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Development of Science and Technology in Nepal Ramesh M. Singh and Dinesh R. Bhuju Science Technology Society 2001 6: 159 DOI: 10.1177/097172180100600107 The online version of this article can be found at: http://sts.sagepub.com/content/6/1/159

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Development of Science and Technology in Nepal RAMESH M. SINGH and DINESH R. BHUJU

Nepal has been a late starter in modem science and technology. In pursuance of selfreliance, it developed technological capabilities in some specific areas such as agriculture, civil engineering, architecture, metallurgy, water management, medicine, textile and paper manufacture, dyeing and food technology. Its isolation for over a century, coinciding with the Industrial Revolution in the West and colonial incursion in India, deprived the country from the advances in S&T elsewhere. After the advent of democracy in 1950, the country embarked on the path of modernisation. An initiation in S& T activities took place, along with the inception of a development plan, in 1956. The S& T sector received its due importance in development plan in the Sixth Plan (1980-85). Nepal’s new constitution, promulgated in 1990, has emphasised the importance of S&T explicitly by including a Directive Principle to promote its advancement. Major S&T organisations, including a science academy, the Ministry for Science and Technology, and several research centres and institutions for higher education in science have evolved during last five decades. However, with the low ratio of S&T manpower (0.4 per 1, 000 population) and low R&D expenditure (0.35 per cent of GNP), Nepal faces formidable challenges seeking political commitments with long-term vision and recognition of S&T as the strategic variable for overall national development.

NEPAL IS A landlocked country in South Asia. It borders with India in the east, west and south, and with China in the north. Lying on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, Nepal has unrivalled topography, with diverse climatic and altitudinal zones, contributing 118 types of ecosystems. About 83 per cent of the landmass is occupied by hills and mountains, including the highest peak of the world Mt Sagarmatha (8,848 m), and the remaining 17 per cent is the flat land of the Terai in the south. There are some 6,000 rivers and rivulets running to a length of nearly 45,000 km, which contribute to Ramesh M. Singh and Dinesh R. Bhuju are at the Royal and Technology, GPO Box 3323, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Nepal Academy of Science


160 ▪

2.27 per cent of the world’s freshwater resources. Forests provide nearly 90 per cent of the country’s total fuel demand and 50 per cent of fodder. However, the forest cover has decreased to 29 per cent in recent years (His Majesty’s Government of Nepal [hereafter HMGN] 1999). Herbal plants and other forest products constitute a major component of the country’s export. Explorations show potential of some mineral resources such as limestone, semi-precious stones, iron, copper and mica. A few industries based on limestone and forest products are coming up. Nepal has a total population of about 22 million, and is a multiethnic country with more than sixty ethnic groups. A majority of the population is based in rural areas where social taboos and traditional beliefs are still abundant. Literacy is about 45 per cent (age > 15 years). Education up to the secondary level has been made free by the government recently. Less than 50 per cent of the population has access to safe drinking water; the proportion being still less in rural areas. Life expectancy at birth has slightly improved and is over 55 years at present. About 15 per cent homes have access to electricity. Agriculture dominates the Nepali economy-nearly 80 per cent of the people are engaged in it. Tourism-based activities constitute a major source of foreign exchange earnings. In 1996-97 foreign exchange earnings from tourism amounted to about 38 per cent of the merchandised export value and nearly 14 per cent of the total value of export of both goods and services. With a per capita GNP of nearly US$ 210, Nepal belongs among the least developed countries in the world. Since 1990 a constitutional monarchy and multiparty parliamentary democracy form the political system of the country. Historical

Background of Science and Technology

The history of science and technology and its development in Nepal is yet to be traced back and studied systematically. In pursuance of self-reliance, the country developed technological capabilities in some specific areas like agriculture, civil engineering, architecture, metallurgy, water management, medicine, textile and paper manufacture, dyeing and food technology. However, its isolation for over a century for geopolitical reasons from the beginning of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth, coinciding with the Industrial Revolution in the West and colonial incursion in India, deprived the country from the advances in S&T elsewhere. A brief description is


