meets all the strategic requirements concerning Business Intelligence solutions, delivers the right information to the right people in the right time. In practice, the SAP Business Objects BI solutions ensure comprehensive functionality of information management which facilitates timely deliveries of integrated and precise data, both structurized and non-structured in the entire economic system. These advanced solutions
make it possible to deliver reliable data for the needs ofn the key safety-oriented processes, concerning chemical and ecological, technical, water-diving and altitude rescue services. 4.3. The application of IT systems in decision making, within the field of security design. The most frequently performed network analyses in special information systems include:
Finding the shortest route (e.g. for rescue equipment heading to where a train crash occurred);
Finding the optimal route, i.e. the shortest route with specified start and end points, which should lead through a specified set of intermediate locations (e.g. when providing food to disaster victims living in various places);
Establishing blockades – used when there is a need to specify crossings for blockades preventing vehicles from going in/getting out from the given area;
Cutting off parts of the network – another analysis often found in spatial information systems, used primarily for networks of public utilities, is the analyses which determines, for each particular network failure, the minimum set of the components within this network (valves etc.)the closure of which is sufficient to cut off the damaged area from the remaining network.
Spatial analyses – spatial information systems make it possible to carry out complex spatial analyses on raster data and on integrate vector and raster data, the results of which may be at the same time displayed on a digital map background (applied e.g, for designation of floodplains, depending on the water level, usability assessment of locations of increased risk of use, or for indicating the location of an observation point or finding all parking sites, including underground ones, within 1000m).
5. The security of logistic systems in international requirements and standards 5.1. ISO 28000: 2007 - Supply Chain Safety Management System The ISO 28000: 2007 standard was created specifically for companies and organizations involved supply chains. It allows to identify dangers and reduce the risk in the supply chain through the implementation of security provision processes, aiming to reduce the risk of theft, smuggling or illegal manipulation of the load. It ensures a response to the threat of criminals, terrorists and other attacks. It requires the organization to:
formulate a security policy;
conduct risk assessment;
develop a plan to manage and reduce the identified risks;
implement a safety management plan, monitoring and surveillance systems, taking corrective action when required;
continuously improve the development of the operation and procedures through training and simulation. In order to determine its security requirements, the organization should consider64:
business objectives – including the safety of supply, reducing the risks (theft, piracy, counterfeiting, acts of terrorism), meeting the requirements of cargo owners and the protection of reputation and brand;
legal requirements, national and international;
hazard identification and risk assessment. After identifying the nature of the organization, its scale and other requirements a
security policy is created and a risk assessment is carried out. The risk assessment process allows the organization to identify key assets and processes for further action, the definition of real threats, assess gaps in existing security programs, the estimation of likelihood of risks and considering their consequences. Using the risk assessment process, organizations can identify their estimate size, and then the priorities (for setting goals and objectives for safety), which are used to establish safety management plans to mitigate the identified risks. Safety management programs should be implemented and constantly monitored for their effectiveness. This allows the implementation of corrective actions, thereby improving the system, which in turn reduces the level of risk during the next cyclical assessment. This 64
http://www.iso.org.pl/iso-2800, 01.04.2014.
standard can be used by companies to ensure a consistent approach by all actors in the supply chain and as a reference point for security management in the supply chain65. 5.2. ISO 26000: 2010 - Guidance on social responsibility ISO 26000: 2010 - international standard (developed jointly by 99 states) containing guidelines on social responsibility, or liability of organizations for the impact of their decisions and activities on society and the environment, provided through transparent and ethical behavior that66:
contributes to sustainable development, including health and welfare of society;
accounts for the expectations of stakeholders (individuals or groups who are interested in the decisions or actions of the organization);
complies with applicable law and is consistent with international standards of conduct;
is integrated with the activities of the organization and practiced in its relationships that relate to the organization's activities undertaken within its sphere interactions (fair operating practices). This standard is designed to organize knowledge about corporate social responsibility
(CSR). The purpose of ISO 26000 is to support organizations in their contribution to sustainable development. The standard is established to encourage them to go beyond the obligations imposed by law, with the understanding that compliance with the law is a fundamental duty of any organization and a crucial part of its social responsibility. The standard is to promote a common understanding of social responsibility and complement - not replace - other tools and initiatives in this field. By introducing ISO 26000, you should have regard to the social, environmental, legal, cultural, organizational and economic differences, while
respecting
the
international
standards
of
business.
5.3. ISO 22301: 2012 - Business Continuity Management System The international standard ISO 22301 was published in May 2012, containing requirements for business continuity management systems. It replaced the existing British standard BS 25999. So far, this standard has not been translated into Polish. Building on its predecessor, it brings new requirements which benefit the entire system of business continuity management. From the beginning, the differences in the structure of the standard can be seen.
65
L. Sitkowski, Zarządzanie bezpieczeństwem dla łańcucha dostaw – ISO 28000, [in:] Przemysł Środowisko Jakość Zarządzanie 2(13)2009, pp. 28 i 29. 66 http://www.pkn.pl/sites/default/files/discovering_iso_26000.pdf, 20.10.2013.
Requirements of ISO 22301 are presented in 10 chapters, and the British predecessor had six. The standard includes67:
new formal requirement to determine the context of the organization, to provide all the information to establish a Business Continuity Management System, appropriate for the organization and which support its activities and objectives (within this context, the organization should identify and document the scope of its activities, including products, services, place in the supply chain relationships with suppliers and customers, the links between policy continuity and other existing types of policies and applicable laws it and other regulations;
the detailed requirements for top management (the standard requires top management to be actively involved in the business continuity policy and the establishment of its objectives, in addition they should demonstrate evidence of its commitment to the establishment, implementation and monitoring of business continuity management system);
requirements for the establishment and implementation of procedures for internal communication (with employees of the organization), external (with customers, partners, local communities and the media) and during a crisis situation, taking into account the notification of appropriate authorities;
detailed requirements for the implementation and coordination of business continuity management system, including the analysis of business impact, risk analysis, strategy and business continuity management procedures and the rules of their testing (includes requirements for incident management, along with the need to develop procedures which will include the detection and monitoring of incidents to communicate information related to them during entire life cycle of the incident and keep the record of incidents-related decisions);
the requirement for the development of documented procedures to restore process and return to the normal activities of the organization after the crisis is resolved;
requirements for internal audits and management reviews, as well as arrangements for monitoring, measurement, analysis and evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of business continuity management system;
setting measurable objectives and assessing their achievement (the organization should define what should be monitored and measured, define the methods used for monitoring,
67
See. http://csr.pl/article/214/, 20.10.2013.
measurement, analysis and evaluation, and indicate when measurements are to be made, and when they analyzed). 5.4. SQAS (Safety and Quality Assessment System) The Safety and Quality Assessment System is a tool for examining and determining the level of safety and quality of operational activities undertaken in the course of handling chemical products both inert and hazardous that are subject to ADR68, RID69, ADN70 and specified risk materials HCDG (High Consequence Dangerous Goods) by entities operating in the chain logistics. SQAS is addressed to companies operating in the field of land transport; road and rail, shipping, chemical product distributors, warehouses, transshipment terminals, repair of railway tanks and wash tanks. The test is performed by independent auditors accredited by CEFIC (SQAS Accredited Assessors)71. The instrument SQAS is directed to72:
companies involved in the TSL logistics chain;
distributors of chemical products;
companies working for the transportation of chemicals;
owners of warehouses, wash tanks and tank - containers;
repair stations of railway wagons - tankers. The benefits after the implementation of SQAS are as follows:
a guarantee for the chemical companies that the transport company meets international standards of logistical safety of workers and the environment, minimizing the risk of vendor selection;
increase of safety during transport of chemicals;
increase competitiveness, including the European market, thanks to the standarised system of evaluation;
minimization of accidents during the execution of the order;
reducing the costs.
5.5. Container Security Initiative (CSI) Container Security Initiative - is a system created by the Office of Customs and Border Protection USA (CBP - Customs and Border Protection) in 2002., thanks to which the 68
ADR – International Convention on the carriage of goods and dangerous goods, signed in Geneva on September 30, 1957. 69 RID – Regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods. 70 ADN – European regulations concerning the international carriage of dangerous goods by inland waterway.. 71 http://www.iso.org.pl/sqas, 04.01.2014. 72 Ibid.
controlled containers in the feeder connection port will no longer be checked in transit ports and immediately sent directly to the United States. The CSI is:
the identification of high-risk containers, CBP, uses automated tools to identify containers that pose a potential terrorist threat, based on previous information and strategic intelligence.
X-rays and evaluates containers before shipment (containers are checked in the supply chain in the port of departure);
the use of modern technologies (screening and detection) to detect threats. In order to qualify for a CSI the port and its employees must comply with the following
standards73:
administration of customs in the port must be able to control all loads (sent, transit transshipped) and perform their clearance (the used equipment must not impede the flow of containers in the supply chain);
the port must be a significant and permanent partner in trade with the United States or Canada;
employees agree to manage risk with the use of modern techniques and technologies (e.g. machine vision) in order to identify potential threats and analyze them;
port authority is committed to sharing important data and information (online) on risk management to the American Office of Customs and Border Protection;
port authority shall periodically conduct detailed assessments of the port in order to identify the weakest links in the infrastructure and supply a plan of reorganization;
agree to preserve the integrity of the programs to prevent deficiencies in the employees involvement and identify their dishonesty.
5.6. C-TAPT - Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism C-TPAT - Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism is a joint venture of the government and the business community to ensure that the supply chains have superior protection against the acts of terrorism. The program is designed for large, small and mediumsized businesses both importing and exporting. The C-TAPT, is now operating in over 7400 companies globally, which are importers, customs brokers, terminal operators, carriers and foreign manufacturers74.
73 74
http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/trade/cargo_security/csi/, 04.01.2014. http://www.supplychainsecurity.com/gov_ctpat.html, 04.01.2014.
As part of the C-TPAT is distinguished by the following specific agreements75:
C-TPAT for importers;
C-TPAT for licensed customs brokers;
C-TPAT for air carriers;
C-TPAT sea carriers;
C-TPAT land carriers (rail and road);
C-TPAT for companies consolidating airmail, shipping agents and NVOOCC76;
C-TPAT for American ports and marine terminals;
C-TPAT for foreign producers;
C-TPAT for magazines;
C-TPAT - requirements for seals and sealing. Companies that get certified C-TPAT must have a documented procedure for risk
management processes implemented in the international supply chain. C-TPAT guarantees the desired security through close cooperation between all participants in the supply chain, i.e. importers, carriers, brokers, warehouse operators and manufacturers. Among the benefits of membership in C-TPAT, we can count:
fewer customs controls;
reduced insurance rates;
prestige and position in the international market;
certified C-TPAT importers are eligible for fast border control.
5.7. TAPA Certificates (Technology Asset Protection Association) TAPA is an organization founded in 1997. In the United States in response to the increasing risks associated with the carriage of high-tech products such as modern electronic equipment. In time, the organization has expanded its operations into other regions: Europe, Middle East, Africa (EMEA77), Asia and Brazil. Currently, it has about 400 members worldwide, and the scope of its activities focused on the identification of potential threats and
75
http://www.centrum.bezpieczenstwa.pl/index.php/standardy-othermenu-16/284-c-tpat, 05.01.2014. NVOCC (Non-Vessel Operating Common Carrier), it is a sea carrier (also known as the virtual shipowner), which does not have their own ships and they use the services of fleet owners, renting from them a specific allocation on vessels at wholesale prices. These carriers offer customers full load container cargo or general cargo, (the latter not being offered by the owners who have their own containers). An example of NVOCC carrier is DHL, Ecu Line or Kuehne Nagel, according to: http://www.transportet.pl/1142/nvocc/, 04.03.2014. 77 EMEA – Europe, the Middle East and Africa 76
the protection of transported and stored goods with high value to prevent theft, damage and acts of terror78. Key initiatives TAPA EMEA to facilitate risk management are:
Incidents Information Services (IIS);
Freight Security Requirement (FSR). IIS is designed to facilitate access to information about cases of theft and robberies
suffered by suppliers of high-tech equipment and other valuable assets in the region of Europe, Middle East and Africa and their analysis. FSR - the minimum safety standard to be met by companies engaged in the production and logistics of high-tech appliances. Transportation Safety requirements are systematically improved and adapted to new threats. In 2006, the TSR (Truck Security Requirement) standard was established, which relates to road transport of products and materials (as opposed to the FSR, TSR is an adjustment program based on self-assessment), and now there are developed standards for air transport of goods. TSR defines the minimum acceptable safety standards in the supply chain, which is used in road transport and related operations, including the methods to be used to maintain these standards. TAPA gives one of the three categories of certificates, the most highly valued certificate is the A one. It is awarded for the carriage of the most valuable commodities. Achieving it is determined by meeting several criteria, among others: security and access control for warehouses and offices, security procedures for facilities and transportation and communication, as well as responsiveness. It is also worth noting that they are granted for a specific location, taking into account the specificities of each object from a security standpoint. Organizations in TAPA EMEA, with such certificates are, among others: Air France Cargo Security, DHL Logistics, DHL Express, Qatar Airways Cargo, Schenker SA, Swedish Post, Swiss Post and Skyline Express Intl. GHMB. Among the manufacturers of products in the "high risk of theft," using the services of the TAPA members are e.g..: Apple Computer Limited, Fujitsu Siemens Computers, Hewlett Packard Co., Motorola, Nike, Samsung and Nokia Corp. The benefits of having TAPA certification include79:
78
http://www.iso.org.pl/tapa, 04.01.2014.
reduction of losses by 40%;
the credibility of the logistics company as a partner that meets the highest criteria for safety of goods during transport and storage and ensuring their integrity;
the opportunity to compete in the international logistics market;
the possibility to use the event database information system, which allows for more effective prevention of incidents (threats) at the local, national and international levels.
5.8. ISPS International Ship and Port Facility Security Code ISPS - sets the framework for cooperation between the ship and the port facility, aimed at the detection and prevention of activities, which may pose a security risk. ISPS Code and Port Facility Security concerns80:
all passenger ships;
cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and above;
mobile drilling units;
port areas that support these units in international traffic. ISPS Code is based on the principle that protective measures should be proportionate to
the risk posed to the ship and the environment in case of a terrorist attack. Ship management company, under the ISPS Code is required to develop a "Protection Plan" for each of them, on the basis of risk analysis. This plan must be approved by the administration of the state whose flag the ship carries. In practice, the state may have a legitimate agency. This plan must include, among others81:
a description of measures preventing bringing weapons and other dangerous agents on the ship;
identifying restricted areas and call for measures to prevent unauthorized access;
measures to prevent the entry of unauthorized persons to the ship;
procedures for responding to security threats of the ship;
operating procedures under different levels of protection;
identifying persons responsible for compliance with the plan (security officer in the company, the ship security officer);
procedures to ensure the readiness of the ship and crew to deal with the security threat (crew training, maintenance of equipment).
79
http://www.agm-konsulting.pl/tapa-fsr,02.04.2014. http://pl.glosbe.com/pl/fr/Mi%C4%99dzynarodowy%20Kodeks%, 02.04.2014. 81 Cf. http://www.innowrota.pl/sites/default/files/images/M.Forkiewicz_2.pdf, 01.04.2014. 80
Ship security plan is a confidential document. ISPS: allows the detection and prevention of threats to international cooperation, establishes roles and responsibilities, enables the collection and exchange of information related to the protection, provides the estimation methods for safety, provides adequate protection standards. It requires the ship's crew and port personnel to82:
collect and evaluate information obtained, implement and maintain communication standards;
prevent unauthorized access, bringing weapons etc.; start emergency procedures;
develop a plan to protect the ship and the port facility and confirm conducting training and exercises. The Code distinguishes 3 levels of risk83:
the first corresponds to the normal conditions, when standard procedures are sufficient to ensure protection;
in the event of a second threat level, additional measures should be implemented. (level 2 should last for a limited time, until the threat is resolved, or until measures are taken to reduce them, for example in Gdansk level 2 is valid during the visits of large cruise ships and can also be placed on the ship for the duration of the journey through a region threatened by piracy or in connection with the signals of escalation of terrorist activities in the area);
level 3 is established in case of the expected security risk (for example, one receives a message about the planned assassination, bombing or combat). 5.9. ACI Advanced Cargo Information The Advanced Cargo Information system, ACI is84:
data on the logistic unit (i.e. the ship - its name, travel number, unloading port, destination, cargo - name of the product, number of pieces, weight, exporter and importer
the names, addresses, container - the number, their type, the bill of lading number) in electronic form which are made available well in advance in relation to the time of delivery of goods to the country of import;
82
Cf. http://www.lr.org.pl/index.php?page=uslugi_morskie, 20.01.2014. Cf. http://www.imo.org/ourwork/security/instruments/pages/ispscode.aspx, 05.01.2014. 84 Cf. http://www.sgs.pl/pl-PL/Logistics/Transportation/Marine/Advance-Cargo-Information, 02.04.2014. 83
providing current data to authorized parties at any location via a web application;
timely support for documentation of import/export, as well as detailed monitoring of the flow of imported/exported goods.
