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How to cite this thesis Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za (Accessed: Date).
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SOURCE LANGUAGE DELIVERY SPEED AND SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETERS’ STRATEGIES IN THE PAN-AFRICAN PARLIAMENT by SINDOH QUEENTA ANYELE
MA DISSERTATION Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF ARTS in APPLIED LINGUISTICS in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
SUPERVISOR: PROF. ANNE-MARIE BEUKES CO-SUPERVISOR: MS STEFANIE DOSE
Submission date: October 2014
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AFFIDAVIT: MASTER’S AND DOCTORAL STUDENTS TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
This serves to confirm that I SINDOH QUEENTA ANYELE (Full Name(s) and Surname)
ID/Passport Number 01445192
Student number 201281444 enrolled for the
Qualification MATERS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS
In the Faculty of HUMANITIES
Herewith declare that my academic work is in line with the Plagiarism Policy of the University of Johannesburg, with which I am familiar.
I further declare that the work presented in the Minor dissertation
Dissertation
Doctoral thesis X
is my own work unless clearly indicated otherwise, and in such instances full reference to the source is provided. I do not presume to receive any credit for such acknowledged quotations, and
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there is no copyright infringement in my work. I declare that no unethical research practices were used or material gained through dishonesty. I understand that plagiarism is a serious offence, and that should I contravene the Plagiarism Policy, notwithstanding signing this affidavit, I may be found guilty of a serious criminal offence (perjury). This would among other consequences compel the UJ to inform all other tertiary institutions of the offence and to issue a corresponding certificate of reprehensible academic conduct to whoever requests such a certificate from the institution.
I furthermore declare that this study has not been submitted to any other institution as part of the requirements for a formal degree.
Signed at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG on this 30 day of OCTOBER 2014
Signature ______________________________ Print name SINDOH QUEENTA ANYELE
STAMP COMMISSIONER OF OATHS Affidavit certified by a Commissioner of Oaths This affidavit conforms to the requirements of the JUSTICES OF THE PEACE AND COMMISSIONERS OF OATHS ACT 16 OF 1963 and the applicable Regulations published in the GG GNR 1258 of 21 July 1972; GN 903 of 10 July 1998; GN 109 of 2 February 2001 as amended.
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DEDICATION To My father ANYELE NDE PETER & My mother ESTHER ENJEI ANYELE
“Education is not the learning of facts but the training of the mind to think.” - Albert Einstein
“We can only be said to be alive in those moments when our hearts are conscious of our treasures.” - Thornton Wilder
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A word of gratitude to the almighty God for his grace and blessing upon my life especially my studies A word of appreciation to my two supervisors Prof. Anne-Marie Beukes and Ms. Stefanie Dose for the guidance, words of wisdom, knowledge and support they gave me throughout the course of my master studies. I especially wish to thank my father Anyele Peter Nde and my mother Anyele Esther Enjei for the life they gave me, for their love, emotional and financial support. You make me believe in myself, you give me strength to strive for the best, you make me happy and give me a reason to live and always move forward. I again wish to thank Anyele Atanga Allen who did not only bring me to South Africa but ensured that I further my studies. Allen, I use this opportunity to acknowledge your love, emotional and financial support. Thank you for being my father, brother and friend. And to your wife Alice Dimakatso Anyele who did not only give me emotional support but stood up all those nights to listen to my problems. I thank you Maki, for not only being a friend but a mother to me. A special thanks to my brothers Anyele Ivans, Anyele Victor and Anyele Elmer. Your love makes me feel specials and makes me believe in my worth. Another special thanks to my friends, Anthea Paelo, Natasha Bambo, Thabisile Adams and Kappe Christelle. To Anthea and Thabi thanks for listening even when you needed to sleep or work; for holding my hand when I was falling and giving me words of courage and determination. Natasha with all our endless disagreements you gave me the will power to always go forward. Christelle I thank you for the long calls and messages, though you were far away, you always remembered to check on me and encourage me to work hard. Thank you Ladies! I end by giving a big thanks to Tawah Edmond, who gave me courage and determination to finish this work. Special thanks for the emotional and financial support you gave me. Thanks for being there for me as a friend and a loved one. And to all those I have not mentioned that supported me in one way or the other, thank you!!!