161

provide a glimpse of Nepal’s S&T history in pre-isolation (before 1800) and isolation (1800-1950) periods. presented

here to

The Pre-isolation Period

the

(before 1800)

Before the isolation period, Nepal’s level of technology, specifically in civil engineering and agriculture, was self-sustaining and comparable with advanced nations of those times (Bhuju 1999; Gajurel 1999). A survey of traditional technologies revealed that the country possessed good technical know-how in several fields, such as metallurgy, architecture and civil engineering, textile and paper manufacture, dyeing and printing, food technology, water management, terrace farming, agricultural input, terracotta and medicine. Some of the metal works, including preparation of alloys, date back to as early as the sixth century (Gajurel and Vaidya 1983). Metal works were not limited to the production of images and idols. They also included household utensils, agricultural tools, metallic coins and other items. Nepal’s advancement in the field made it reliable for the manufacture of metallic coins for the Tibetan market during those years. Nepal’s ancient technological expertise was most remarkable in architecture and civil engineering, which were profusely blended with arts and religious philosophy. This technological capability and innovation flourished and thrived best till the end of the eighteenth century. Kathmandu valley stands as a living example of this technological history, where UNESCO identified six sites as part of the World Cultural Heritage in 1979. One of the monuments in the site is Nyatapola, a five-story temple in Bhaktapur. Standing more than 30 m high and balanced superbly upon five receding square plinths, this 300-year-old temple has survived at least three major earthquakes. In the meantime, Nepal’s scientific know-how and technological capabilities served as a base for the transfer of knowledge to neighbouring countries and made their profound impact in the region. In the 1260s, a team of Nepali artists/technicians led by the legendary architect and talent Arniko went to Beijing via Lhasa at the request of the Chinese emperor. The white pagoda, one of the major works of Arniko and his team (construction completed in 1279) still stands out there (Joshi 1987). It is believed that the basic engineering concept of pagoda-style temples, which we find today all over the world, and mostly in Buddhist countries of South Asia, had its origin in

Nepal (Gewali 1962).


162 ▪ The Isolation Period (1800-1950)

During the colonial

incursion in India, which nearly coincides with the Industrial Revolution in the West, Nepal remained virtually isolated from the rest of the world for geopolitical reasons. Thus, the

transformation brought by the Industrial Revolution was almost unnoticed in Nepal, depriving it from the benefits of advances in modem S&T. The introduction of white clover (Trifolium repens) in 1853 was Nepal’s first botanical approach to Western S&T (Pradhananga 1981). However, Nepal had to wait another seventy years to see the establishment of an S&T institution. The Agriculture Office, established in 1921, is considered the first technical organisation in the country instituted by the government. A few other initiatives taken by the government in the pre-democracy era (before 1950) were the establishment of the Ayurved School (1929), the Civil Medical School for compounders and dressers (1934), the Technical Training School for sub-overseers (1942) and the Forest Training Centre for rangers (1942). Nevertheless, Nepal witnessed the import of a few Western technologies, particularly for the utility and services of the then ruling class. For example, a hydropower station (1911), internal telephone linkages, a suspension bridge, a jute mill, a ropeway line and the construction of a few Victorian buildings, including a clock-tower. The first automobile entered the country in 1916, which was carried by porters from across the hills since there was no road to bring it to Kathmandu. Similarly, a school for higher education (Trichandra College) also offering intermediate studies in science was started in 1919, which was limited to the members of the ruling class and some influential families. The general people fulfilled their basic needs of food, clothing and construction through the use of traditional technologies they inherited. In 1950 an aeroplane was chartered by the Rana prime minister for personal purposes (reportedly for a wedding) and was the first to land in Nepal. Evolution of S&T

Institutional

Policy and Efforts

at

Planning for Development

Development: Initial Efforts during 1950-1980

With the advent of democracy and the abolition of the Rana regime in 1951, Nepal freed itself from self-imposed isolation and began to