ACI is not the responsibility of exporters or importers, but is strictly based on the data that the exporter declares the bill of lading/sea waybill. The information contained in the bill of lading must be identical to those that the owner/shipper will give the ACI. In case of different and erroneous data provided by the exporter, any problems/costs that occur in Canada or the USA, the import clearance will be assigned to the exporter. Therefore, when shipments are sent to these countries, exporters should pay particular attention to the declared values, for example: the number of units of goods, gross weight, and proven logistics operators need to be chosen to implement transportation of their shipments85. In practice, the ACI, on the example of Canada, has been implemented in three phases. The first one - entered enforced on 19 April 2004. The data on logistics board cargo in maritime transport are transferred to the Canada Border Services Agency CBSA no later than 24 hours before loading the goods. At the same time, the same information is transmitted to Customs officials to all ports in Canada. Any irregularities are detected by the systems/assemblies having wireless access to the database. In addition, the ports were equipped with sensors to detect dangerous levels of radiation in cargo. The second one - the implementation of ACI in air transport in Canada. This phase came into force in July 2006. The third one - is broadcast of data for other carriers of road and rail transport. The benefits of ACI include86:
transmission of information on-line, via SMS and e-mail to the users of the system - the physical flow of documents is eliminated;
easier management of information - data can be imported directly in real time, and the forms completed and submitted online;
continuous access to information 24 hours a day;
low maintenance costs. The ACI requires carriers to, transmit the information electronically 24 hours before the
goods are loaded in a foreign port (except for Canada and USA). For goods loaded in the USA (Canada) ,supplementary reports must be submitted 24 hours before the arrival of the ship at the first port in Canada (USA). 85 86
Por. http://www.opensped.pl/eksport/aci, 17.01.2014. http://www.sgs.pl/pl-pl/Construction/Services-Related-to-Supply-Chain, 04.04.2014.
5.10. Food safety In order to ensure the safety of products supplied to the market, the European Parliament and the Council on 28 February 2002 issued a regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety. The Regulation specifies the general principles governing food and feed in the level of the Member States and the EU. The meaning of the provisions of this Regulation, "food" (or "food product") means any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended for human consumption or which human consumption can be expected. In order to ensure food safety, the regulation requires the inclusion of all participants in the chain of food production from primary production87 and the production of animal feed, up to the sale or supply of food to the consumer. In practice, to identify all stages of food-related (primary production, storage, transport, sale) and feed (import, production, manufacture, storage, transport, distribution, sale and supply). The implementation of all procedures in matters of food safety is possible if there is an efficient and effective system of monitoring, which includes88:
traceability of food, feed, animals and any other substance intended to be incorporated into a food or feed, or which may be added at all stages of production, processing and distribution;
identification by the companies working on the food and feed market, any person who supplied them with the food, feed, breeding animal or substance intended to be incorporated into a food or feed, or which may be added (to do so, such operators shall have systems and procedures to enable the transfer of such information to the competent authorities);
systems and procedures to identify companies to whom the products have been delivered by the operators working on the food and feed market;
unambiguous identification systems (labels, markings) of food or feed facilitate its traceability, through relevant documentation or information in accordance with the relevant requirements of more specific provisions.
87
Primary production - means the production, rearing or growing of primary products including harvesting, milking and farmed animal production prior to slaughter (that also includes hunting and fishing and the harvesting of wild products), according to the Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety, art. 3. 88 Ibid., art. 18.
Implementation of the EU Regulations 178/2002 would not be possible without:
an early warning system for the notification of a direct or indirect risk to human health deriving from food or feed;
risk assessment (which means a scientifically based process consisting of four steps: hazard identification, hazard characterization, assessment, and risk characterization) and management;
managing the crisis caused by the threats that we can define as a biological, chemical or physical factor in food or feed, or condition of, food or feed, which can cause adverse health effects.
5.11. Authorized Economic Operator AEO AEO (Authorised Economic Operator) is an institution of the Community Customs Code, which was introduced into the legal order of the European Union on 1 January 2008. Its objective is creating a secure supply chain and fight against terrorism. Authorised Economic Operator is an institution that relates to all entities that are concerned with trade in goods with non-EU countries which include to manufacturers, leading custom establishments, carriers, shippers, importers, exporters or customs agencies. Standards that relate to the areas covered by the AEO are: ISO 28000: 2007 Safety management in the supply chain, ISO / IEC 27001: 2005 Information Security Management Systems, ISO 9001: 2009 quality management systems89. AEO status is nothing but a recognition of the trader as an Authorized Economic Operator, i.e. a privileged entity which has a number of facilities when making business transactions with foreign countries. The authorized economic operator (AEO) – means a businessman holding one of the certificates: AEO C - the simplification of customs; AEO S - safety and security; AEO F Customs Simplifications/Security and Safety. The AEO status is granted in one EU Member State is recognized throughout the community. The AEO certificate provides assurance of compliance with community law when making international transactions90. The holder of an AEO certificate depending on the status of the use of the following facilities91: 89
will undergo less physical and document check than other entrepreneurs;
http://www.icwroclaw.pl/AEO/Wytyczne, 04.04.2014. http://www.krakow.ic.gov.pl/index.php/aeo-i-uproszczenia, 20.10.2013. 91 Ibid. 90
if selected to border control the check is carried out as a priority;
entitlement to being noticed about the designation shipment inspection;
entitlement to a shortened summary declaration with a limited range of security data;
the possibility of applying for an inspection at a place other than the customs office;
the ability to refrain from demanding a security deposit, when the customs legislation
provides for the optional submission, e.g. in the case of economical customs procedures;
priority handling of all requests: for licenses, certificates, correction of customs declarations, filed by or on behalf of holders of AEO;
sharing information about the changes of customs regulations, instructions, etc. e.g. in the form of newsletters sent to persons to persons designated for contact with the customs authorities, to their e-mail;
the possibility of recognition of the status by third countries. Regardless of the above-mentioned benefits, directly resulting from the law, one can
mention a range of indirect benefits to which we include92:
recognition of AEO status in all Member States of the European Community;
recognition of AEO status by third countries on the basis of concluded agreements on mutual recognition of administrative security programs;
priority support for all applications submitted by AEOs;
the creation by the customs authorities, in the framework of technical capabilities, special service areas for AEO - separate lanes;
no request of financial safety deposit, when it is optional, from customs authorities.
5.12. ISO / IEC 27001 - Information Security Management Systems In a knowledge-based economy, information is the same resource as matter and energy, as it has a real value, which contributes to the increase of added value. Due to the importance and significance, the concept is exposed to distortion, destruction, theft or loss, just as every other material would be. With the appearance of new technologies there are new threats, such as:
Viruses on computers (on disks, files, scripts) and mobile phones;
Spyware (these programs collect information about an entity and send them often without the knowledge and consent of the user to the author of the program; the information includes e.g. websites visited by the user, personal data, credit card numbers, identity data, user’s areas of interest etc.);
92
http://dokt.p.lodz.pl/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Certyfikaty-AEO.pdf, 04.01.2014.
hacker intrusion;
theft of credit card numbers;
stealing logins and passwords;
industrial espionage, which could expose the institution to the loss of competitiveness, reputation and large financial losses. Numerous examples made public indicate that increasingly often we are dealing with
the loss or violation of information security in enterprises, and therefore there is a need to create a system that will protect any kind of data from a wide range of threats in order to ensure business continuity, minimize business risk and maximize return on investment and business opportunities. Information security is achieved by implementing appropriate security system, including policies, processes, procedures, organizational structure, functions, software and hardware. These safeguards must be established, implemented, monitored, reviewed and improved, if necessary, to ensure that security and business objectives of the organization are met. This should, which is extremely important, be done in conjunction with other business management processes. In practice safe information means that must be met three essential security attributes93:
confidentiality - that is, ensuring that information is accessible only to persons authorized to access them;
integrity - that is, to guarantee the accuracy and completeness of information and processing methods;
Availability - to provide authorized users access to information and related resources, in accordance with specific needs
Security of information in networks and ICT systems depend on the efficiency and effectiveness of the created system, which includes94:
creating security policies for network, computer systems;
creating rules for access to resources;
the creation of standards and safety precautions, good safety practices;
developing procedures for the analysis of security risks;
creating response procedures and documentation of security incidents;
identification of classes of computer security;
93 94
http://www.iso.org.pl/iso-27001, 24.04.2013. Cf. http://www.math.uni.opole.pl/~zlipinski/bti/BTI-wyklad-01-Bezpieczenstwo, 31.03,2014.
monitoring of security status and transmitted data;
specifying tools for security analysis;
updating operating systems and applications;
defining authentication mechanisms, services and users. There are many legal regulations, which allow one to create a secure information
management system. They include, among others, the international standard ISO 2700, which specifies requirements for the establishment, implementation, operation, monitoring, review, maintenance and improvement of Information Security Management System. It was announced in 2005 based on the British standard BS 7799-2. In Poland, the ISO / IEC 27001 was published in 2000 as ISO / IEC 27001: 2007. This standard is based on the process approach and uses a model of "Plan - Make Check - Act" (PDCA i.e. Plan - Do - Check - Act), which is used for the entire structure of the ISMS processes. One needs to pay attention to the normative Annex A of this standard, containing the required collateral divided into 11 areas95:
A.5 - security policy;
A.6 - organization of information security;
A.7 - asset management;
A.8 - the safety of human resources;
A.9 B - Physical and environmental security;
A.10 - systems and network management;
A.11 - access control;
A.12 - acquisition, development and maintenance of information systems;
A.13 - management of security incidents information;
A.14 - business continuity management;
A.15 - compliance. An organization that wants to properly protect its information should follow a systemic
approach, within which will manage complex information assets held, facilities for the processing and risks concerning information security. Currently the best solution is the standard Information Security Management System.
95
http://www.centrum.bezpieczenstwa.pl/index.php/standardy-othermenu-16/55-iso-27001, 29.03.2014.
6 Supply Chain Security 6.1. The supply chain as a logistic system In the literature, there is no single definition of the supply chain. There are many reasons for that, including a lack of a single definition of logistics, the logistics system and the presence of supply chain synonyms such as logistics channel, chain / logistics channels, distribution chains, and so on. The name most commonly used, to which many separate publications96 are devoted, is supply chain. The nature and importance of the supply chain are reflected in the contents of the definitions. Here are some of them:
The supply chain is a network of manufacturers and service providers who work together in order to process and transfer of goods - from the stage of raw material to the end-user level. All of these entities are combined by the flow of physical goods, information flow and cash flow97.
Supply Chain - as a process - a sequence of events in the movement of goods, increasing their value98.
Supply Chain - as a structure - a group of companies implementing joint actions necessary to meet the demand for certain products in the whole chain movement of goods - from extraction of raw materials, supplies, to the final recipient. These actions may include: development, production, sales, service, supply, distribution, management, support activities99.
A supply chain is a network of organizations involved, by linking with suppliers and customers, in a variety of processes and activities that create value in the form of products and services delivered to final consumers100.
The supply chain is a network of interrelated and interdependent organizations that work on a cooperative basis, jointly control, direct and facilitate the flow of material and information from suppliers to end users101.
96
See. E. Gołembska, Logistyka jako zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, AE, Poznan 2002; J. Witkowski, Zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, PWE, Warsaw 2003; Zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, Materials from international conference, Logistics 1998, Biblioteka Logistyka, Poznan 1998. 97 C. B. Bozarth, R.B. Introduction to Operations and Supply Chain Management, Helion, Gliwice 2007, p. 30. 98 Słownik terminologii logistycznej, M. Fertsch (ed.), ILiM, Poznan 2006, p. 95. 99 Ibid, p. 95. 100 M. Christopher, Logistyka i zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, Polskie Centrum Doradztwa Logistycznego, Warsaw 2000, p. 14 101 Ibid, p. 17.
The supply chain are companies cooperating in the various functional areas of mining, manufacturing, trade and service, and their customers, between whom the stream of products, information, and funds flow102.
The supply chain is the physical network, which begins with the supplier and ends with the final customer. It includes aspects related to product development, purchasing, production, physical distribution and pre-sales services, as well as deliveries carried out by external providers103. The analysis of the content of the literature and definitions, from the point of view of
value added to the product / service entitles one to a range of assessments and demands104: Firstly. In the supply chain, the entities are connected through the physical movement of goods and the transfer of information and funds. An example might be a company that sells such goods. Gallery of Lodz, sells the latest generation of computers in various configurations and prices. Although the company does not manufacture computers, but only trades them, it provides a valuable service to its customers by offering them a convenient location and a wide range of products. This, this shop is just one of the links in the supply chain, which includes a number of the following economic systems:
manufacturers of integrated circuits, power supplies, cables, batteries, cases;
companies constructing those computers from parts;
enterprises creating software;
transport companies;
wholesalers, virtual companies, distributors;
service;
institutions involved in the disposal of end-of-use computers;
companies which enable transmitting information using modern information technology;
financial sector (supporting money transfers, loans, taxes, etc.).
securing the enterprise core processes such as security, cleaning, etc.. Second. The supply chain is a network of companies created to develop a new
product, share resources, achieve economies of scale, reduce costs, increase competitiveness etc. These networks are divided into horizontal and vertical ones. The first are a network created by the producers of similar or identical goods. The latter are a collection of linked companies in the "supplier - customer" relation. 102
J. Witkowski, Zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, PWE, Warsaw 2003, p. 17. http://www.biznesowe.edu.pl/94-lancuch_dostaw/, 09.08.2013. 104 Conclusions developed on the basis of source materials listed above. 103
Third. Supply chain management is not synonymous with "vertical integration". Vertical integration usually involves taking the entire ownership of vertical suppliers and distributors. Until recently, this was considered a desirable strategy, but now more and more companies focus on their "core skills", i.e. those spheres of activity that they perform best and which distinguish them from their competitors. Other activities are outsourced to outside companies. Fourth. The subject structure of the supply chain are composed of mining, processing, trade and services companies that perform various tasks on the way from raw material extraction to final customers. Fifth. The supply chain is a fast and flexible system related and driven by customers' selection mechanism, which aims to achieve the highest satisfaction and profit of the companies that form the chain. Sixth. Integrating and coordinating logistics systems of companies are considered today to be the essence of modern logistics management. The main factors influencing the direction and dynamics of changes in the logistics field are growing needs and requirements of the client. It is these requirements that are the most important influence on a new way of supply chain management. Seventh. The supply chain can be described, pointing to such features as: a process (the subject of flow), structure (economic structure), goals - functional scope and areas of cooperation between the parties involved. Eighth. The material scope of the logistics chain consists of raw materials, auxiliary materials and cooperating components purchased on the supply market according to the demand and directed to the production process and finished goods transferred to be sold105. Ninth. Depending on the configuration of the chain its links can be various types of mining companies, processors, service and commercial companies. Their place along the supply chain was taken due to the division of labor in the subsequent stages of production and sale of products. Due to their role as senders and receivers of cargo and associated streams of information - their primary financial role in the functioning of supply chains is substantial. Other important links of supply chains are also the service functions of companies, among which are106:
logistic companies and freight forwarding;
brokerage firms dealing only through information;
105 106
M. Sołtysik, Zarządzanie logistyczne, Akademia Ekonomiczna, Katowice, 2000, pp. 27-30. J. Witkowski, Zarządzanie łańcuchem… op. cit., p.12.
disposal and storage of waste facilities. Tenth. The supply chain will function effectively if modern management tools are
applied within it. One of them is SCOR (Supply-Chain Operations-Reference Model), which is a response to the growing complexity of the business environment and the challenges associated with holistic approach to management. SCOR is a tool for designing and analyzing supply chain, a combination of industryleading software for modeling business processes developed by the SCC107. This combination allows companies to efficiently design, evaluate and improve processes within the supply chain, based on the standards of SCC. SCOR has an built-in definitions of processes, best practices and metrics in the planning, procurement, preparation, delivery and core processes. The area of property functions of the reference model is very broad because it covers the planning, supply, manufacture, distribution, servicing phrases. The complexity of the system is further enhanced by the fact that it supports a number of cooperative organizations at the same time taking into account the data and procedures of handling customer relations. Model in the most general form is108: M = {Plan, {Acquire, Create, Deliver}, {Acquire, Create, Deliver}, {....}} The benefits arising from the use of SCOR include109:
ease of defining and documentation of existing processes and evaluating a range of scenarios of the future supply chain before implementing the preferred solution;
the use of predefined and standardized elements of SCOR to identify bottlenecks, weak points, and areas of the supply chain, which can be improved;
comparison of existing processes within the supply chain with the best practices and measure the effectiveness of these processes based on those based on the SCOR model;
multiple use of predefined metrics associated with the work related aspects such as: reliability, responsiveness, flexibility, cost and resources.