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ABSTRACT Much research has focused on general strategy use during simultaneous interpreting (SI), while little research has been conducted on how interpreters’ choice of strategies relates to source text (ST) delivery speed (DS). Hence, it is unclear whether interpreters use the same strategies when confronted with fast speech, average speech, and slow speech; or, whether they use different strategies under these three conditions. This research argues that interpreters use specific strategies to cope with the different ST delivery speed during simultaneous interpreting within the PanAfrican Parliament (PAP). The PAP consists of delegates from African countries with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. In order to facilitate communication in this multilingual setting, the PAP has adopted six official working languages. However, the latter still do not resolve institutional communication barriers; hence the need for such services as simultaneous interpreting. The PAP is situated in Midrand, South Africa, and plays an important role in African politics. It offers SI in English and French. Nevertheless, no previous studies on simultaneous interpreting have been conducted at the PAP. Thus, through empirical research based on primary data consisting of recordings of simultaneous interpreting in French and English at the PAP, this study examines interpreters’ use of strategies. The main focus of the study is the strategies for fast, average, and slow delivery speed identified by Gile (1995), during actual interpreting at the PAP The study categorises these interpreting strategies into meaning-based (lexical dissimilarity) or form-based (lexical similarity) and indicates those that are more appropriate for each DS during SI. By differentiating the various strategies used by interpreters to deal with all three ST delivery speeds, this study creates an awareness about and
clarifies how certain interpreting conditions, such as speed, affect
interpreters’ coping tactics. In particular, the study demonstrates that the faster the speed, the more form-based (FB) the strategies will be; and, the slower the speed, the more interpreters will resort to meaning-based (MB) strategies. Ultimately, the study demonstrates that strategies that lead to meaning-based interpreting are more successful than the others which lead to a form-based interpreting.
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AFFIDAVIT DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
II IV V
ABSTRACT
VI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
XI
LIST OF TABLES
XII
CHAPTER 1
1
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1.
Context
1
1.2.
Research Problem
8
1.3.
Aim and Objectives
8
1.4.
Rationale for the Study
9
1.5.
Research Questions
9
1.6.
Method
10
1.7.
Scope
10
CHAPTER 2
12
LITERATURE REVIEW
12
2.1. BACKGROUND TO SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING
12
2.1.1. Interpreting Defined
12
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2.1.2. Simultaneous Interpreting Defined
13
2.1.3. The Process of Simultaneous Interpreting
15
2. 2. DELIVERY SPEED IN SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING
16
2.2.1. Discussing delivery speed in SI 2.2.2. Non-Empirical Studies 2.2.3. Empirical Studies
16 17 18
2.3. STRATEGIES IN SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING
21
2.3.1. Strategies defined and discussed
21
2.3.2. Non-Empirical Studies
23
2.3.3. Empirical Studies
25
2.4. CLASSIFICATION OF STRATEGIES
28
2.4.1. Meaning-based versus Form-based Strategies
28
2.4.1.1. Strategies Explained
29
2.5. SUMMARY
36
CHAPTER 3
38
METHODOLOGY
38
3.1. HYPOTHESIS
38
3.2. SETTING
39
3.3. METHOD AND DATA COLLECTION
39
3.3.1. Recordings
40
3.3.2. Questionnaires
41
3.4. Ethical Considerations
42
3.5. DATA SELECTION
42
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3.6. DATA TRANSCRIPTION
44
3.7. DETERMINING SPEED PER LANGUAGE (ENGLISH AND FRENCH)
45
3.8. PARTICIPANTS
49
Participants
50
3.9. DATA ANALYSIS
50
3.10. SUMMARY
53
CHAPTER 4
54
DATA PRESENTATION
54
4.1. Content of SL Speeches 4.1.1. Day One 4.1.2. Day Two 4.1.3. Day Three 4.1.4. Day Four
54 54 54 55 55
4.2. Strategies used during Fast Delivery Speed 4.2.1. Strategies used during Interventions 4.2.2. Strategies Used during Presentations
59 59 68
4.3. Strategies Used during Average Delivery Speed 4.3.1. Strategies Used during Interventions 4.3.2. Strategies used during Presentations
85 85 88
4.4. Strategies Used during Slow Delivery Speed 4.4.1. Strategies Used during Interventions 4.4.2. Strategies Used during Presentation
100 100 102
CHAPTER 5
116
DATA ANALYSIS
116
5.1. Analysis and Comparison of Strategies in all Three Delivery Speeds (DS) 5.1.2. Findings: 5.1.3. Discussion
116 117 117
5.2. Comparison of Intervention Strategies and Presentation Strategies in all Three DS 5.2.2. Strategies Mostly Used during Interventions
130 131
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5.2.3. Strategies Mostly Used during Presentations 5.2.5. Findings 5.2.6. Discussion
132 134 134
5.3. Presentation of Strategy Use per Interpreter 5.3.5. Findings 5.3.6. Discussion
136 138 140
5.4. Meaning-based and Form-based Classification of Strategies 4.4.3. Discussion
142 144
SUMMARY
145
CHAPTER 6
147
CONCLUSION
147
6.1. Summary
147
6.2. New Findings, Limitations and recommendations
153
LIST OF REFERENCES
157
APPENDICES
166
Addendum A: Source Text Speeches
166
Addendum B: Transcripts used
166
Addendum C: Background Information of Interpreters from Questionnaires