163

path of modernisation. As a development strategy, Nepal adopted planned development and the Government of Nepal brought out its First Five-Year Plan in 1956. The Plan accorded due priority to a scientific way of production, scientific basis, scientific research, use of scientific knowledge and technology, expressing the realisation of the important role of science in the development process (Government of Nepal 1956). Besides construction of roads and embark

on

the

a

communication networks to connect Kathmandu with other parts of the country, the Nepal government took an initiative in developing infrastructure for S&T activities. Departments of irrigation, hydrology and meteorology, mines and geology, survey and medicinal plants were among the first government S&T institutions established (Bajracharya and Bhuju 2000). The beginning of this period also witnessed the creation of the Nepal Science Association, which organised the first science conference in 1956. The late King Mahendra inaugurated the conference, and the president of the association was Professor Phanindra Prasad Lohani, the first M.Sc. holder (physics) of the country. The conference provided intellectual input to the First Plan and catalysed efforts towards the development of a scientific community and establishment of professional societies in Nepal. The first societies, however, came into existence in the sixties, the important ones being. The Nepal Agriculture Association (1960), the Nepal Ayurvedic Association (1966), the Nepal Engineers Association (1967) and the Nepal Veterinary Association (1967). In the late 1950s Nepal’s first university,the Tribhuvan University, was established. Dr RN. Suwal, the country’s first Ph.D. holder in science, was appointed as membersecretary of the university commission. Dr Suwal continued his efforts in the development of S&T in the country, and persuaded the government to establish various science education and research institutions including the Ministry of Science and Technology in 1996. By the time the Second and Third Plans were prepared, the National Planning Council under the Ministry of Fiscal Planning had been created. Later, the council was reorganised as the National Planning Commission (NPC), which functioned directly under the prime minister. However, succeeding Plans till the Fifth followed the basic principles of the First Plan regarding policies and programmes. The emphasis given on industrial development by the Fourth and Fifth Plans helped establish the Nepal Industrial Development


164

Corporation (1959) and bring in the New Industrial Policy (1974). In 1965 Tribhuvan University started post-graduate programmes in natural sciences. After the establishment of institutes in medicine, forestry, agriculture, engineering and food technology in 1972, Nepal started producing its own high-level manpower in technical fields. In 1966, at the request of the Ministry of Education, UNESCO prepared a report on the existing situation of S&T in Nepal and suggested, among others, to establish a National Council for Scientific Research that would coordinate and implement S&T activities in the country (NNC/UNESCO 1966). Similar suggestions were reiterated in the following UNESCO meetings in Kathmandu. Eventually, the National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) was established in 1976. The NCST contributed to the formulation of a science and technology policy, which was mentioned in the sixth plan. However, it could not come up with a comprehensive national policy for S&T based on national needs and strategies with a long-term vision

(Bajracharya 1998). In the efforts of developing organisational infrastructure, it is notable that many institutions were established on the initiative of the Ministry of Forestry. It also fostered the establishment of some pioneering organisations, such as the Royal Drugs Research Laboratories, Royal Drugs Ltd, Royal Botanical Garden, Botanical Survey and National Herbarium, Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, Forest Research and Survey Centre, Central Food Research Laboratory, Herbs Processing and Production Ltd, and Department of Drug Administration, with internal resources and efforts alone. The Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, led by Dr S.B. Rajbhandary, pioneered mass production of healthy seedlings of potato and other economic plants through sand rooting. The success of this innovative technique initiated a base for tissue culture in Nepal. Inclusion of S&T

in National Plans: Initiatives after 1980

S&T activities increased significantly following the establishment of various S&T-related departments and institutions. However, the activities of these institutions were limited to basic routine work and provided support services for their own sectoral development activities. It was only in the Sixth Plan (1980-85) that S&T received its due place for the first time in the country’s development. The special emphasis of the plan, however, was on raising agricultural productivity,