6.2. Threats to supply chain functioning Each operation in the supply chain both in planning and real life is inherently uncertain, which is due to the possibility that dangers (threats) or interferences might occur. 107
SCC Supply-Chain Council - organization founded in 1966 as standardization body for supply support systems. 108 Cf. Z. J Klonowski, Systemy informatyczne zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, modele rozwoju i własności funkcjonalne, PW, Wrocław 2004, p. 114. 109 http://www.aris.com/pl/ARIS/Modele_referencyjne_ARIS_/SCOR/87173.html, 28.08.2013.
A threat to supply security is understood as any action (phenomenon, event) that hinders the achievement of logistics processes, which include: the flow of material goods, maintaining inventory, infrastructure, logistics flow, logistics costs and the flow of information. These types of events can occur individually or can be combined, creating a hazardous situation from a business perspective, the economic system and all participants in the supply chain. Threats can be directed outward and inward, and the activities for their disposal should be directed the same. Threats are constantly changing, and so does the knowledge about them. New threats and the unknown ones - are dangerous. The already-existing and known ones pose less danger, as we are able to prevent them. Some threats are moving away from us, the other get closer and become inevitable, while others are avoidable [Tyrała 2003, p. 20]. Threats supply chain security have been characterized in the 1.2 subsection. The presented division shows a broad spectrum of interference and multifaceted adverse effects that may occur in the operation of supply chain processes. From the point of view of functions and levels of management, an interference can result from:
incorrect assumptions in strategic planning, incorrect assessment of strategic options, including: internal strategic decisions, such as purchasing, transportation, marketing, outsourcing and business development;
loss of reputation and social responsibility through events that cause long-term criticism from the government or from the international media (i.e. the affair with salt in 2012, the E. coli bacteria and sprouts in 2011);
inadequate or faulty internal processes, wrongly applied technologies of production, storage and distribution activities of employees, improperly functioning processes;
external actions of customers, suppliers, competitors, new players on the market, substitute services as well as from changes in the external surroundings (political, macroeconomic, social, technological, legal);
relationships with stakeholders resulting from improper organizational structure of the system of t authority and responsibility delegation, and the lack or improper rules of conduct among employees and managers of organizational units; incompatibility with generally applicable law, internal regulations and contractual obligations (an example could be the standardization in the traceability of the product);
physical security of assets and people (i.e. fires, accidents (also fatal), thefts);
improper resource mismanagement, outdated and obsolete IT technology, lack of cohesion in the ICT strategy, disruption of the ICT infrastructure;
financial transactions and requirements in terms of accounting and reporting (i.e. logistic costs, excessive expansion of logistics infrastructure, sanctions and other operating restrictions imposed by the regulatory body having a significant impact on its operations and/or very significant costs to ensure compliance of the regulations, for example, in the field of transport functions).
the functioning of the natural environment - permanent, serious damage to the environment; loss of commercial usability, recreational or conservation resulting in large financial consequences for the members of the supply chain.
6.3. Business continuity management in the supply chain In a dynamically changing environment of supply chain functioning, it becomes essential that the continuity of the goods and flow is preserved during crisis situations. Creating business continuity plans allows to avoid the problems associated with the provision of the primary logistics task, i.e. utility of space and time; thus, it is possible to deliver the products to where the current demand occurs in line with the just-in-time concept. By using the knowledge of the risks and their consequences, the supply chains are able to coordinate such actions to adapt to customers' orders in accordance with the principle of 4R (right place, quantity, time and quality), and thus ensure the continuity of logistics processes. Standards are helpful tools used to ensure the supply chain continuity, among other standards, which are listed and described in Chapter 5 The analysis of these standards and similar instruments of business continuity maintenance allows for several conclusions. The first one. Business continuity management in the supply chain concerns all links in the supply chain, both the upper and lower part. The participants are all entities that constitute the physical network of manufacturers and service providers working together to process and transfer goods - from the stage of raw material to the end-user level. It includes aspects related to product development, purchasing, production, physical distribution and after-sales services, as well as deliveries carried out by external providers. The second one. The purpose of business continuity management processes implemented in the supply chain are:
maintenance of collision free fluent flow of the stream of goods and associated property information;
quick and effective response to emerging issues or interference, in order to adapt to changes in the needs and expectations of customers. The third one. Key tasks performed within the framework of business continuity
management operations can be conventionally divided into the four periods. The tasks in the first period include:
hazard identification - after describing the specifics of the supply chain and its surrounding, one may specify the possible adverse events that may disrupt logistics processes implemented in the supply chain. (they may take place, for instance, on the suppliers side in the upper part of the supply chain, or be related to consumers, transport companies and logistics centers);
hazard risk analysis – done to determine the probability of failure of goal achievement and assess the size of losses, that are born in consequence of this failure (scale calibration), as well as to find out what and who will be impacted (which logistic processes and supply chain members);
the formulation of variables – the identification of possible cases (e.g. getting a back-up supplier or market), analysis of expenses and costs related to those different options, assigning an “owner" to each variant.
continuous monitoring of the phenomena that could pose a danger, such as: the behavior of market suppliers, the evaluation of credibility and market position of contractors, the condition of transport companies, fuel prices in global markets (this works like a system of smoke detectors in a fire alarm system, or as motion detectors in an anti-burglar system);
systematic reporting - the most common reporting formats are: the popular pdf files, html or MS Excel, Word, Access, and along with their graphics functions. They are used for filtering and sorting risks, their owners and endangered links of the supply chain, or company assets;
preparation of appropriate legal regulations (i.e. signing preliminary agreements with potential suppliers and customers and transport companies outside one’s country);
securing any additional financial expenditure in the budget (i.e. insurance and outsideinsurance activities - periodic savings on personnel costs, education programs, loans, sale of assets, deferment of payment basis on agreements);
identifying priorities and time frames for all logistics processes and the supply chain in the event of threats - prioritizing threat areas, making hazard classifications and calibrations
of scale (e.g. we resign from domestic transport companies in favor of foreign ones, give up individual deliveries in favor of centralized purchases under group of companies);
universal education in the field of risk prevention in all entities involved in the implementation of logistics tasks. Tasks performed in group I refer to actions that eliminate or reduce the likelihood of
risks that affect the business results achieved in the supply chain. Group II includes ventures in which the key element is the development of emergency response plans (based on the selection of possible variants developed in the I period), which describe the who, what and when you will be done, by what means and forces, and on what legal basis (before, during, and immediately after the crisis event). The activities in this area can include:
developing an emergency response plan (concerning, inter alia, actions such as purchasing, distribution, transport);
the creation of organizational, technical and financially efficient crisis management throughout the supply chain;
the organization of communication systems and monitoring (i.e. performance of suppliers, internal customers, buyers, compliance to agreements CSI, C-TAPT ACI);
creating conditions for survival in emergency situations (i.e. supply of materials, water, energy, lack of raw materials, buyers);
creating a database that would provide forecasts, simulations and visualizations of risks potentially resulting in the emergence of crises, risk analysis (more and more often management support computer applications such as “Risk-Register” being used for management of risk potentially resulting in crisis situation. The NOWECO companies support as many as four different techniques of risk prevention: minimizing the probability, insurance and outside-insurance transfer, emergency response, Business Recovery;
training and development of elements of the supply chain in emergency situations. Group III includes activities that happen after the real threat or event occurred. Their
purpose is to:
launch a full set of work groups both permanent and temporary, responsible for reacting to such threats, e.g. in the areas of: suppliers, buyers, storage, defective products, or contaminated food;
launch preventive measures to minimize the possibility of losses, for example. prompt information to the distribution department, logistics distribution center, wholesaler - so that they might pause the send-out, or start transport and delivery withdrawal of defective (contaminated) products;
initiation of appropriate procedures, depending on the type of risk involved, including redirecting appropriate resources towards reduction measures, e.g. deficiency of components for production can be prevented by the use of back-up suppliers, or the use of safety stock, stored within the group, in order to continue production despite of loss of the cargo that contained parts;
regularly updating the database system that enables ongoing monitoring of risks along the supply chain, remembering that interference may grow or decrease over time and can be uneven;
coordinating and directing the crisis-related activities until the risk causes perish;
keeping relevant documentation up to date. The 3rd period requires:
good, reliable information, possessed by all links in the supply chain;
monitoring of events, record-keeping and drawing appropriate conclusions;
keeping documentation;
avoiding hasty actions that were not consulted with other members in the supply chain;
forecasting the development of events along the supply chain;
predicting the consequences of their decisions; The 4th period is the final phase of the disaster management cycle. The
reconstruction is continued until all the logistics systems will return to the same or better state than before. Reconstruction is divided into short-term and long-term one. The short-term one is about restoration of the systems necessary for life and for the minimum of operating standards. The long-term reconstruction may take many years to complete in the entire affected area. At the same time, it should be implemented in a new way, so that the system affected by the crisis events would be less sensitive to subsequent unplanned situations. The tasks of this phase include110:
assessment of the damage and losss – in total and participants;
110
Cf. http://www.sedziszow.pl/?c=mdTresc-cmPokaz-258, 06.02.2013.
for each of the supply chain
launching individual and collective programs for victims of the crisis events, while remembering the increasingly more used partnership principle, that not only the profits, but also losses should be shared;
restoration and replenishment of resources and the restoration of logistics systems to the state as before the crisis;
preparation of analysis and reports on the measures included in the plans. The fourth one. Supply chain security should be adapted to the potential hazards and
the desired level of security that it requires. Thus, the quantity and quality of resources needed to provide the desired level of security, their organization and the conduct of activities (or rather processes), after the liberation from the threat (of an event) depends on its course, phase, type and scale and also forecasting the possibility of other threats types to arise. The fifth one. One of the conditions for effective and efficient business continuity management in the supply chain is to establish measurable objectives and assess their achievement (organizations should: define what should be monitored and measured, define the methods used for monitoring, measurement, analysis and evaluation, and indicate when measurements are to be made and also when will be analyzed). The sixth one. Ensuring the supply chains protection against unplanned adverse actions is possible, provided that all the participants will be involved in that process. This will involves, among other things: small and medium-sized, large importing and exporting companies, as well as air, maritime, land (rail and road) carriers, airmail consolidating companies, sea and land transport brokers, ports and terminals, customs brokers. The seventh one. Management efficiency largely depends on the information system. It should provide:
transmission of information in real time (physical flow of documents is eliminated in favor of EDI - Electronic Data Interchange);
easy and simple management of information - data can be retrieved in a convenient form, directly on-line, and forms in an electronic version completed and submitted in real time;
continuous access to information 24 hours a day throughout the month and year;
low maintenance cost of the computer system.
7. Security Considerations for external transport 7.1. Organization of transport of hazardous materials Transport of dangerous goods111 is standardized by laws, rules and regulations, which take into account the requirements of international law. In Poland, these documents are:
The Act of 19 August 2011 on the transport of dangerous goods; the implementation of Directive 2008/68 / EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 September 2008 on the inland transport of dangerous goods by the European Commission Directive 2010/61 / EU of 2 September 2010 adapting for the first time scientific and technical progress the Annexes to Directive 2008/68 / EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the inland transport of dangerous goods Directive 2010/35 / EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 June 2010 concerning pressure equipment;
ADR (fr. L 'Accord européen relatif au transport international des marchandises Dangereuses par Route) - European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), concluded in Geneva on 30 September 1957. (Journal of Laws of 2011. No 110, pos. 641), as amended, applicable from the date of entry into force for the Republic of Poland, published accordingly;
RID (fr. Reglement concernant le transport des Internationale ferroviaire marchandises Dangereuses) - Regulations concerning International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail (RID), as Annex C to the Convention on International Carriage by Rail (COTIF), signed in Berne on 9 May 1980. (OJ in 2007. No. 100, item. 674 and 675, in 2009. No. 167, pos. 1318 and 2011. No. 137, item. 804 and 805), as amended, applicable from the date of their entry in force for the Republic of Poland, published accordingly;
ADN - European Agreement on the International Carriage of Goods by Inland Waterways of dangerous goods, concluded at Geneva on 26 May 2000. (Journal of Laws of 2010 no. 235, pos. 1537), as amended, applicable from the date of their entry into force in relation to the Republic of Poland, published accordingly;
IMDG Code, International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code - issued under the provisions of Part A of Chapter VII of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), published by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in London;
111
Dangerous goods - material or object which, according to ADR, RID or ADN is not approved, respectively, for the road transport, transport by rail or inland waterway transport or either is approved for such carriage under the conditions laid down in those provisions, according to the Act of August 19 2011 on carriage of dangerous goods.
IBC code - for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous chemicals in bulk;
IGC Code - concerns the construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk;
INF Code - concerns the safe carriage by sea of irradiated nuclear fuel, plutonium and high-level radioactive wastes in flasks. In aviation, all the conditions for the transport of hazardous materials are developed in
the ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) and IATA (International Air Transport Transport Association) and is contained in the ICAO Technical Instructions and IATA DGR112 regulations. In addition, Poland also has a valid Law on Aviation from 3 July 2002 and the Regulation of the Minister of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy of 13 July 2012 on the detailed conditions for the implementation of international flights with hazardous materials. Hazardous materials are classified into one of 13 classes. Each material has its own four-letter entry with the UN number (UN) and is assigned to one of three packing groups (PG) these four information (UN, name according to ADR, class and PG) is enough to identify any hazardous material. Class 1 - Explosives, which are divided into113: solid or liquid substances (or mixtures of materials) capable of producing a chemical reaction of gases at a temperature and pressure and at such a rate that may cause damage to the surrounding environment, pyrotechnic materials: substances or mixtures of substances designed to produce an effect by heat, light, sound, gas or smoke or a combination of these effects through nondetonating self-sustaining exothermic chemical reactions. Class 2 – gas; the gas classification includes pure gases, mixtures of gases, mixtures of one or more gases from one or more other materials and items containing such materials. The gases are materials that: at 50 ° C, have a vapor pressure greater than 300 kPa (3 bar); or are completely gaseous at 20 ° C under a pressure of 101.3 kPa. Substances and articles (except aerosols) of Class 2 shall be allocated to one of the following groups according to their hazardous properties: 112
DGR (Dangerous Goods Regulations) – regularions concerning the transport of dangerous goods. Cf. European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road ADR (OJ of 19 February 2009.). 113
A - suffocating, O - oxidizing F - flammable, T - poisonous, TF - toxic, flammable, TC - poisonous, corrosive, TO - toxic, oxidizing, TFC - toxic, flammable, corrosive, TOC - toxic, oxidizing, corrosive.
Class 3 - Flammable liquids and includes materials and items that: at 50 ° C have a vapor pressure of not more than 300 kPa (3 bar) and are not completely gaseous at 20 ° C and a pressure of 101.3 kPa and have a flash point of not higher than 61 ° C, liquids and molten solid substances with a flashpoint higher than 61 ° C which are carried or handed over for carriage whilst heated at temperatures equal to or higher than their flash point. Liquid desensitized explosives are materials which are dissolved or suspended in water or other liquid materials to form a homogeneous liquid mixture with a reduced explosive.
Class 4.1. - Flammable solids, self-reactive substances and solid desensitized explosives and belong to the following groups: flammable solids and objects, self-reactive substances, solid or liquid, solid desensitised explosives.
Class 4.2. - Pyrophoric materials and includes: pyrophoric materials, including mixtures and solutions (liquid or solid) which, in contact with air, even in small quantities, ignite within 5 minutes (from 4.2 grade materials. They are the most liable to spontaneous combustion) Self-heating substances and articles, together with mixtures and solutions, which are in contact with air, without energy supply, are liable to self-heating.
Class 4.3. - Substances which, in contact with water, flammable gases and includes materials which react with water, emit flammable gases which may form explosive mixtures with air, and articles containing such substances.
Class 5.1. - Oxidizing substances include materials which themselves are not necessarily combustible, may, however, by producing oxygen cause, or sustain combustibility of other material, and articles containing such substances.