179
Addendum D: The Pan-African Parliament Consent Form
180
Addendum E: Pictures
181
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List of Abbreviations DS (Delivery Speed) DSs (Delivery speeds) DTS (Descriptive translation studies) FB (Form-based) Int. (Interpreter) Ints. (Interpreters) MB (Meaning-based) MPs (Members of Parliament) PAP (The Pan-African Parliament) SI (Simultaneous interpreting) SL (Source language) ST (Source text) TL (Target language) TT (Target text) Wpm (Words per minute) Wps (Words per second)
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List of Tables 2.4.1.2. Table 1: Classification of SI Strategies .......................................................................................... 35 3.5.1. Table 2: Data presentation ................................................................................................................ 44 3.7.1. Table 3 : Data presentation: duration of speeches ............................................................................ 48 4.1.5. Table 4: Summary of Data Used ....................................................................................................... 57 4.1.6. Table 5: Total number of words across delivery speeds (DS) and speech type (intervention and Presentation) ............................................................................................................................................... 59 Table 6: Frequency of Strategic use............................................................................................................ 64 Table 7: Frequency of Strategic Use ........................................................................................................... 67 Table 8: Frequency of Strategic Use ........................................................................................................... 68 Table 9: Frequency of Strategic Use ........................................................................................................... 71 Table 10: Frequency of Strategy Use.......................................................................................................... 72 Table 11: Frequency of Strategic use.......................................................................................................... 84 4.2.1.1. Table 12: Total Number and Frequency of Strategies Used during Fast Delivery Speed Speech . 84 Table 13: Frequency of Strategic Use ......................................................................................................... 86 Table 14: Frequency of Strategic Use ......................................................................................................... 88 Table 15: Frequency of Strategic Use ......................................................................................................... 92 Table 16: Frequency of Strategic Use ......................................................................................................... 99 Table 17: Frequency of Strategic Use ....................................................................................................... 100 4.3.2.1. Table 18: Total Number and Frequency of Strategies Used during Average Speed Delivery Speech ....................................................................................................................................................... 100 Table 19: Frequency of Strategic Use ....................................................................................................... 102 Table 20: Frequency of Strategic Use ....................................................................................................... 104 Table 21: Frequency of Strategic Use ....................................................................................................... 106 Table 22: Frequency of Strategic Use ....................................................................................................... 115 4.4.2.1. Table 23: Total Number and Frequency of Strategies used during Slow Delivery Speed Speech 115 5.1.1. Table 24 : Presentation of Strategies in Fast, Average and Slow DS ............................................. 116 5.1.2. Table 25: Total number of words across delivery speeds (DS) and speech type (intervention and Presentation) ............................................................................................................................................. 116 5.2.1. Table 26: Presentation of Strategies in both Speech Types (Intervention and Presentation) ......... 130 5.2.4. Table 27: Percentages of Strategies per Word Used in both Speech Types ................................... 133 5.3.1. Table 28: Presentation of Strategies per Interpreter ........................................................................ 136 5.3.2. Table 29: Percentages of Strategies Used by Interpreters according to the Number of Words ...... 137 5.3.3. Table 30: Delivery Speed and Speech Type of Interpreters ........................................................... 137 5.3.4. Table 31 Interpreters and Strategy Use ........................................................................................... 137 5.4.1. Table 32: Presentation of Strategies under Meaning-based and Form-based Strategies ................ 142 5.4.2. Table 33: omparison between Meaning and Form-based Strategies .............................................. 143
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Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1.