165

utilising natural resources and expanding services such as education and health (NPC/HMGN 1980). It was the Seventh Plan (1985-90) that emphasised endogenous S&T capabilities through the integration of S&T activities with basic objectives of economic development. It is to be noted that the Sixth Plan came after the establishment of the National Council for Science and Technology, and the Seventh Plan came after the establishment of the Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST) (Shrestha 1989). The Seventh Plan stressed on meeting the basic needs of the people, namely, food, shelter, clothing, education, health and security, and it quantified basic requirements by Asian standards. The key features were to meet the people’s needs on a sustainable basis from the country’s own resources and to increase economic growth through agricultural development, industrialisation and natural resource utilisation. On utilisation of natural resources the plan aimed at making water resources a strategic factor and utilising it for irrigation, power, energy and drinking purposes. The Seventh Plan, while mentioning the importance of S&T development to fulfil basic needs, stressed on the need of creating public awareness on the use of S&T The plan also emphasised on a continuous search for appropriate technology, including the development of indigenous technology (NPC/HMGN 1985). The establishment of the Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology in 1982 was instrumental in featuring the role of S&T in the overall national development. Late by two years, the Eighth Plan (1992-97) came following the restoration of multiparty democracy by the popular movement of 1990. The new Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 required the state to give due priority to S&T. Article 26 (11) proclaimed: ’The state shall adopt policies rendering due priority for the development of science and technology and the local technologies as well.’ The statement is made under the Directive Principles and Policies of the State, which constitute the main guidelines of the state’s activities. Such articles, however, are legally unenforceable. In fact, there exists no direct legal framework in Nepal to facilitate the development of S&T except some that bear indirect relations with the sector, such as the Nepal Industrial Development Corporation Act 1959, Patent Design and Trade Mark Act 1965, Industrial Enterprise Act 1981, Foreign Investment and Technology Act 1981, Industrial Enterprise Act 1982, RONAST Act 1992 and Water Resources Act 1992. However, there are over half a dozen acts and rules/regulations in


166 ▪

relation to

biodiversity and environment protection (Yonzon and Bhuju 2000), for example, the Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1961, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, Soil and Water Conservation Act 1982 and Forest Act 1993. The Eighth Plan admitted that there was a lack of coordination in the activities of different S&T institutions in the country. The plan out clearly pointed inability to link S&T development with production and productivity in the economic sector. The plan observed that there was neither sufficient import of appropriate foreign technology nor enough efforts to develop traditional/indigenous technology, and the economy could not benefit properly due to the lack of effective dissemination of information on the available technology (NPC/ HMGN

1992). Fulfilling the two-decade-long recommendation by a national gathering, the Eighth Plan saw the establishment of the Ministry of Science and Technology in 1996, raising high hopes of scientists that it would further the development of science and technology in the country. But there were also assumptions that it was set up primarily for political reasons, that is, to accommodate the large number of ministers in the coalition government. The ministry envisaged creating a conducive environment for the proper development of S&T and making necessary arrangements for its application in the task of national development. Recently, the ministry has prepared, in collaboration with RONAST,, a preliminary draft of a twenty-year perspective plan for the development of S&T The main goal set by the Ninth Plan (1997-2002) is to alleviate poverty through the application of S&T. The Plan aims to ensure that the benefits of S&T will be made available to the rural and less privileged populace, and that S&T activities will not be confined to the urban elite but will also be initiated at the district and municipality/ village level. It is envisaged that the Ministry of Science and Technology will have an important role to play in these activities. The Ninth Plan pays particular attention to mobilising existing human resources ; in strengthening the institutional and managerial aspects of activating research agencies; in attracting the private sector to research; in encouraging rural, indigenous appropriate and advanced technolof the nation ogy research; and in developing the capacity of S&T (NPC/HMGN 1997). The size of the budget has increased substantially (nearly 575 times) from Rs 330 million in the First Plan (1956-61) to Rs 189,580 million