Class 5.2. - Organic peroxides include organic peroxides and formulations.
Class 6.1. - Toxic substances includes materials which, from experience or from the perspective of animal studies, in a suitably small amounts are capable of, during a single or short-term exposure, causing damage to human health, or death due to inhalation, penetration of the skin or swallowing.
Class 6.2. - Infectious substances. They are known or are reasonably suspected to contain pathogens. Pathogens are defined as micro-organisms (including bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, fungi and parasites) or recombinant microorganisms (hybrids or mutants), which are known, or reasonably suspected, to cause infectious diseases in humans or animals. For the purposes of this class, viruses, microorganisms and contaminated objects they should be considered as materials of that class.
Class 7 - Radioactive materials: category I WHITE - delivery transport index114 (TI) = 0 and a maximum radiation level not greater than 0.005 mSv / h115; category II YELLOW - delivery transport index (TI) higher than 0 but not greater than 1 and a maximum radiation level higher than 0.005 mSv / h but not more than 0.5 mSv / h; category III YELLOW - delivery transport index (TI) of more than 1 but not greater than 10 and a maximum level of radiation.
Class 8 - Corrosive substances, which includes: substances themselves and articles that contain substances of this class which, by chemical action attack ethe pithelial tissue of the skin or mucous membranes, if they come in contact with it, as well as the material which in the event of leakage can damage or destroy other goods or agents in transport, and may also cause other hazards. The title of this class also includes materials which form a corrosive liquid only in the presence of water or which generate corrosive vapors or mist to the natural atmospheric moisture.
114
The transport index - a number used to control the exposure to radiation, according to: http://dsid.ipj.gov.pl/files/szkolenieOR2009, 22.09 2013. 115 Siwert (wym. [s-iwert]), the Sv symbol is a derivative of the SI, a unit of physical quantities relating to the action of ionizing radiation on living organisms: the equivalent dose, the effective dose, the burdening equivalent dose, the burdening effective dose. The name of entity is in honor of Rolf Maximilian Sievert..
Class 9 - Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles. These are substances and articles which, during carriage pose a threat other from that required by other classes, and are distributed as follows: M1 - materials that are inhaled as a fine dust, may endanger health; M2 - materials and devices which, in the event of fire, may form dioxins; M3 - materials that can emit flammable vapor; M4 - lithium batteries; M5 - rescue items; M6 - M8 - environmentally hazardous substances; M9 - M10 - high temperature materials; M11 - other materials that can be hazardous during transport, but not corresponding to the definitions of other classes. Dangerous goods transported by road ADR may be carried in tanks, loose or in bulk
packages116:
in packages - in e.g. packs (drums, boxes, bottles, cans, dishes, containers) or without packaging (batteries);
loose - directly in the tonneau of the vehicle, no additional packages;
in tanks - ie. large transport tank (tank has> 1000 L, demountable> 450 l). The carriage of dangerous goods by road can be done by a motor vehicle or
combination of vehicles, except a motorcycle, and a farm tractor with a trailer,however the combination of vehicles consisting of a tractor and trailer can carry only diesel fuel, oxidizing materials used as fertilizers or poisonous materials used as plant protection products, provided that the materials are transported in packages and the quantities that fall within the ADR agreement does not require the marking of the vehicle. The organization and supervision of the carriage of dangerous goods is the responsibility of the voivode. During the transportation of hazardous materials whose carriage according to CLP Regulation of the Minister of Transport dated 4 June 2007. Concerning dangerous goods transport by road which is notifiable should be reported to the commander of the provincial police and the provincial commander of the Fire Brigade. The application should state the following117:
116
A. Janczak, ADR w spedycji i magazynie, składowanie i przewóz materiałów niebezpiecznych, Zacharek, Warsaw 2010, p.12. 117 Regulation of the Minister of Transport dated 4 June 2007. Concerning dangerous goods transport by road which is subject to notification..
dangerous goods identification number and the name (in accordance with the ADR contract);
number of the class, packing group number, and if there is one, the division number and group letter
conformity (according to the ADR contract);
quantity of goods and the means of transport;
planned time and place of the departure;
planned route of the transport;
the name and place of residence or name and registered office address of the carrier, the shipper and consignee. The statement should be made118:
at least five days prior to the planned commencement of the shipment, if it begins in the same country;
by the national carrier of dangerous goods;
in the case when the transport is performed by a foreign carrier the notifyier is the shipper of dangerous goods;
if the transport begins abroad - a proper control of the Border Guard must be performed before authorizing entry to the territory of the Republic of Poland. During the transport of dangerous goods one should be aware of:
Vehicle marking plates - transport units carrying dangerous goods shall be marked with orange-colored plates. Vehicles carrying hazardous materials in bulk or in tanks should contain additional plates indicating the numbers of the threats.
The use of appropriate packaging, which should be: good quality and in good condition, constructed and closed so as to protect the contents from contamination and to prevent the release of the contents; made of materials which, in contact with the transported material will not result in hazardous reactions; resistant to forces encountered during transport operations; properly marked in accordance with the requirements of ADR.
Sending only carriages that meet the requirements of ADR, equipping the driver with required transport documents and additional documents (obligation of the sender).
118
M. Kopczewski, M. Tobolski, D. Pasek, Bezpieczeństwo w transporcie materiałów niebezpiecznych, [in:] Logistyka 2013/6, p. 305.
Checking whether the dangerous goods that are to be carried are authorized for transport in accordance with ADR and checking to see if the transport unit has all the relevant documents.
Checking to see whether the load is well packed and whether the vehicle is not excessively loaded and whether it is properly labeled, and the driver has the appropriate equipment (obligation of the carrier).
Checking whether the vehicle, the driver, the crew has: shiping document; written instructions for the vehicle crew; certificate of approval for the transport of dangerous goods; ADR certificate; authorized for carriage; fire extinguisher (2 kg + arising from the carrying capacity of the vehicle); a wedge to be placed under the wheels (at least One); two warning signs (triangles or cones); safety vest; flashlight; safety gloves; safety goggles. One of the most important tasks before the beginning of dangerous goods
transportation is to prepare the proper shipping documentation. The Republic of Poland and other countries of the European Union transport of hazardous materials requires the possession of the following documents: transport document, which contains basic information about the dangerous goods transported;
a written instruction for the driver;
ADR certificate (about the driver training);
the driver's identity card with a photo;
certificate giving the vehicle the right for the carriage of dangerous goods;
a copy of the special contract (if needed);
an authorization to transport certain explosive goods. Transport of dangerous goods requires the proper fulfillment of the bill of lading. This
document must contain the following information: identification number of the goods, the
numbered stickers for indication of carried substances of all classes (except classes 1 and 7), packing group, number and description of the pieces of the goods, the total amount of each hazardous material, the name and address of the consignee and broadcasters.
7.2. Organization of oversized transport Oversized transport - is the transportation, which specializes in the transport of cargo that exceeds allowable dimensions, oversize (length, width, height), and the pressure on the axis is greater than authorized. Oversized cargo includes:
long items, or goods whose length exceeds more than 1/3 or more than 2 m of the cargo area of the vehicle;
special charges, ie, all products that require ensuring specific conditions of carriage;
particularly heavy loads, of which the combined weight with the vehicle cause the vehicle load greater than 10 tonnes per axle. For example, they may include heavy equipment, parts of windmills, cranes, powerful
excavators, heavy howitzers, aircraft, crates. Transportation of oversized cargo can be carried out not only by land but also by public rail, sea, inland waterway and air. In road transport, the movement of goods uses car or trailer. This may be a tractor with a trailer or a car with a trailer or trailers. There is a number of limitations with regards to the dimensions of the vehicles, which causes ,when they are exceeded, the need to be dealt with with other considerations119.
Maximum weight of a loaded traffic set is regulated by specific rules of each country. In Europe, the maximum authorized mass of the loaded set ranges from 38 tons to 60 tons. According to the Polish regulations allowable gross weight of trucks shall not exceed 42 tons. However, the weight on individual truck axles can not be greater than 10 t. This also applies to the axis of the pulling vehicle. Maximum gross weight of the vehicle or combination of wehicles also depends on the number of axles and is: 16 tons for two-axle vehicle; 32 tons for a vehicle or a four axle-set; 40 ton foe vehicle, or a set of five-axis; 42 tonnes for vehicle or a six axis set.
119
http://www.pks-sa.com/wymiary-naczep.html, 25.07.2013.
Exceeding the maximum weight of a loaded set or exceeding the limit of the external dimensions even by 1 cm means that transport is treated as oversized. Detailed data show the following figures:
The maximum length of a set mounted in Europe is 18,75 m. Maximum length set with semi-trailer is 16.50 m. The length of a loaded trailer must not exceed 13.60 m, and contain up to 34 EURO pallets.
The maximum width of the trailer is 2,55 m.For isothermal vehicles it is 2.60 m (width of the load is 2,42 m). Exceeding the permissible external dimensions as much as 1 cm makes the transport is treated as oversized.
The maximum stack height is 4.00 m. Exceeding the maximum weight of a loaded set of traffic or the limit of the external dimensions (eg. Cargo width 2.70 m) by as little as 1cm makes the transport treated as oversized.
The height of the floor of a semi-trailer or truck and trailer, of a standard wheel size, is approx. 1.20 m. In road transport, the transport of oversizes cargo is done by structurally diverse
trailers. They can be divided into several groups120:
standard, three-axled, platform length of 13 m and height of 1.35-1.40 (from the ground level) without sides and covers: can be equipped with stanchions to secure the cargo; used for the transport of small dimensions cargo of elements weighing 24-25 tons, length 15 m, width 2.8 m, their variety are semi-retractable trailers, attaining a length of 21 m (by insertion of additional axles), which can be used for transporting long elements, that have similar other parameters;
long trailers with a greater number of axles and the possibility of extending up to 36-45 m; for their carriage three or four-axle tractors are used, and trailers themselves are reinforced and have additional independent steering axis; are used for the transport of long items, and their load capacity depends on the number of axles and reaches up to 40-50 t;
trailers with a lovered floor (0,75-1,05 m), three-axle, allowing the transport of different elements with a height of up to 3.5 m; Also in this group we find extensible trailers; low-floor-heavy semi-trailers, with from 4 to 8 axes, with hydraulic or pneumatic suspension; three-, four- or five-axle tractors are used to carry them; they may carry loads of up to 100t; a version of these semi-trailers carries vehicles (e.g. farming machinery),
120
J. Najder, Transport międzynarodowy, PWE, Warsaw 2012, p. 159.
which have steel, lower able items at the back, to allow wheeled vehicles to drive onto the board;
recessed multi-axle semi-trailers, where the height of middle part of the platform, hanging between the axes, varies between 0.3 and 0.6 m; their basic asset is the possibility to carry high loads, or those of highly concentrated weight;
semi-trailers for carrying containers, resembling the recessed ones, with the difference lying in the fact that instead of the floor they have two external logs, between which one may put a container; depending on the length and number of axes, these semi-trailers may carry loads of 25 to 80 tons in mass and length from 22 to 30m;
modular semi-trailers, consisting of modules of 2 to 4 axes, which may be joined freely, depending on the need; this way, one may construct semi-trailers of from 12 to 16 axes and carry loads of up to 200 tons in weight. The process of carrying a huge load needs to be organized perfectly. Carrying out such
undertaking, the company must choose the ideal transport route, the trail-and-tractor itself is also very important here. To this, adds the placing of particular elements and one of the most important things - the lashing design121. For such transport, adequate permissions are necessary, along with agreements made with the persons who manage the areas through which the transport is to be moving. According to the Regulation of the Minister of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy of 22 June 2012 on the authorization for the passage of oversize vehicles, authorization shall be granted as follows:
in category I, in case of exceeding permissible axle loads on these roads to 11.5 t, with the width, length, height and weight within the limit - by the manager of the given road (valid for a month, 6 months or 12 months),
in category II in case of exceeding of permissible width of not more than 3.50 m; the length, height, axle load and total weight not more than acceptable - by the governor (for 12 months);
in categories II, IV, V, VI with exceedance of the limit width by not more than 3.2, 3.40, or 4 m, and the length limit of not more than 15.0 m for a single vehicle, and not more than 23.0 m for a group of vehicles. 30 m for a group of vehicles with torsion axes, with exceedance of the height limit of no more than 4.30 m and axle load not exceeding the value established for the roads, with permissible single axle load of up to 11.5 t and the
121
24.07.2013.
http://www.forumsamochodowe.com/rodzaje-transportu/38179-transport-ponadnormatywny.html,
total mass not exceeded - by competent governor, competent head of the customs office, or General Director for National Roads and Motorways (for periods of 6, 12 or 24 months),
in category VII, with provided route details and data related to the vehicle, its size and mass with and without load - by competent manager of the given road (authorization may be single or for multiple use). Permissions in categories III and IV, at the entrance of an oversized vehicle onto the
territory of the Republic of Poland, may be issued by the head of the customs office, basing on an oral declaration from the applicant or a person authorized, on paying the fee for the license.
The condition of the vehicle route designation for an oversized vehicle is the technical condition of the road, meeting the following requirements122:
there are no fractures or landslides on the road,
the height of the gauge or road engineering object is at least 0.1 m higher than the
height of the vehicle and its cargo; in case of an engineering object, it applies to every point of the object in the passing area;
the width of the gauge or the road engineering object is at least 1m wider than the width of the vehicle with the cargo;
the assessment of the technical condition of the bridge girders or structure is carried out in accordance with the regulations on numbering and registration of public roads and bridges is equal to or greater than 3 (on a 0 to 5 scale). The authority competent to issue the permit specifies the conditions for the pass of an
oversized vehicle, basing on the following criteria:
date and hour of transit;
running speed;
traffic management;
protection of technical devices located in a lane;
ensuring traffic safety. When using transport of non-standard size and mass, one needs to remember to pilot
them while moving on a public road, with one or two specially prepared vehicles123. 122
Regulation of the Minister of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy of 22 June 2012. on the authorization for the passage of oversize vehicles. 123 Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure dated 26 April 2004 on piloting vehicles
A vehicle which exceeds at least one of the following values:
vehicle length - 23.00 m,
vehicle width - 3.20 m,
vehicle height - 4.50 m,
should be piloted by one vehicle. A vehicle which exceeds at least one of the following values:
vehicle length - 28.00 m,
width - 3.60 m,
height - 4.70 m;
vehicle weight - 60 t should be piloted by two vehicles, at the front and rear of the vehicle. The piloting vehicle should be equipped with124:
a board that would mark the piloting vehicle, saying: PILOT and the biggest width value of the vehicle piloted; the model form is annexed to the regulation;
two amber flashing lights visible from all sides of the vehicle at a distance of 150 m with
good air transparency, that would not dazzle other road users;
means of safe radio connection with piloted vehicles;
sound equipment Means of truck transport designed to carry oversized cargo may be divided into motor
and towed vehicles. A tractor is equipped to tow a semi-trailer such sets are universal. A tractor-trailer may carry various loads, depending on the semi-trailer type. An element responsible for linking these two parts of the set is a road saddle. Using this element allows to improve the manoeuvrability of the whole set, while maintaining safety during use. Another group of motor vehicles used for the transport of oversize cargo ballast are motor vehicles, also known as ballast tractors. It is a kind of ox truck with a strong frame and suspension, which has a ballast box. With appropriate ballast applied, it may carry trailers with particularly heavy loads, also used for transport on its own suspension125. For transportation of oversized cargo, the following semi-trailers are used: standard; for carrying logs; with lowered platform; 124
Ibid Z. Jóźwik, M. Kawa, Zastosowanie nowoczesnych rozwiązań logistycznych w transporcie ładunków ponadnormatywnych [win] Logistyka 4/2009, CD. 125
low heavy trailers; recessed trailers; for carrying tanks; module trailers. In rail transport the most important restriction is the vertical and horizontal loading gauge. The loading gauge is the maximum distance of two mutually perpendicular surfaces that is required by the carrier, of which one is led tangentially to the heads of the rails, and the other passes through the longitudinal axis of the track perpendicular to the cross-section of the surface of the delivered package, resting on a wagon standing on an empty horizontallyoriented track. Due to the gauge, rail transport cannot take the loads that are too high or wide. There are several kinds of loading gauge, classified in the regulations of the International Union of Railways (UIC). The loading gauge, otherwise known as profile or scale, of the European Rail wagons of the same track width - 1435 mm - is not unified. Polish Railways require the following parameters126: maximum height, measured from the head of the rail - 4650 mm; maximum width: 3150 mm. Approved for all lines of railway management, with the exception of the British railway, is the so-called international gauge with the following parameters: maximum height measured from the head of the rail: 4280 mm; maximum width: 3150 mm. Shipments with exceeded gauge, otherwise known as extraordinary shipments are things that due to their shape, size, weight or route of shipment need to be transported in a special way. In Poland, the company responsible for carrying extraordinary cargo is PKP CARGO SA, which accepts goods for transportation that cause special problems, due to: their shape, size or mass; the manner of loading, unloading, placement and security in the wagon; the use of means of transport; the transportation route. The manager is the one to decide if the delivery qualifies as extraordinary.