Context
Thousands of languages exist all over the world; therefore, it becomes difficult for a single individual to speak all of them. This justifies the need for interpreters who serve as a bridge to ease communication between people speaking different languages. Angel Elli (2004:8) states that “interpreters have always been necessary, not only for bridging the communication between individuals from multilingual and highly advanced civilisations, but also in brokering the social differences amongst them”. This passage clearly shows that interpreters have an important role to play in a multilingual, and even bilingual, setting. As-Safi (2011:6) explains that “interpreting consists in conveying to the target language the most accurate, natural equivalent of the source language oral message”. He stresses that, in bridging this gap, interpreters have to attempt to convey the equivalent meaning in the target language. It needs to be mentioned that interpreting consists of different types and modes. The modes of interpreting refer to the way or manner in which interpreting is performed, whereas the type of interpreting relate to the settings in which interpreting takes place. The three main modes of interpreting are simultaneous, consecutive, and whispered (chuchotage). In simultaneous interpreting, the interpreters sit in a booth with a clear view of the meeting room. They listen to the speaker through headphones and interpret the speech – as it unfolds (simultaneously) –into the other conference languages. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter sits at the table with the delegates or stands on the platform next to the speaker and interprets the speech into the required language, once the speaker has finished. The interpreter takes notes so as to give an accurate rendering of the speech which may be delivered in sections, up to approximately 15 minutes. Whispered interpreting occurs when only one or two delegates require assistance: the interpreter can sit next to them and whisper into the required language (AICC UK-Ireland, n.d.: Phelan, 2001: 6-12).
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As for the types of interpreting, they include conference interpreting which takes place at international conferences and official meetings such as intergovernmental meetings (and could be simultaneous or consecutive); business interpreting which involves business negotiations and management meetings (and could be consecutive and whispered); court interpreting which takes place during trials, discoveries, and witness preparations at law firms and courts (and is mostly consecutive); community interpreting which includes a variety of situations, such as personal interpreting for visits to a family doctor or dentist, driver’s licence tests, and meetings with immigration officers (and involves both consecutive and whispering) (Aejapan n.d.; Phelan, 2001:13-17). Language Market Place [n.d.] adds two more types of interpreting, namely, escort interpreting where the interpreter accompanies a person or a delegation on a tour, a visit, or to a meeting or interview, and medical interpreting which consists of communication between a medical caregiver and a patient’s family members. Conference interpreting is the main concern of this study. Riccardi (2005) observes that conference interpreting is a goal-oriented activity which aims at a faithful reproduction of the source text in the target language (TL), under given circumstances. She adds that interpreting involves decisionmaking or problem-solving activities. This decision-making could be conscious or an unconscious at all levels of TL production. It should be noted that only one mode of conference interpreting will be discussed – simultaneous. Christoffels and De Groot (cited in Kroll and De Groot, 2005:454) state that, during simultaneous interpreting (SI), the interpreter has to listen to and comprehend the input utterance in one language, keep it in working memory until it has been recoded [recorded] and then produce a new utterance in another language, and the translation of an earlier part of the input, all at the same time. Simply put, the interpreter listens to the SL, understands it, and produces the interpreted speech in the TL. During this process (simultaneous interpreting), interpreters are confronted with certain interpreting difficulties which require the use of specific strategies. Gile (1995:161-169) and Pöchhacker (cited in Munday, 2009:135) concur that the interpreter will face problems relating to comprehension, production, and memory. Comprehension problems ranging from the identification of SL words to the final decision about the ‘meaning’ of the SL utterance. Production issues vary from the representation of the TL message to be delivered, to both speech planning and
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the actual production of the TL utterance. Memory problems are associated with the time lag between the moment the speech sound is heard and when it is interpreted. These are the different types of problems interpreters may face during interpreting and may require them to use what Gile (1995) refers to as ‘coping tactics ’. Gile (1995) underscores that coping tactics are a very fundamental practical skill used by interpreters when confronted with problems arising from comprehension, production, or memory difficulties. Though sometimes referred to as technique or tactic (Pöchhacker, 2004:132), or coping tactics (Gile, 1995), this study will use the word ‘strategy’ to refer to these terms. Owji (2013: n.d.) adds that “problem-solving is the most important function of the strategies”. Therefore, this research will only investigate strategies that are problem-oriented. Indeed, Owji (2013) highlights that translation strategies could involve textmanipulation, could be goal-oriented or problem-oriented, and could be applied consciously or inter-subjectively. This study foregrounds the view that strategy use could be product-oriented or process-oriented and strategies could be applied consciously or unconsciously. Rosa (cited in Gambier and Doorslaer, 2010:95) differentiates between process-oriented, productoriented, and function-oriented descriptive translation studies (DTS). She contrasts that productoriented DTS focuses on the description of individual translations, the comparative description of several translations of the same text, and the description of larger collections of translations (called corpora); that process-oriented DTS deals with the systematic description of