167

(1985-90). Up to the Fourth Plan (1970-75) efforts towards building physical infrastructure, particularly related to transportation. The shifting of emphasis towards basic needs took place from the Fifth Plan (1975-80) onwards, which was continued till the Seventh. It was in the Seventh Plan that a separate budget allocation for the S&T sector (Rs 73.2 million) was introduced, which accounted about 0.14 per cent of the total outlay. After the political upheaval in 1990, the priorities of basic needs continued in the name of poverty alleviation. With the establishment of the Ministry of Science and Technology in 1996, the S&T budget increased. But the budget shares only 1.1 per cent of the total outlay. Thus, Nepal’s development plan has included S&T as an integral part for the last two decades. The major objectives, policies and programmes have remained almost the same in the Sixth, Seventh and Eighth Plans. All three development plans have emphasised the need for coordination among S&T institutions, mobilisation of human and natural resources, manpower training, information services, selection and transfer of appropriate technology, and promotion of indigenous technology. The Ninth Plan on the other hand has come out with a few new features such as: (a) preparing, for the first time, a long-term 20-year S&T plan; (b) according greater priority to developing alternate energy and promoting information technology; (c) popularising and creating awareness of S&T in the urban as well as rural masses through informal means of education; and (d) stressing the importance of R&D in all existing government as well as priin the Seventh

were

vate

institutions.

S&T

Policy Mechanisms

and R&D

Trends

The need for a national science policy for Nepal was being expressed in different scientific for a since the 1960s. But it was in 1988 that the first comprehensive document on a national policy for S&T was prepared. The policy, prepared by RONAST, was endorsed by His Majesty’s Government of Nepal in 1989 through the Nepal Gazette for implementation (HMGN 1989). This policy sought the widest participation in its formulation process through a national-level conference, consultative meetings, correspondences, national dailies, etc. (Rana 1989). It clearly defined objectives, priorities, plans and programmes, strategies, infrastructure, administrative, financial and legal measures, organisational framework and resource mobilisation for


168 ▪

development of S&T. The document introduced a four-pronged development strategy through research and development, technology transfer, human resource development, and S&T promotion and dissemination. The document, however, lacked a specific recommendation for the implementing and coordinating authority of S&T the S&T

programmes, which the then government structure did not have. Soon after the formation of the Ministry of Science and Technology, a UNESCO mission recommended a set of new S&T policies. Committees were formed under the National Planning Commission, and the S&T ministry suggested policies, plans and programmes for the Ninth Plan. In this manner new policies were formulated with different thoughts, motives and approaches although an authentic national policy already existed. investments of Table 1 provides a glimpse of the trends in R&D investments from the government the country. The share of R&D sector alone works out to be 0.35 per cent of GNP for the year 199697. This is a marked improvement compared to 0.13 for 1986-87, excluding the private sector. During the decade 1987 to 1997 investments increased from 0.13 to 0.48 per cent in 1992-93. In absolute figures the amount increased from Rs 76.4 million to Rs 742.2 million. The estimated and projected figures up to 2001-2 are also given in the table. The trends of R&D investments over the years show investment increased as that with the political change of 1990, R&D the market forces. There was a governed by sharp increase in 199293 and 1993-94 followed by a decrease again. The government has proposed to increase investment on R&D and reach a total of 14 per

R&D

TABLE 1 Investment Trends in

.

Nepal

Note: * Estimates only. Source: Adhikary et al. 1998.


169

of GNP by 2007, which would be at par with neighbouring countries in South Asia (Adhikary et al. 1998). initiatives taken by the private sector, such as developSome R&D ment of multipurpose turbines by Akkal Man Nakarmi and his team, helped Nepal realise its microhydro concept in harnessing water resources. Today there are over 1,000 sets of microhydro plants in the country. After 1990 the government adopted the principle of privatisation and liberalisation of the economy. However, the process has not been able to fulfil its goal except in limited areas like tissue culture and information technology. In the industrial sector several government-owned enterprises were privatised but with a negative impact. Nevertheless, the liberalisation policy has brought some noticeable changes in the areas of air transportation, education (colleges and educational institutions), health management and services (nursing homes and hospitals) and tourism. The advocacy successfully put forth by Alliance for Energy in the beginning of the 1990s helped materialise installation of small and medium hydropower projects (for example, the Khimti Project, with a capacity of 60 MW) sustained by Nepal’s own internal resources instead of donor-driven mega projects. The campaigners included Dipak Gyawali and several young professionals comprising engineers, resource managers and journalists. cent