126
Cf. A. Salomon, Przewóz ładunków ponadgabarytowych transportem kolejowym w Polsce, [in:] scientific journals no. 67, AM, Gdynia 2010, pp. 56-70.
When preparing to organize transportation of oversized cargo by rail, most focus is put on the following factors127:
obtaining special permission to run a non-normative vehicle (in rail transport, such permit is issued by Zakład Przewozów Towarowych i Przeładunku PKP CARGO SA and applies, among others, the pass speed limit, the order to stop at particular places, the time of import realization);
making a project plan as to how to load and secure particular elements;
selection of appropriate transportation set;
checking the transport route for the conditions of excessively oversized cargo;
organization of removal of all road signs, removing catenary and signal]ling and raising the overhead rail traction - in case of cargo with significantly exceeded height, For carrying heavy or oversized loads by the sea means of transport, the sea port
infrastructure is the main and basic factor that determines the port handling capacity. When dealing with such type of cargo, the sea port infrastructure should be characterized by the following factors128
good port accessibility from the foreground;
possession of handling equipment with sufficient operating parameters (capacity to lift loads);
having deep and vast harbor pools at disposal, making it possible for specialist ships to dock, including the half-submerged ones (with very big and heavy loads);
possessing specialized cargo handling terminals, serving a specific group of goods;
having specialized personnel and handling proper equipment at one’s disposal. Inland waterway transportation is also used for cargo the parameters of which
exclude the possibility for these goods to be transported by rail or road at long distances. In Poland, transportation of this kind is realized on Odra, Vistula, Warta and Noteć. In Europe, the whole infrastructure of inland rivers and channels is being used. In shipping heavy and oversized loads using inland waterways means of transport, the main and basic factor is the harbor infrastructure. The hydro-technical objects, such as locks and weirs are of special significance. They determine the handling capacity for heavy and oversized loads.
127 128
Ibid. Ibid.
Each transport of oversized cargo requires drafting a transport plan, including the need to establish the following:
appropriate port or beachhead for loading the cargo;
handling technology (cranes, gantry or Ro Ro);
the feasibility of river transport, including water level, hydraulic structures (locks), clearance under bridges. In Poland, there are many companies which offer full transport service for oversized
cargo, including inland water transport. Among other things,, they offer129,130: service in river ports of such countries as: Poland, including: Swinoujście, Kostrzyń, Cigacice, smelter, Opole, Gliwice, Gdynia, Plock, Puławy, Czech Republic, among others: Neratovice, Melnik, Usti, Decin, Germany, including Dresden, Magdeburg, Essen, Dortmund, Bremen, Hamburg, Mannheim; Belgium, incl.: Antwerp, Gendawa; The Netherlands, incl.: Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Meppel, Groningen; France, incl. Nancy, Metz; and such places as: Linz, Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, Belgrade, Russe;
professional trans-shipment service with the use of cranes,
securing the cargo on the barge by a specialized team,
import and export documentation management service as regards transportation and customs;
insurance of cargo for the time of transportation;
cooperation with armatures from entire Europe,
which allows each time to select
appropriate barge on financial conditions most suitable for the client;
transportation of elements with extreme dimensions:
60 meters in length,
9 meters in width,
7 meters in height,
weight up to 1000 tons.
the freight barges on rivers throughout Europe;
129 130
http://www.bedmet.pl/pl/uslugi/transport-srodladowy, 24.07.2013. http://www.best-logistics.com/oferta/transport-srodladowy/, 24.07.2013.
loading and unloading in all river and sea ports; preparation of the cargo plan (arrangement of cargo on the vessel); stevedoring131 The means of air transport are regarded as least versatile of all. Currently there are not many units specialised for carriage of particular goods. Planes cannot carry bulk and halfbulk cargo, liquid or oversized loads or non-standard size containers. Because of this, goods most frequently carried by planes are general loads. It is best if they are transported in huge batches, in boxes, crates, containers or bags. Usually, the cargo is not transported loose, but consolidated in bigger package. Aircraft has loading capacity of 20 to 80 tons, depending on the plane construction and range. We distinguish narrow and wide beam aircraft. The biggest loading capacity characterizes the plains fitted with special equipment, such as rollers for loading and unloading. The handling devices are activated by the operator. Additionally, transportation aircraft carries formed consignment which can be placed in air containers or on special palettes. Inconveniences in air transport are related to the cargo dimensions: it cannot be too high, wide or long132. 7.3. Cargo security in land transport In transport, security depends, among other things, from the following:
compliance with the rules of placing the load on the means of transport;
selection of fastening type for transported cargo;
the quality of the lashing equipment;
the quality of additional equipment.
The rules of placing the cargo on the means of transport A poorly secured load is not only a danger to itself, but also to the road users and the entire environment on the transport route. In order to prevent such situations, while loading the cargo, one needs to follow the below principles133:
Before loading the cargo, one needs to check whether the loading platform, the axis and all the devices used for attaching the loads are in good condition and are fit for use:
131
Dunnage (from the German. Stauer) – activities carried out by a qualified longshoreman involved in the loading of general cargo ship, its deployment in the holds and unloading.. 132 http://www.poland-trade.com.pl/najwazniejsze-cechy-samolotow-transportowych, 27.07.2012. 133 European guidelines on good practice for securing cargo in road transport http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/topics/vehicles/cargo_securing_loads/index_pl.htm, 12.02.2014.
One needs to attach the load in a way that would prevent its movement due to vibrations, or fall from the vehicle/cause its rollover;
One needs to establish the most appropriate methods of securing the load, with the characteristics of the load in mind (locking with hooks, using couplings, using the block method, using simple stays, using stays with girdles on top or a combination of these techniques);
One needs to check if the solution meets the recommendations of the manufactures of the vehicle and the lashing equipment;
Make sure the fittings that secure the cargo are adequate to the conditions that might be encountered during the travel. Emergency braking, sudden turns to avoid an obstacle, bad road and weather conditions should be treated as normal elements of the journey. Fasteners must withstand them.
Each time the cargo is loaded / discharged or re-deployed, it must be checked for overload and / or improper weight distribution before departure. One needs to make sure hat the load is distributed in such a way that the center of gravity of the entire load is as close as possible to the longitudinal axis and as low as possible: heavier goods below, and lighter – higher up.
Whenever possible, the lashing of the load should be checked regularly during the travel. The first control should best be done after several kilometers, during a stopover in a secure place. Besides, the lashing should be checked after abrupt braking or other unexpected event on the way.
Always when possible, additional equipment should be used for lashing the load, e.g. nonslip mats, spacers, strips, slats etc.;
One should be careful not to damage the transported goods while lashing the load;
One needs to drive smoothly, i.e. adjust the speed to the road conditions to prevent fast turns and abrupt braking. When these instructions are followed, the forces exerted by the load will not be big and there should be no major problems on the way.
Ways of lashing the load in transport The continuous development of load lashing systems and techniques has imposed the need to standardize the measures of cargo protection. An example would be the PN-EN 12195-1-2010 standard, which provides methods of safe cargo protection (blocking, lashing or the combination of both) in road, rail, maritime and inland waterway transport, or its combinations.
Before loading the vehicle, one needs to check if the loading platform, the bodywork and all fastening devices are in good condition and suitable for use. It is recommended to check the following items.: Ensure that134:
the loading platform is clean and dry;
the platform is in good condition without any broken boards, protruding nails, or other objects
that may damage the fasteners or cargo;
the front wall is safe to use;
the cloak support frame is safe to use and not missing strips;
in case of containers or exchangeable bodies all swivel connectors and other accessories are suitable for use;
the fasteners are intact, clean and fit for use - note: one must pay special attention to the attachment points where one may see signs of wear and corrosion;
the vehicle has sufficient number of anchorages to attach the load. The load needs to be so located and fixed that it would not move, even during hard
braking or rapid avoidance of an obstacle. One needs to remember that every load will move if the forces exerted on the load due to the movement of the vehicle exceed the resistive force exerted by the environment. There are following ways of lashing loads135:
wrapping (the force method) – immobilizing the load by increasing the clamping force of the load to the surface of the hold, so as to increase the frictional force; there must be anchorages mounted in the flow of the hold (the number of means for lashing we will use in this method depends on the mass of the load, the friction coefficient and the angle between the lashing means and the surface of the box);
diagonal with stays (the shaping method) – lashing the load with lashing points placed on the load and on the hold floor. In this method, there are four lashing means required, with capacity depending on the mass of the load and the angles between the lashing means and the surface of the box.
134
European guidelines on good practice for securing cargo in road transport, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/topics/vehicles/cargo_securing_loads/index_pl.htm, 12.02.2014. 135 http://www.strychalski.eu/, 20.03.2014.
Direct, by wrapping – lashing the load by wrapping it with a lashing means and attaching it to the floor of the hold (in this case we use an even number of lashing means on the left and right hand side of the load);
front lashing – lashing the load by butting the lashing means onto the front of the load (for this, we use the special means for maintaining the predetermined height of the lashing; we may also use the popular and widely accessible europalet).
deposition - immobilizing loads by means of support cargo on the front, the sides, or the stanchions in the or placing it in the troughs made in the vehicle (in this method is often used in vehicles that are accordingly adapted);
tight packing of the vehicle – placing the load in the vehicle in a way that it would fill the entire space (in this case, the empty spaces between the loads may be filled with europalets, beams, cardboard boxes, air bags etc.).
The lashing accessories The selection of the right method for lashing the load in the vehicle depends on the type and composition of the carried cargo. Persons keeping the maintenance of the vehicle should equip it with fasteners suitable for the type of cargo that is usually transported. If the general cargo is the most often transported type, there should be different kinds of lashing equipment available. Tape stays are often used for wrapping the load from the top, which increases friction, however they may also be used for direct lashing with stays only (especially if the bigger size ones are applied). In case of heavy loads with sharp edges, such as machines, steel and concrete elements or military equipment, one needs to use chain stays. Chains are usually used for direcxt lashing. Steel rope stays may be used for lashing the wire mash, used to reinforce concrete, or for the transportation of some kinds of wooden cargo, such as long wooden beams placed along the length of the vehicle. In lashing loads, many kinds of stays are applied, serving different purposes. Most often used are polyester tapes, chains and steel lines. They each have a label with their lashing capacity (LC), provided in daN (decaNewton – a measure equal to a kilogram), and the nominal strain capacity, for which it is designed. The maximum force to be applied is 50 daN. The stays may be combined, however in case of parallel connections they should have the same label. They might be joined by the loop endings, or by means of fittings that allow to attach them to the car box rings, hooks, slots etc.
The most frequently used lashing equipment includes136:
Tape devices – used for many kinds of cargo. Usually, they consist of a belt with a particular type of an ending and a tensioner. here are tapes made of polyester, polyamide or polypropylene. Polyester loses some strength when wet, is highly resistant to acids of moderate concentration, but can be damaged by alkali.
Chain stays – their endurance depends on two factors: the thickness of the links and the quality of the material of which they are made. The chain that is used should be adequate for the transported load. If need be, on the corners and sharp edges one may use strengthening or beveling which prevents damage of the chains and increases the radius under which the chains bend, thus increasing their durability. Chain stays should never be used if they are tied in a knot or connected with bolts or screws. Chain stays and the edges of the load should be protected from abrasion and damage by protective caps and/or angular shapes. Chain stays that show any trace of damage should be replaced or sent to producer for repair.
Steel rope stays – are fit for load lashing if used in a similar way as chains. They should not be used for rods, as it is difficult their usability in this case, and every possible damage will cause a failure of the restraining kit. The durability of the ropes is lower at bends, depending on the bending diameter. For the line to be able to maintain its full mechanical durability, the bending angle must be at least 6 times bigger than the diameter of the rope.
Tensioners- are widely used both with chains and ropes, equipped in thimbles137 in each ear, and at least three or four separate EN13411-5 rope grips on each side. They need to be secured against going loose and arranged to prevent bending.
Nets and sheets with stays – consisting of straps and ropes made of natural or synthetic materials, or of steel wire. The tape nets generally function as barriers dividing the cargo space into compartments. The rope nets may be used for lashing loads to pallets, or directly to the vehicle, as the main immobilizing system. The lighter nets may be used to cover open vehicles and containers, if the load type does not require the use of cover sheets. One needs to pay extra care that the metal parts of the net are not corroded or damaged, the straps should not be cut and all stitches must be in a good condition. In case of rope and string nets one needs to check for the condition of fibres. If necessary, before
136
European guidelines on good practice for securing cargo in road transport, pp. 40-57, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/topics/vehicles/, 12.02.2014; Fixing cargo in road transport, Guidelines on good practice for Europe, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 2008, pp. 40-52. 137 A metal fitting protecting the rope against fraying, http://definicja.net/, 20.02.2014.
the net is used, it should be repaired by a competent person. The size of the mesh should be smaller than the smallest part of the load.
Ropes – the use of ropes for lashing raises doubts. If they are used, they should best be made of polypropylene or polyester. The polyamide (nylon) ropes are not suitable for this, because they tend to stretch under the load. Sisal or manilow ropes are not suitable either, as their strength decreases when wet. The lines should be made of 3 twisted pairs and have at least 10 mm of nominal diameter. Their endings should be braided or prevented from unraveling in any other way. They should be selected according to the maximum force exerted on each of the stays. The manufacturer must specify, the maximum permitted load for the ropes, either on a tag or band. ts strength is reduced by the nodes and sharp bends. Wet ropes should always be dried naturally.
indirect lashing plates – are often used for lashing the load in the back part, especially on partially loaded vehicles. Plates are put on the usual sides of boxes of tarpaulin car bodies. The maximum permissible load should be checked with the manufacturer. In general, when mounted on wooden planks of the car body, they may hold maximally up to ca. 350 daN, and when mounted on aluminium 220 daN.
Locking – fright containers, changeable car bodies etc. of a mass over 5,5 t should be carried only by vehicles equipped with swivel connectors. Fully connected and locked, they provide sufficient lashing for the load. They should be kept in condition fit for use. In every container, for connectors should be used (DIN ISO 1161: 1999 contains the specification of corner fittings for container cargo ISO series 1138), In most cases, wivel connectors are mounted on the vehicle during manufacture. If they are mounted later, the car body/box should be modified, according to the instructions from the vehicle manufacturer. Swivel connectors should be inspected for wear, damage and defects in action. Particular attention should be paid to the locking devices used to prevent movement of the operating lever in transit.
Additional accessories
Slip mats – applied to increase friction between the platform floor and the load. If necessary, one may use spacers made of material with high friction coefficient, between the layers of the load. There are many kinds of such materials, such as carpets, rubber mats and paper slip sheets covered with friction-enhancing material. They are used in combination with other lashing methods. The mats should have friction coefficient,
138
PN –ISO 668:1999 – Load containers series1. Classification, dimensions and maximum weight gross..
durability thickness and granulation corresponding to the load (its mass, surface etc.) and environmental conditions (humidity, temperature)that are most likely to appear on the transit route.
Plate spacers – often used for stabilizing the layers of cargo. They are usually made of plywood, of 20mm thickness, though timber waste is also suitable. The plates are placed between the layers of the cargo. They are particularly useful when the rows are composed of several layers. The cargo sections with many rows and layers, such as lumber, often need to be stabilized by transverse frames. In this case, the wooden square scantlings are not suitable, as they may turn during transit. The ratio of the width to the length of the cross-section should be at least 2:1.
Shrink and stretch foil – small packagings may be easily and efficiently secured to the pallet with the use of stretch foil. It is easy to apply and it stiffens accordingly the entire load on the pallet, with an appropriate number of bands. If heat-shrinkable foil is used, a plastic cap forms on the cargo, which is then heated for the plastic to shrink and thus stiffen the cargo. The pallet may be regarded as stable load unit, if a loaded pallet endures a tilt at a certain angle without significant deformation. Wrapping with heat-shrinkable foil is ususally ineffective for heavy loads on pallets and loads with sharp edges that may damage the foil.