Human Resource

Manpower in

R&D

Development

and Efforts at Professionalisation ’

Organisations

It is quite impressive to note that S&T manpower has increased three-folds within a span of less than two decades in Nepal (Figure 1). The NCST estimated the number to be 2,377 in 1977 and it stood at 8,236 in 1995 (NCST 1977, 1995). However, this number is merely 0.41 per 1,000 population, which is still much lower than the minimum critical number of 1 per 1,000 people required for S&T to make a visible impact in national development (Salam 1988). Moreover, this figure also includes graduates of technical sciences such as B.E.s, M.B.B.S.s and others who are not necessarily involved in R&D (Table 2). Subject-wise, engineering showed the highest manpower with the highest percentage (30) followed by natural sciences (22) and medical science (20). One of the comparative advantages of


170 ▪

manpower of Nepal is the technological pluralism (Jequier 1988). Since the 1950s to the mid-1990s, most graduates and high-level manpower were trained and educated in various countries, including communist as well as the capitalist blocks of the world, under scholarship schemes. This has helped enrich Nepal with technological knowledge from different countries and systems. FIGURE 1 S&T

Manpower in Various Disciplines (1977 and 1995)

TABLE 2

S&T

Manpower by Academic Qualifications

Source: NCST 1995.

As reflected in Table 3, most established institutions in Nepal are involved in scientific researches and only a few of them are involved in technological innovation and development, indicating that the available technical manpower is engaged in development- and serviceoriented jobs. This is also supported by the category of research papers submitted/presented in the national science conferences (Table 4). The third national conference (1999) received 372 research papers


171

compared to 157 in the first one (1988). A majority of the papers (over 90 per cent) were based on studies/research conducted by Nepali researchers in the context of Nepal. By subject-wise classification, the highest number of papers received in all three conferences was in natural sciences followed by agriculture sciences, which were 35 per cent and 18 per cent respectively of the total papers (RONAST 2000). Major R&D

Opportunities

in

Higher S&T

TABLE 3 Institutions: Areas and Manpower

Education

As noted earlier, education was made accessible to the general public only after 1950 in Nepal. Till 1970 Nepali students had to go abroad for higher studies in technical fields such as engineering,


172

TABLE 4 Number of Research Papers in the National Science Conferences RONAST

Source: S&T

Organised by

Promotion Division, RONAST

medicine, agriculture and forestry. Graduate programmes were initiated after 1972 when Tribhuvan University (TU) established institutes for higher studies. Higher study programmes were relaxed to allow in private institutions and entrepreneurs after the re-institution of the multiparty system in 1990, bringing several institutes in engineering and medicine, both in the private as well as public sectors. A few of them were commenced with affiliations from foreign educational institutes. Similarly, several universities have been added, including Kathmandu University (1991), Purwanchal University (1993) and Pokhara University (1995). However, a major bulk, comprising 84.1 per cent of S&T manpower, is produced by TU (Table 5). Similarly, TU is backed up by over 1,500 S&T graduates, including specialists, constituting 20 per cent of the total S&T manpower in the country. Through there are S&T personnel who return to the country for a number of reasons, brain drain continues to be a problem for Nepal. A recent document of the National Planning Commission estimated that out of about 700 available IT graduates 22 per cent are working abroad (NPC/HMGN 1999). An almost similar situation could be observed in other disciplines as well. There is no study and/or figures available on how much Nepali S&T manpower is working abroad, but it is feared that the number working in developed countries is fairly high and increasing. Among urban dwellers, sending their children for higher studies abroad is turning out to be a matter of social status, and it has been reported that most undergraduates going for


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