Steel and plastic tapes – are suitable for binding heavy and stiff loads to the pallets, such as steel and iron products. They require the use of special tensioners and cannot be stretched again. The non-reusable steel straps may be used for fixing the load on pallets. Both the pallets and the load should be additionally fixed to the vehicle by blocking or stays. The non-reusable straps are not fit for fixing loads directly in the car, as during transportation, tensions may occur in the closing elements that may oppose threat when the straps are removed.
Angled slats – constructed this way to remain rigid (resistant to bending), and to have the right angle in cross-section. They are used for relieveing tensions that occur in the stays wrapping the load from the top, onto the entire sections of the load, They may be made of wood, aluminium or other materials of similar durability.
Protectors for plastic taps – used between the load and the tape stays, if there is a risk that the strap may be damaged. Protectors may be made of different materials, such as polyester or polyurethane, both in the form of a sleeve and with clamps. Edge protectors are made of wood, plastic, light alloy material or other suitable materials; it is used to
distribute the force generated while fastening the stays, so that the stays would not cut into the load, and for binding the edges. Angled slats give the same or better protection to the edges, but they are stiff, and so they balance the forces from the stays. That is why it is very important that the edge protectors had low friction coefficient, so that material straps could move freely.
Protective inserts – if sharp edges may damage the cargo, protective material should be used.
8. Telematics in transportation processes 8.1. The nature and structure of Transport Telematics Transport telematics is the area of transport-related knowledge, integrating IT and telecommunications as regards the application in traffic management in transportation systems, that stimulates technical and organizational activity enabling to raise operational effectiveness and safety of these systems. Particular telematics solutions work together, often under control of some overriding factor. Telematics in transport processes is identified with such concepts as:
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) include a wide range of technology solutions to improve transport by increasing mobility and road safety. These systems combine many of the elements and actions aimed at fostering or improving the wider transport communication, prevention, control and traffic management, event detection, surveillance or elimination of traffic violation etc. The ITS system includes, among other things: Traffic Management Centers; integrated traffic management; traffic control systems, including traffic light control; public transport management systems; CCTV139 video surveillance systems; ARTR140 video surveillance systems; speed monitoring systems; variable message signs; dynamic vehicle weighing systems; vehicle height measuring systems; parking information systems.
intelligent transport – is in fact two co-working systems: intelligent route and intelligent vehicle, i.e. a vehicle equipped in devices that maintains continuous, especially wireless, information exchange with the devices installed over/under the road or its sides.
139
CCTV: Abbreviation of the words: Closed Circuit TeleVision.. Overall, by the CCTV system we should understand all the related equipment for receiving, processing, transmission and archiving and displaying video and audio in the monitored objects; http://www.e-alarmy.pl/baza-wiedzy/porady.html?kid=4&id=12 , 17.07.2013. 140 ARTR is used to identify and search out vehicles identified by the registration number. The system records the vehicle, followed by the time and place of his residence, and automatically detects and assigns car registration numbers with the numbers entered in the system as requested, http://szrm.pl/inwestycje/242. zrealizowane/system-monitoringu-wizyjnego-2/, 17.07.2012.
Each telematics system in transportation may be described by specifying its141:
functional structure, which may fulfill the following structures in transport: support electronic transactions in payment for the use of road infrastructure; provide information in situations that threaten the life and health of road users; manage data traffic, including not only the traffic on urban roads and outside cities, but also in case of extraordinary events (incidents) in traffic; supports the management of public transport operations, including the transport fleet; helps drivers of the vehicles (navigation); provides passengers with information before and throughout the journey; supports compliance with road use legislation;\ supports transport operations management;
physical structure, which in transport is shaped, among others, by: system centers, i.e. places where collected data are stored and transferred with the use of computers, e.g. traffic control centers (TCCC), traffic information centers (TIC), loads and vehicles management centers etc.; sides of the roads, i.e. places where devices for measuring traffic, collecting fares and providing information to drivers etc.; vehicles, i.e. places that are means of transport, where appropriate electronic (onboard) systems have been installed, capable of electronic information exchange with the surrounding environment; personal devices, owned by the driver or the passenger, which allow for electronic connection with other elements of the telematics system; devices installed in the cargo units, such as containers or trailers, which have the possibility of electronic transmission or receipt of information from the environment; kiosks, i.e. devices available in public areas that allow a limited extent access to information resources stored in databases in the transport system;
communication structure – the individual physical locations in the telematics system, where particular functions or groups of functions are fulfilled; they need to be connected to each other electronically in a given communication system (establishment of
141
K. Bartczak, Technologie informatyczne i telekomunikacyjne jako podstawa tworzenia systemów telematycznych w transporcie telematics in transport], [in:] Współczesne procesy i zjawiska w transporcie, USz, Szczecin 2006, pp. 14-17.
appropriate communication structure for transport telematics system requires the selection of appropriate information and communication technologies commonly available on the commercial market).
8.2 Monitoring of truck transportation The development of transport (in the years 2007-2009 in Poland almost 7 thousand companies were established. New businesses purchased more than 34 thousand. heavy goods vehicles142) and new information technology, telecommunications enables the introduction of integrated services making it possible to constantly specify the position of vehicles and automatically overseeing the transport both in the domestic transport and internationally. The growing congestion on the roads and rail routes, changing weather conditions, different incidents that occur on the roads unexpectedly are highly influential to the quality and safety of transport tasks. Mobile communication becomes increasingly important in transport as well as in search and rescue operations. Many companies, including Polish ones, produce various devices which when synchronized with other techniques and technologies constitute a system for identification of vehicle position and data which allow for:
automatic transmission of information about the route of given means of transport (continuous monitoring);
locating a vehicle that was stolen, for example;
remote immobilisation of the vehicle, e. g. in case of theft;
providing information related to the transportation of hazardous materials to appropriate services, in order to reduce the probability of disaster and preventing its effects;
optimizing transport and operational costs (real-time data concerning speed, working time, stopovers as well as planning routes for safety reasons, such as traffic congestion, repairs, weather, road conditions);
transport management in on-line mode (to eliminate empty runs and unused loading space, quick reaction to unexpected incidents, such as theft or accidents);
efficient use of transport and human resources (preparation in a timely unloading, quick response to problems in the shipments planning).
142
K. Bentkowska-Senator, Z. Kordel, Polski transport samochodowy w łańcuchach dostaw [in] The Logistyka Magazine3/2012, p. 115.
In practice, the systems used for monitoring mobile transport are those generally accessible on the market, using the Global Positioning System (GPS) in combination with General Packed Radio System (GPRS) and Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), digital mobile telephony operating at a frequency of 900 MHz. GPS is the first global satellite navigation system. It was designed by the U.S. Department of Defense, which gave it its official name: NAVSTAR GPS (Global Positioning Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging). The GPS system consists of three main elements143:
satellites in outer space;
measuring stations located on the ground;
a GPS receiver (most important for an individual user). With satellite navigation, we have access to detailed information about our position
on the ground. The principle of operation is based on measuring the time of arrival of radio signals from the satellites to the receiver. Knowing the speed of electromagnetic wave, one can calculate the distance of the receiver from the satellites. Having the location of the satellites at a time entered into the memory, chip receiver can calculate the geographical position (longitude, latitude and ellipsoidal height) in the WGS-84system, as well as the current GPS time to within a millionth of a second. The GPS is operated and managed by the U.S. Department of Defense. In principle, practically everyone may use its services, as long as they have an appropriate GPS receiver, which are produced by independent commercial companies. The currently functioning satellite systems for vehicle monitoring that use GPS can operate thanks to a combination of advanced IT and telecommunications satellite techniques. The satellite vehicle monitoring systems consist of four basic subsystems (Figure 10.1144):
location system – uses 24 US NAVASTAR GPS army satellites the accuracy of the system is approximately 25 m (90% of the measurements), and after the use of the reference station average error is about 5 m;
143
http://www.investor.wroclaw.pl/co-to-jest-gps/, 20.07.2012. W. Drewek, Monitorowanie ładunków niebezpiecznych w transporcie drogowym [Dangerous goods monitoring in road transport], [in:] The „Logistyka” Magazine 5/2011, p. 515.. 144
data reception and transfer system – installed in a movable object; its tasks include, among others: receiving satellite signals (these signals, first processed by a microprocessor become geographical coordinates and the speed parameter; this information, along with the report on the technical condition of the object is passed on to the monitoring station);
data transfer system - using conventional and mobile radio networks (e.g. PMR – Private Mobile Radio, PAMR - Public Access Mobile Radio), mobile telephony (GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications, UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), including packet data transfer and the satellite connection (the task of this subsystem is to ensure two-way communication between the monitored object and the monitoring center);
management system – responsible for constant monitoring and managing the object, both while it is moved and during the stops. Similarly to most other solutions, described further, the presented system provides145:
locating transport objects in real-time using GPS;
monitoring objects using detailed, digital city maps and road maps of Poland and Europe;
24/7 access to current and archive information regarding the location of the objects.
cheap and fast data transfer using GPRS packet data;
activation of the alarm mode by the sensor system in the event of unintended tilt movement or displacement of the vehicle;
effective all-time protection against theft of the vehicle and the cargo;
assembly made in a way that prevents unauthorized access to the GPS receiver and its detectability;
managing the vehicle fleet;
support of cost balancing for transport means exploitation via automated data exchange (this feature is not common among other described systems).
8.3. Intelligent Transport Systems Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) encompass a wide range of technology solutions to improve transport by increasing mobility and security in passenger and freight traffic. It means systems that provide a wide collection of different technologies (telecommunications, information technology, and automatic measurement), as well as 145
W. Szulc, Elektroniczne metody monitorowania ruchomych środków transportowych http://www.zabezpieczenia.com.pl/monitoring/elektroniczne-metody-monitorowania-ruchomych-srodkowtransportowych, 17.07.2012.
management techniques used in the transport sector in order to increase the safety of road users, increase the efficiency of the transport system and the protection of natural resources146. By the Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council No. 2010/40 / EU of 7 July 2010. On the framework for the deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems in the field of road transport and for interfaces with other transport modes outlined six priority actions:
providing accessible throughout the EU information services about using different modes of transport;
providing accessible throughout the EU information services traffic in real time;
data and procedures for providing free users - if possible - minimum universal traffic information related to road safety;
harmonized provision for an interoperable eCall147 service across the EU;
providing information services for safe and secure parking places for trucks and commercial vehicles;
providing reservation services for safe and secure parking places for trucks and commercial vehicles. The benefits of intelligent transport systems are manifold. Research shows that the
use of ITS will148:
an increase in the capacity of the road network by an average of 22.5%; improve road safety (reducing the number of accidents by an average of 60%);
reduction of travel time and energy (by nearly 60%);
improvement of the environment (reduction of fume emissions by an average of 40%);
improving passenger comfort and traffic conditions for motorists, people traveling public transport and pedestrians;
reducing the costs of fleet management;
reduction of costs associated with the maintenance and renovation of roads;
increase the economic benefits for the region in which the ITS solutions are applied.
146
http://samorzad.infor.pl/sektor/zadania/dobre_praktyki/artykuly/412291,inteligentne_systemy, 18.07.2012. eCall – an EU-wide rapid alert system for road accidents. eCall is associated with the eSafety initiative, which is part of the comprehensive strategy of the European Commission, aiming to maintain road safety and improve the efficiency of transport in Europe.. 148 Ibid. 147
Access to current information is possible through the use of modern technologies, which are visible in the vehicle and external displays or monitors. Among them are:
GPS - satellite navigation systems;
DSRC - (Dedicated Short Range Communication - dedicated for short range communication) technology based on transferring data in a short area, was used to transport high tonnage in order to collect tolls for designated road sections (this solution is being used in an electronic toll collection system introduced from 1 July 2012 – via TOLL);
Wireless networks (GSM / EDGE149, Wi-Fi), as well as traditional technologies used to connect to the Internet allow for rapid communication;
Mobile telephony - ITS applications can transfer data through 3G150 or 4G151 (advantage of mobile video is available live);
radio systems (DAB152, RDS-TMC);
equipment for traffic monitoring (sensors, detectors, controllers, video-detectors);
TV surveillance devices (camera surveillance);
devices and systems for monitoring and measuring the weather;
Variable light boards;
geographic database (GIS)153;
road database;
electronic cards. In many countries, improving the transport system is not just about building roads,
improving existing ones, but also the use of which is associated with new techniques and technologies (e.g. Sensor chips, wireless technologies, etc..). 149
EDGE – (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) – technology used in GSM networks for data transfer. 3G networks - technology is not focused only on voice services. In addition to these operators offer the possibility of rapid transmission of various types of data, or video data packets, photos, etc. Integrates communication technologies (ICT, radio and television).. 151 4G network - technology based on radio network for fast transmission and multi-point transceiver, which operates in the 1800 MHz band. The main distinguishing feature of its predecessor 4G (3G) is the transfer rate between devices. Fourth-generation network offers mobile internet speeds of 100 Mb / s, and send packets at a rate of more than 25 Mb / s. The technology allows users to m.in .: ultra-fast Internet access, personalized telephony, access to modern services with multimedia and games, according to http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sie%C4%87_4G, 17.07.2012. 152 DAB - system (Digital Audio Broadcasting) is created for ground and satellite radio - both landlines and mobiles. The task of the DAB is: receive programs by stationary, transportable and portable receivers (rod antenna) in the environment causing reflections and dropouts; transmitting additional information (beyond the programs), including the use of legacy systems RDS (Radio Data System), TMC (Traffic Message Channel) and EWS (Emergency Warning System); according to http://itpedia.pl/index.php/Radiofonia_DAB, 17.07.2013. 153 GIS (Geographical Information System) – the term is used to describe a computerized system that allows the collection, storage, analysis and imaging data related to a specific location in the geographical environment.. 150
9 Safety in internal transport and storage 9.1. General safety rules when handling internal transport equipment Internal transport system includes all activities associated with the movement of goods within the plant, starting with the takeover of raw materials and semi-finished products from external transport, to the entire production period and the delivery of the finished product or waste to the external transport again. The internal transport includes the following activities: loading, transporting, placing, moving, carrying, unloading, reloading (picking154, crossdocking155), moving. The internal transport system is conventionally divided into:
manual;
wheeled;
lorries;
hoist (by all kinds of cranes);
by carriers; For handling the mechanized internal transport devices, the personnel needs to be
appropriately prepared, with appropriate certificates. Manual transport works – each kind of transporting or propping objects, loads or materials by one or more employees, including moving these objects by lifting, picking, arranging, pushing, drawing, carrying, rolling or using vehicles. These kinds of works are done on employment positions that require moving objects of small or big mass, re-arranging, assembly or steering machines or devices. While performing transportation works, one needs to apply several basic rules156:
auxiliary equipment should be used in order to reduce the burden on the musculoskeletal system, particularly the spine;
one needs to avoid big turns and unnecessary tilting
one should try to maintain body position possibly closest to normal;
the most favorable height to lift objects is the height of the table top, which should be adjusted individually;
154
Completion involves taking the existing stocks of such materials and in such quantities that result from the ongoing order. The picked material is formed into a unit or units, accorf=ding to: http://prologisnajlepszym.pl/akademia-slownik,1.html, 12.05.2014. 155 Cross-docking –a situation in which the goods delivered to the warehouse are immediately reloaded and sent on - to the next recipient. Thus it is not stored, which reduces the total cost of the supply chain. However, this requires accurate synchronization of all the processes of entry and exit of goods, according to: http://www.logistyka.net.pl, 12.05.2014. 156 http://archiwum.ciop.pl/11521.html, 14.05.2014.
the base area of the human-object configuration should be as large as possible, but it should not increase the burden on the lower limbs.
One needs to use adequate methods while lifting untypically sized objects, of big mass or dimensions;
the carried objects should have handles;
large size and mass objects should be carried by a team, in compliance with all abovementioned safety measures and recommendations concerning the ways to lift and carry objects. For wheeled road transport, forklift truck trucks are used most often. They are
divided into157:
stackers – forklift trucks with fixed platform, forks or other load handling devices designed to raise a load, which may be also palletized, at the height to allow storage and retrieval of cargo, and placing it/picking it from the nests;
a front lift – a forklift truck, with fixed fork (which can be replaced by another device) on which a palletized or not palletized load is placed, in the position propped on the front wheels and balanced with the mass of the trolley.
a forklift truck with a mast, not embracing the load (with a mast or a carriage sliding) – a forklift truck with internal mast which may move the cargo by the movement of the mast or the forked carriage.
forklift truck with internal mast that embraces the load (with fixed mast) – a forklift truck that embraces the cargo, with a fixed mast with a fork placed between the frame legs of the ride, sand the center of gravity of the load remains always within the polygon of stability;
forklift truck with internal mast – where the forks are located above the legs of the ride frame.
platform lift with internal mast – a stacking forklift truck loading platform located above the legs of the ride frame.
reach forklift truck truck (only one side) – a forklift truck with a mast or a fork carriage, which may be extendable or retractable between the axes and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the truck, which allows you to receive and lift the load in the equivalent position in relation to one side of the truck, as well as the stacking and unstacking of the load next to the forklift truck.
157
http://serwer1309335.home.pl/kreator/data/documents/info=20na=20stron=C4=992.pdf, 14.05.2014.
counterbalance forklift truck – wheeled balanced forklift truck, designed primarily for operating on an uneven natural terrain, also where the surface has been distorted, e.g. construction site.
front-loading forklift truck truck- a forklift truck adapted for stacking and collecting the load from the front and from both directions of travel.
Gantry stacker forklift truck truck - a forklift truck where the frame and the lifter embrace the load to lift, move and pile it.
platform truck (with a fixed platform);
walkie pallet truck;
walkie stacker. Forklift truck trucks can be combustion-powered or use liquid, gas or electric fuel.
The rules of safe operation of powered industrial trucks can be grouped depending on to whom they refer. They may relate to158:
the unit implementing the forklift trucks for use;
the operator;
the forklift truck itself
the personnel operating and providing maintenance to the forklift truck;
the ongoing works. The company that wants to implement powered forklift trucks into use needs to fulfill
the following criteria:
Before putting a forklift truck to use, the vehicle should be checked for its technical condition (whether steering, breaks and propulsion works correctly; if the lifting mechanisms and all parts are working, the lighting and signaling efficiency, if the measuring control and safety devices work, so that the driver and other people participating in transport operations would be safe);
Before work is started, the employer should carry out health and safety training, as described by law, during which they should provide the forklift truck operator with up-todate information on the working conditions; making construction changes in the forklift trucks or dismounting the safety and signaling equipment is unacceptable. As regards the operator (the driver) the following requirements have been defined
158
the pursuit of applicable rules – the operator should:
A. Wojciechowski, Przepisy na bezpieczeństwo podczas eksploatacji wózków widłowych http://serwer1309335.home.pl/kreator/data/documents/info=20na=20stron=C4=992.pdf, 15.05.2014.
be at least 18 years of age; have a medical certificate confirming the medical condition fit for this kind of wok; have the operator certificate, issued in accordance with the regulations or have a registered permit to operate the truck, issued by the employer, valid within the premises of a given company, received after successful completion of training for forklift truck operators, organized by the employer, according to the program that has been developed and approved by an organizational unit appointed by the Minister of Economy. The forklift trucks used in companies should:
meet the health & safety requirements, as well as the standards of ergonomics, as required by law;
have maintenance documentation and up-to-date operational documentation;
be subject to the supervision of the Office of Technical Inspection, if they have a mechanical lifting system, and what follows this system needs to be approved for operation;
suitable for operation in areas at risk of fire or explosion, and after each repair they should undergo tests stating they meet the requirements of special adjustment for work in areas at risk of fire or explosion;
each time before work in in areas at risk of fire or explosion and work related to transport of hazardous materials, their technical condition should be thoroughly tested, along with the accompanying additional equipment and devices necessary for the safe conduct of work and provision of safety to the surrounding environment. As regards the maintenance personnel, the following requirements have been
specified:
Periodic inspections, servicing, maintenance and repair of a forklift truck may be performed only by entitled persons with the right qualifications,
Operation and maintenance of the forklift trucks, as well as the periodic inspections, should be performed in accordance with the requirements specified in the technical documentation of the manufacturer,
The performed repairs should meet the requirements specified in the technical documentation of the manufacturer and be recorded in the operational documentation of the forklift trucks.
The basic rules of safe use of the forklift trucks include the following159.
It is unacceptable to use a forklift truck which is: malfunctioning or without the right accessories, loaded beyond its permissible carrying capacity, in areas with a slope ground and not corresponding with the conditions specified in the technical documentation, in areas with unproven ground strength or strength less than that required for a loaded truck; in an unstable or slippery ground, which prevents safe maneuvering of the transported cargo, in dark places, unless the forklift truck is equipped with lighting appropriate to the type and location of work, to push other vehicles or haul outboard forklift trucks, if their number or weight of the load exceed the limit values specified by the manufacturer;
cargoes that are carried should be arranged and secured so that they do not present the risk of accident;
loads that extend beyond the outline of the truck can be transported this way only with the conditions laid down in the provisions of the Road Traffic;
it is acceptable to carry people on forklift trucks only if they are appropriately designed for this purpose by the manufacturer;
it is acceptable to lift persons with the use of forklift trucks on the platforms especially installed and tailored for this purpose, as long as it is acceptable according to the technical documentation;
the lifting height and weight equipped with a platform cannot exceed the parameters specified by the manufacturer;
transporting people on the platform of a specialist vehicle which is controlled from this platform is permissible only if the vehicle has been constructed as fit for this sort of work by the manufacturer;
before entering into railway wagons, motor vehicles and aircraft ramps, the driver should double-check if the weight of the truck with the load does not exceed the load capacity of
159
Cf. B. Rączkowski, BHP w praktyce, ODiDK, Gdansk 2010, p. 747; A. Wojciechowski, Przepisy na bezpieczeństwo podczas eksploatacji wózków widłowych, http://serwer1309335.home.pl/kreator/data/documents/info=20na=20stron=C4=992.pdf, 15.05.2014.
the means of transport and provides secure entry; the manner of loading the cargo on board should be agreed beforehand;
it is permissible to use trucks with internal combustion engine in public work rooms under the condition that harmful substances exhausted by the engine, as well as the noise associated with this work do not cause exceedance of the maximum concentration and intensity, defined in separate regulations;
transportation should be performed with the cargo lifted to a height that makes this transportation possible;
one must not go away from an active forklift truck, or leave the keys unattended, e.g. in the switch or in a place that is widely accessible; The most frequent faults regarding the use of transport wheeled vehicles are160:
Informational signs and warnings in a foreign language, without pictograms;
the lack of warning signal used when moving backwards, if the area behind the vehicle is not visible to the driver (this applies mainly to the forklift trucks with adjustable reach and sometimes to the high capacity ones);
in old electric forklift trucks with engine thrust, the engine is attached only with a single connector and the contacts may stick together – in such case, the driver cannot stop the vehicle with the use of the break (if they do not manage to turn on the emergency switch, there is a risk of an accident);
the lack of easily accessible device for emergency engine shutdown at the drivers control panel (in case of electric forklift trucks) and the lack of a switch that would stop the engine in emergency situation – for gas vehicles.
batteries in electric forklift trucks are not secured against the fallout in case the vehicle rolls over (incurs risk of acid burns);
covers lifted for maintenance purposes are not secured against the fall (they are not propped);
the driver is endangered with being hit in case the chain breaks, if the cross of the mast or a roof are not there to prevent it the hit;
the operator is at risk should the hydraulic hoses break, if the unprotected flexible hoses are in close proximity to the operator;
moving parts of the gas engine are unshielded (e.g. the ventilator, the transmission belt etc.);
160
http://www.widlowe-wozki.eu/2012/10/lista-najczesciej-identyfikowanych-zagrozen/, 11.05.2014.
there is no transparent shield protecting the operator who sits very near to the mast (applies to the vehicles with the operator sitting sideways to the direction of travel).
unprotected muffler or exhaust pipe, if there are any (possible burn);
the lack of protection for the operator against a rollover (e.g. safety belts, a closed cabin, additional prop-ups, a construction preventing the operator from getting crushed to the floor by the elements of the forklift truck etc.).
the lack of paved road surfaces and storage areas;
the material placed in the wrong way;
overloading of the forklift truck;
non-compliance with the regulations by road users. In internal truck transportation, the driver must be of appropriate age, as demanded
by the regulations, be fit in physical and mental terms and fulfill one of the following conditions:
has the required driving skills that ensures the safety of the traffic, avoiding any possible damage and has a document confirming their credibility to drive the vehicle;
has gone through a driving course in a properly adapted vehicle and under the instructor’s supervision, as part of their training;
passed a national exam in an appropriately adapted vehicle, under examiner’s supervision. For food transportation, the driver must have:
An up-to-date book of health;
A sanitary control book; While transporting hazardous materials, each vehicle carrying hazardous materials and
goods must have161:
Basic safety equipment; At least one wedge for placing under the wheels; two self-standing warning signs for marking the location of the failure (e.g. reflective triangles or flashing amber lights, independent of the vehicle’s electrical system); a warning vest or warning clothing for each member of the crew; a flashlight (without metal surfaces which could sparkle) for each crew member;
additional safety equipment, depending on the nature of the cargo: equipment for respiratory protection,
161
http://archiwum.ciop.pl/13882.html, 14.05.2014.
personal protective equipment (e.g. apparatus with water for rinsing eyes, glasses, gloves and shoes);
appropriate firefighting equipment; the documents required during the transport of hazardous materials: bill of lading; written instructions for the driver; driver's training certificate (if required); a certificate that confirms the driver’s qualifications; vehicle-approval certificate for the carriage of certain dangerous goods; authorization to transport certain goods;
the written instructions for the driver should include: the name of the material/of the group of goods, the UN class and number162, the description of cargo, which should be concise, limited to the physical status, color and odor – so that the possible release of the material would be easier diagnosed. the type of hazard for the materials carried (the dominating hazard, the additional hazard, the way the material behaves when subject to fire or heat, whether the materials carried might react dangerously with water). preventive measures, which should be applied by the driver; the list of individual protective equipment that the driver should have; basic steps to follow in the event of an accident (e.g. turn off the engine, don’t use open fire, don’t smoke, mark the accident area, warn other road users and bystanders, inform everyone nearby about the threat, inform the police and the fire brigade. additional steps to be performed if a small amount of material is released; special steps that need to be followed with some materials (if required); equipment necessary for additional and special steps (if necessary); fire instructions for the driver (the driver should not try to extinguish the fire); information for the driver that might be necessary in case of contact with the material carried.
The basic occupational safety requirements for the drivers include163: the speed of the vehicle on platforms and ramps cannot exceed 5km/h;
162 163
UN – the code of the carried substance. CF. B. Rączkowski, BHP w praktyce, ODiDK, Gdansk 2010, p. 751.
the transport of liquid cargo, or caustic and stinging materials may be performed only in containers that met the requirements of the Polish Standards and international regulations. the car submitted for loading should be secured against accidental displacement; at the time of vehicle loading by an excavator or crane, the driver’s presence in the car is prohibited; the height of the vehicle with cargo must not exceed 4m; the load distribution on the chest should be even and ensure its stability; Cranes (a group of lift and transport devices) are means of transport with a limited range and intermittent movement, designed to move vertical/horizontal loads, animals and humans over short distances are divided into: machinery for the movement of people or goods, in a limited range164: winches and hoists, cranes, cranes, stacker cranes, lifts, cargo extractors, ships extractors, platforms, devices for people with disabilities, escalators and moving walkways, circular cabin and platform conveyors, road cart forklift trucks with mechanical lifting;
lifts for the transport of passengers or freight, construction cranes and cranes for small freight;
cableway hoisting cranes;
cabin and chair conveyors with rotational movement for the purposes of recreation and entertainment;
technical equipment for moving containers for loading and carrying operations;
loading, unloading or feeding machinery for loads in the reloading process lines;
pavers for laying tracks, lifting platforms, cranes and position equalizers used for hanging catenary and its regulations;
164
Cf. B. Rączkowski, BHP w praktyce, ODiDK, Gdańsk 2010, p. 753.
broaching rail vehicles;
passenger and freight cableways;
lifts for the movement of persons for tourism and sports purposes;
movable bridges with powertrains in ferry terminals. Apart from this one can also distinguish other additional elements constituting lifting
equipment: tracks, bridges, towers, poles, floaters, cars, etc.. When using the crane transportation one should:
before using lifting equipment and instrumentation, make sure that their condition ensures the safe conduct of work, that it has all the required approvals and certificates, including proof of periodic check-ups;
do not overload the equipment, or misuse it;
during operating at low temperatures (in winter) maximum load of the instrumentation should be avoided (at low temperatures, steel becomes more brittle and fragile than at normal temperatures);
the implementation of crane transport operations only instrumentation that have been selected according to the weight and shape of the transported goods can be used;
during transportation of crane loads with sharp edges, wooden cleats should be used as edge protection or other engineering tools in order to protect the slings from potential damage;
things that need to be checked before each lift: weight of the load and its center of gravity, choose cargo instrumentation suitable for transporting, check the technical condition of the crane;
When lifting long parts, make sure that the load does not slip. All handling equipment (UTB) should be used in accordance with the generally
applicable rules and conditions, which include, among others165:
each device must have a certificate of release to service issued by UDT;
handling equipment should be used in accordance with its intended purpose;
operator should ensure that the conditions for the proper use of hoist transport are met (manuals, operating and maintenance);
operator should keep a maintenance log maintained by a competent person for each UTB set up;
165
Cf. B. Rączkowski, BHP ..., op. cit., pp. 765, 766.
while operating on equipment equipped with electrical apparatus, the operator should ensure the measurement of electrical resistance and if grounding works;
maintenance should be carried out not less than the required periods and include: compliance with the instruction manual, reviewing UTB maintenance in terms of and within scope specified in the operating instructions (the technical condition of the powertrain, breaking systems, supporting tendons and their attachments, operation of the safety elements and motor stoppers, operation controls, signaling and lighting, correctness of use of the UBT) checking by visual inspection, not less frequent than every 12 months if the operating instructions do not state otherwise, the condition of the superstructure of the rail track, cranes, installation of fire protection;
selection of slings, taking into account the type and value of the expected load, place of the handle attachment, the way the load is suspended, environmental conditions. Conveyor – short range transport device intended to move solids, along a certain path
in a continuous manner. They may be divided into two groups:
tension: band (classic, pipes, with propellant ropes) parts (panels and trolley) bucket (pocket) sleeves (scraper and harrows);
tensionless: gravity (sliding, roller tables, trolley) roller (individual or team drive);
screw;
shock;
flow: liquid, gas. Conveyors should be designed, built and operated so as to provide safe and healthy
working conditions, in particula166r:
bridges, floors and similar structures, that are higher than 1.5 m above ground level, should have a fixed handle, which is recommended to perform the inclination as
166
Cf. B. Rączkowski, BHP w praktyce, ODiDK, Gdańsk 2010, pp. 767-770.
transverse strips or as a staircase with an inclination angle with respect to the level of not less than 60 °;
all floor surfaces, bridges and stairs should be done in a way to prevent slipping;
the height of the conveyor passage should not be less than 1.9 m (in the other case it is recommended to create the passage above conveyor);
along the entire route of the conveyor, continuously or at selected points manually triggered stopping devices with immediate effect should be located;
all loading and operating positions and the passages should be fully accessible and clean;
inspection, adjustment, maintenance and cleaning of moving parts is possible while the conveyors are stationary and after locking the drive devices.
9.2. Technical supervision during the operation Technical supervision are defined by the Act of 21 December 2000 about technical inspection measures to ensure the safe operation of technical devices that pose a risk by expanding gases under pressure different from atmospheric, liberation of potential or kinetic energy during the movement of people or goods, in a limited range and of spread of hazardous materials during storage or transport167. National legal institution operating in the area to ensure the safety of equipment and technical installations by the Office of Technical Inspection (UDT). The main task of the UDT is to assess the compatibility of technical equipment with the relevant regulations and technical specifications in the phases of design, manufacturing and operation. The Authority is an independent organization both financially as well as in the field of technical activity. The UDT consists of 12 organizational units (Presidential Office, Office of Audit and Control, Development Office, Human Resources Management Team, Inspection Coordination Team, Finance Team, Infrastructure and Logistics Team, Technical Support Team, Certification and Conformity Assessment, Training Center, Central Technical Laboratory, Inspection Representative of the President of the UDT for the Protection of classified Information) and 29 branch offices located on Polish territory. The basic scope of the UDT is defined in art. 37 of the Law on technical inspection, which is among others : supervision and monitoring of compliance with technical supervision, as well as the rules and principles of security techniques on technical equipment, performing technical supervision over technical devices, to the extent specified by law, 167
The Act of 21 December 2000 on technical inspection, art. 1 i 4.
deciding on matters arising from the implementation of technical supervision, keeping records of operating technical equipment, analyzing the causes and consequences of damage to equipment as well as constant assessment of risks posed by these devices, initiating activities aimed at raising the professional qualifications of manufacturers and users in the safe operation of technical equipment, reconciliation of training programs for persons responsible for maintenance of the support equipment, checking the qualifications of the people manufacturing, repairing, modernizing, operating and maintaining technical equipment as well as persons engaged in nondestructive testing, certification of quality systems for the technical equipment. Technical supervision over technical devices, is executed in the form of168:
complete (study the device in working order conditions - acceptance tests and performing periodic and occasional technical, utilization, control, accident or after-failure testing);
limited (testing equipment in its readiness to work - acceptance tests and perform occasional technical studies);
simplified (technical testing not performed). Technical inspection will be the subject to the following types of technical facilities:
pressure equipment;
non-pressure tanks and tanks for the storage of hazardous materials of toxic or corrosive properties and storage of flammable liquids;
tanks, including cisterns used for the transportation of hazardous materials authorized under
separate regulations, with the exception of cargo tanks which are an integral part of the design of inland waterway vessels and covered by the technical supervision of the classification institution;
large containers for bulk transportation of hazardous materials (IBC) specified in separate regulations;
equipment for filling and emptying containers for transport;
machinery used for the movement of people or goods, in a limited range:
168
Council of the Cabinet of 7 December 2012 on the types of technical equipment subject to technical inspection.
winches and hoists gantries, cranes, stacker cranes, jacks (jacks), including car parking systems, with the exception of jacks fitted in vehicles, jacks to tilt technological tables and portable manual jacks, freight lifts, ship extractors, platforms, devices for people with disabilities, escalators and moving pavements, circular cabin and platform conveyors, road cart forklift truck with mechanical lifting;
lifts for the transport of passengers or freight, construction cranes and small freight cranes;
cable lifting platforms;
rotational motion cabin and chair conveyors designed for entertainment;
technical devices for moving containers during loading operations;
loading, unloading and feeding machines used for technological reloading lines;
stackers, track cranes, position equalizers for installing and regulation of the catenary;
broaching rail vehicles;
passenger and freight cable rails;
lifts for the movement of persons for tourist and sports purposes;
movable platforms with engines in ferry terminals.
9.3. Requirements for the use of machinery by employees at work In order to provide appropriate conditions while conducting transport operations in the company (at short distance) and in warehouses, one needs to consider the applicable regulations. They include the Regulation of the Minister of Economy of 30 October 2002. Concerning the minimum requirements for health and safety in the use of equipment by workers at work (JL No. 191, item. 1596, as amended).
As regards the requirements towards machines, they include169:
control elements that have impact on workers’ safety should be visible, possible to identify and marked properly;
machine control systems should ensure safety and be selected with the possible damage and failures in mind, that may occur during the regular exploitation of the ,machine;
the start of the machine should be possible only by a purposeful action performed on the adequate control system;
machines are to be equipped with a control system for the purpose of their complete and safe shutdown;
machines and their parts, if necessary for the health and safety of the workers, are to be fixed by clamping or other similar tools in order to ensure their stability;
workstations and workstation maintenance sections should be lit adequately to the activities performed;
maintenance works should be possible to perform when the machine is stopped (if this is not possible, appropriate protective measures should be used or works should be done beyond hazardous areas);
Machines are to be equipped in: easily recognizable devices for disconnecting from the power source; the reconnection of the machine to energy sources should not pose threat to the workers), warning signs and markings necessary to ensure the safety of workers;
safeguards to protect workers from: risk of fire, overheating, or of discharges of gas, dust and other substances produced, used or stored in machines, the risk of explosion of the device or of the substances produced, used or stored in machines; dangers arising from direct or indirect contact with electricity;
the machine equipment used for transportation of workers should do it in a way that would minimize the risk for these persons during transportation (this equipment should also account for the risk of contact or a worker getting under the wheels or tracks of the machines);
169
Cf. Regulation of the Minister of Economy of 30 October 2002. Concerning the minimum requirements for health and safety in the use of equipment by workers at work, Chapter 3.
the lift trucks with workers should be adapted or equipped in a way that would reduce the risk related to their fall over;
machines with their own engines, which may pose a threat to the health and safety of the workers when used, should be equipped with: a device preventing it being turned on by unauthorized persons; appropriate equipment to minimize the effects of a collision, in the case of moving traffic on the track at the same time several machines appropriate devices used for braking and stopping;
if a load lifting device is permanently installed in the machine, its stability and durability during use must be ensured, with regard to the weight of the lifted loads and tensions generated at the points of their suspension or attachment;
load-lifting machines permanently installed, are installed in such a way to minimize the risk of: the worker getting crushed by the load; dangerous movements of the load or free falling load; unintended release of the load.
Literature index Books: 1. Bartczak K., Technologie informatyczne i telekomunikacyjne jako podstawa tworzenia systemów telematycznych w transporcie, [in:] Współczesne procesy i zjawiska w transporcie, USz, Szczecin 2006. 2. Bentkowska-Senator K., Kordel Z., Polski transport samochodowy w łańcuchach dostaw [in] Logistyka 3/2012. 3. Bielecki W.T., Informatyzacja zarządzania, PWE, Warsaw 2001. 4. Blaik P., Logistyka, PWE, Warsaw 2001. 5. Bozarth C.B., R.B. Handfield, Introduction to Operations and Supply Chain Management, Helion, Gliwice 2000. 6. Christopher M., Logistyka i zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, Polskie Centrum Doradztwa. 7. Cieślarczyk M., Teoretyczne i metodologiczne podstawy badania problemów bezpieczeństwa i obronności państwa, AP, Siedlce 2009. 8. Drewek W., Monitorowanie ładunków niebezpiecznych w transporcie drogowym, [in:] Logistyka 5/2011. 9. Gołembska E., Logistyka jako zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, AE, Poznan 2002; 10. Janczak A., ADR w spedycji i magazynie, składowanie i przewóz materiałów niebezpiecznych, Zacharek, Warsaw 2010. 11. Jóźwik Z., Kawa M., Zastosowanie nowoczesnych rozwiązań logistycznych w transporcie ładunków ponadnormatywnych [in:] Logistyka 4/2009, CD. 12. Klonowski Z.J., Systemy informatyczne zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, modele rozwoju i własności funkcjonalne, PW, Wrocław 2004. 13. Kołodziński
E.,
Istota
inżynierii
systemów
zarządzania
bezpieczeństwem,
http://www.uwm.edu.pl, 10.04.2013. 14. Kopczewski M., Tobolsk M., Pasek D., Bezpieczeństwo w transporcie materiałów niebezpiecznych, [in:] Logistyka 2013/6. 15. Koźmiński A., W. Piotrkowski, Zarządzanie, Teoria i praktyka, PWN, Warsaw 1996 16. Królewicz C., Globalizacja w aspekcie odpowiedzialności indywidualnej człowieka. Wyzwania
procesu
globalizacji
wobec
człowieka,
Akademia
w Katowicach, Katowice 1999. 17. Michlowicz E., Podstawy logistyki przemysłowej, AHG, Cracov 2002.
Ekonomiczna
18. Cargo lashing in road transport, Guidelines of good European practice, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008. 19. Najder J., Transport międzynarodowy, PWE, Warsaw 2012. 20. Nowak E., Logistyka w sytuacjach kryzysowych, AON, Warsaw 2009. 21. Pastuszak Z., Czwarta strona transakcji w procesach fizycznej dystrybucji, „Logistyka” no. 5/2008. 22. Paszkowski P., Podstawy teorii systemów i analizy systemowej, WAT, Warsaw 1999. 23. PN –ISO 668:1999 – Kontenery ładunkowe serii 1. Klasyfikacja, wymiary i maksymalne ciężary brutto. 24. Rozporządzenia (EC) no. 178/2002 the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002. Laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority. European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety art. 3. 25. Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure dated 26 April 2004 on vehicles engaged in piloting. 26. Regulation of the Minister of Transport dated 4 June 2007 ondangerous goods transport by road which is notifiable 27. Regulation of the Minister of Transport, Construction and Maritime Economy of 22 June 2012 on the authorization for the passage of oversize vehicles. 28. Salomon A., Przewóz ładunków ponadgabarytowych transportem kolejowym w Polsce, [in:] Science Journal no. 67, AM, Gdynia 2010. 29. Sienkiewicz P., Geneza i rozwój koncepcji holistycznych i systemowych we współczesnej nauce, [in:] Science Journal, AON Warsaw 2003, no. 1(50). 30. Sienkiewicz P., Teoria i inżynieria bezpieczeństwa systemów, [in:] Science Journal, AON no. 1(66)2007. 31. Sitkowski L., Zarządzanie bezpieczeństwem dla łańcucha dostaw – ISO 28000, [in:] Przemysł Środowisko Jakość Zarządzanie 2(13)2009. 32. Skarżyński A., Próba ogólnej systematyki sytuacji kryzysowych oraz wybranych towarzyszących im działań techniczno organizacyjnych, materials from the XI International Conference on Military Science and Technology Engineering, t. 1 Zarządzanie i organizacja działań w sytuacjach kryzysowych. Ratownictwo i ochrona ludności, Warsaw 2000. 33. Polish Language Dictionary, http://sjp.pwn.pl/, 29.04.2013. 34. Polish Language Dictionary, http://sjp.pwn.pl/slownik, 03.04.2013.
35. Słownik synonimów i antonimów, http://megaslownik.pl/slownik/synonimy_antonimy, 03.04.2013. 36. Logistics Terminology Dictionary, ILiM, Poznan 2006. 37. Logistics Terminology Dictionary, ed. M. Fertsch, ILiM, Poznań 2006. 38. Sołtysik M., Zarządzanie logistyczne, Akademia Ekonomiczna, Katowice 2000. 39. Stoner J.A.F., Freeman R.F., Gilbert Jr D.R., Kierowanie, PWE, Warsaw 2001. 40. Szulc W., Elektroniczne metody monitorowania ruchomych środków transportowych, http://www.zabezpieczenia.com.pl/monitoring/elektroniczne-metody-monitorowaniaruchomych-srodkow-transportowych, 17.07.2013. 41. Szymonik A., Logistyka jako system racjonalnego pozyskiwania wyrobów obronnych, AON, Warsaw 2007. 42. Szymonik A. Logistyka w bezpieczeństwie, wyd. 2, Difin, Warsaw 2011. 43. Szymonik A., Organizacja i funkcjonowanie systemów bezpieczeństwa, Difin, Warsaw 2011. 44. Szymonik A., Ekonomika transportu dla potrzeb logistyka(i), Difin Warsaw 2013. 45. Szymonik A. Eurologistyka Teoria i Praktyka, Difin, Warsaw 2014. 46. Tapscott D., Gospodarka cyfrowa. Warsaw, Business Press 1998. 47. Tyrała P., Zarządzanie kryzysowe, wyd. A. Marszałek, Toruń 2003. 48. European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road ADR (OJ of 19 February 2009.). 49. Witkowski J., Zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, PWE, Warsaw 2003. 50. Wstęp do informatyki gospodarczej, ed. A. Rokicka-Broniatowska, SGH, Warsaw 2006. 51. Wytyczne odnośnie europejskiej dobrej praktyki w zakresie mocowania ładunków w transporcie
drogowym,http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/topics/vehicles/,
12.02.2014. 52. Wytyczne odnośnie europejskiej dobrej praktyki w zakresie mocowania ładunków w transporcie drogowym, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/topics/vehicles/, 12.02.2014; 53. Zarządzanie łańcuchem dostaw, Materiały z międzynarodowej konferencji Logistics 1998, Biblioteka Logistyka, Poznań 1998.
Websites: 1. http://archiwum.komunalny.home.pl/archiwum/index.php?mod=tekst&id=7968, 29.04.2013. 2. http://csr.pl/article/214/, 20.10.2013. 3. http://dokt.p.lodz.pl/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Certyfikaty-AEO.pdf, 04.01.2014. 4. http://fedcba.ning.com/group/oifsb/forum/topics/zarzadzanie-progresywne, 04.04.2013. 5. http://galileo.kosmos.gov.pl, 18.07.2013. 6. http://heading.pata.pl/glonass.htm, 17.07.2013. 7. http://itpedia.pl/index.php/Radiofonia_DAB, 17.07.2013. 8. http://navisoft.pl/navisoft-navicar-system-monitorowania-pojazdow-gps, 12.07.2013. 9. http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov. 12.08.2013. 10. http://pl.glosbe.com/pl/fr/Mi%C4%99dzynarodowy%20Kodeks%, 02.04.2014. 11. http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl/26581, 28.03.2013. 12. http://szrm.pl/inwestycje/zrealizowane/system-monitoringu-wizyjnego-2/, 17.07.2013. 13. http://web2.ling.pl/progress,%20human, 27.03.2013. 14. http://www.anonimus.com.pl/P.Drucker.html, 12.10.2013. 15. http://www.aris.com/pl/ARIS/Modele_referencyjne_ARIS_/SCOR/87173.html, 28.08.2013. 16. http://www.bedmet.pl/pl/uslugi/transport-srodladowy, 24.07.2013. 17. http://www.best-logistics.com/oferta/transport-srodladowy/, 24.07.2013. 18. http://www.bheuroconsult.pl/go.live.php/PL-H16/ifsinternational-food-standard.html, 06.01.2014. 19. http://www.biznesowe.edu.pl/94-lancuch_dostaw/, 09.08.2013. 20. http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/trade/cargo_security/csi/, 04.01.2014. 21. http://www.centrum.bezpieczenstwa.pl/index.php/standardy-othermenu-16/284-c-tpat, 05.01.2014. 22. http://www.centrum.bezpieczenstwa.pl/index.php/standardy-othermenu, 29.03.2014. 23. http://www.e-alarmy.pl/baza-wiedzy/porady.html?kid=4&id=12, 17.07.2013. 24. http://www.haccp-iso22000.pl/brc.html, 05.01.2014. 25. http://www.hertzsystems.com/pl/Produkty/GPS-HERTZ-FLOTA, 17.07.2013. 26. http://www.icwroclaw.pl/AEO/Wytyczne, 04.04.2014. 27. http://www.imo.org/ourwork/security/instruments/pages/ispscode.aspx, 05.01.2014. 28. http://www.innowrota.pl/sites/default/files/images/M.Forkiewicz_2.pdf, 01.04.2014.
29. http://www.innowrota.pl/sites/default/files/images/M.Forkiewicz_2.pdf, 01.04.2014. 30. http://www.investor.wroclaw.pl/co-to-jest-gps/, 20.07.2013. 31. http://www.iso.org.pl/iso-27001, 24.04.2013. 32. http://www.iso.org.pl/iso-2800, 01.04.2014. 33. http://www.iso.org.pl/sqas, 04.01.2014. 34. http://www.iso.org.pl/tapa, 04.01.2014. 35. http://www.krakow.ic.gov.pl/index.php/aeo-i-uproszczenia, 20.10.2013. 36. http://www.logistics-aug.com/. 22.09.2013. 37. http://www.lr.org.pl/index.php?page=uslugi_morskie, 20.01.2014. 38. http://www.math.uni.opole.pl/~zlipinski/bti/BTI-wyklad-01-Bezpieczenstwo, 31.03,2014. 39. http://www.opensped.pl/eksport/aci, 17.01.2014. 40. http://www.pkn.pl/sites/default/files/discovering_iso_26000.pdf, 20.10.2013. 41. http://www.poland-trade.com.pl/najwazniejsze-cechy-samolotow-transportowych, 27.07.2013. 42. http://www.polhaccp.com/podstawy.htm, 05.01.2014. 43. http://www.sedziszow.pl/?c=mdTresc-cmPokaz-258, 06.02.2013. 44. http://www.sedziszow.pl/?c=mdTresc-cmPokaz-258, 06.02.2013. 45. http://www.sgs.pl/pl-pl/Construction/Services-Related-to-Supply-Chain, 04.04.2014. 46. http://www.sgs.pl/pl-PL/Logistics/Transportation/Marine/Advance, 02.04.2014. 47. http://www.sigmaquality.pl/normy/norma/id/26, 07.01.2014. 48. http://www.slownikonline.pl/kopalinski/7B67E4188EF88FC4412565BA000AFE26.php, 27.04.2013. 49. http://www.slownik-synonimow.eu/?s=domena&x=0&y=0, 29.04.2013. 50. http://www.strychalski.eu/, 20.03.2014. 51. http://www.supplychainsecurity.com/gov_ctpat.html, 04.01.2014. 52. http://www.transportet.pl/1142/nvocc/, 04.03.2014. 53. http://www.zgapa.pl/zgapedia/Business_intelligence.html, 9.02.2013.