what goes on in the interpreter’s mind while interpreting; and that function-oriented DTS is concerned with the translation context, rather than the text itself. As-Safi (2011:49) adds that process-oriented DTS involves a study of information processing in relation to topics such as perception, memory, encoding, and decoding of messages. He stresses the fact that such a study draws heavily on psychology or psycholinguistics. As for product-oriented translation, it involves a study of texts with focus on linguistic aspects (syntax and semantics), stylistics, text-linguistics, and discourse analysis. In the light of the above distinction, process-oriented strategies are those that can only be investigated through interviewing the interpreter, while product-oriented strategies are those that can be investigated through analysing the text. As-Safi (2011:50-52) indicates that, in productoriented translation, the original text is compared with the target text in order to identify problems or strategies. Ozben (1998:63-65) observes that interpreting involves non-product-oriented and product-oriented studies. He indicates that non-product-oriented studies involve an investigation
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of the interpreter’s mental activities, through the use of questionnaires and interviews; while product-oriented studies base their data on conference recordings and transcriptions of the interpreters’ work. With regard to the conscious or unconscious aspect of strategy use, Gambier (cited in Gambier and Doorslaer, 2010:414) notes that a strategy can be “controlled or uncontrolled, conscious or automated”. Insofar as strategy use being goal-oriented and problem-oriented, Gambier (cited in Gambier and Doorslaer, 2010:414) remarks that a “strategy is no longer a constitutive element for a general translation theory but a tool to tackle the possible problems that emerge during translation [interpreting] process”. In light of the above, an interpreting strategy refers to a conscious or an unconscious step used by the interpreter to cope with interpreting difficulties or to avoid the occurrence of a possible future interpreting problem. This research will focus on product-oriented and problem-oriented strategies which will involve the analysis of both the original and target text in the context of the Pan-African Parliament. Language Market Place [n.d.] indicates that interpreting can take place in international organisations such as the United Nations, the European Commission, the European Parliament, the European Court of Justice, and the Pan-African Parliament. Setton (cited in Gambier and Doorslaer, 2010:67) observes that today’s conference interpreting mostly takes place in multilingual international organisations such as the European Union, and in bilingual markets. Hence, this research focuses on simultaneous interpreting performed in an international organisation called the Pan-African Parliament (PAP). The PAP was established in 2004 as a result of the imperative for African countries to act together for their common interest and to assist the African Union in providing a common platform for Africans to forge a collective identity (The Pan-African parliament.org). The PAP consists of 54 African member states with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Each member state has the right to communicate in its preferred language. However, in order to facilitate communication in this multilingual setting, the PAP has adopted six official working languages, namely, English, French, Arabic, Kiswahili, Spanish, and Portuguese (PAP, 2006). Their aim and the languages the PAP uses can be seen in their logo below:
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Source: The Pan-African Parliament website (2014). However, these working languages still do not remove the existing institutional communication barriers since many Members of Parliament (MPs) understand and speak only one of these six official languages. Hence the need for interpreting services aimed at addressing the communication barriers between MPs during plenary sessions and committee meetings. Consequently, the focus of the present study is on simultaneous interpreting (SI) done for MPs during plenary sessions or general sessions, as opposed to committee meetings or specialised sessions. In the plenary sessions, all MPs meet to discuss the topics on the agenda. This is a picture of a plenary session:
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Source: The Pan-African Parliament, Midrand, South Africa (Google images, 2014). The PAP was chosen as data source, firstly, because it is situated in Midrand, South Africa, and is therefore easily accessible to the researcher. Secondly, it was selected because it plays an important role in African politics and offers SI in English and French, in which the researcher is competent. Thirdly and finally, the PAP was chosen because no previous studies have been conducted on interpreting and both strategy use and speed at the PAP. Authors such as Gumul and Lyda (2007), Li (2010), Pöchhacker (2004), Gerver (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002), and Meuleman and Van Besien (2009) have discussed strategy use in relation to the delivery speed of the speaker or the source language in different settings. They suggest that speed may be a variable that causes interpreters to make use of a specific type of strategy. Gerver (1969, reprinted in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:52-66), Gumul and Lyda (2007), Li (2010), Meuleman and Van Besien (2009), Paneth (1957, reprinted in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:32), and Pio (2003) have explored the effect of delivery speed on interpreters’
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performance. All the above mentioned authors assert that fast speech is the arch enemy of simultaneous interpreters and that a high source language delivery rate is a variable that often adds more stress to the already fatiguing task of SI; these factors may undermine the quality of the interpreter's output. Meuleman and Van Besien (2009) who combine strategy use and delivery speed highlight that an interpreter will use a particular strategy, such as tailing, when confronted with high speed. Just like fast delivery speed, slow delivery speed can disrupt the processing of information in interpreting in that when the speaker is slow, the interpreter sometimes has to wait for the end of the segment (which is a strategy) before interpreting (Pöchhacker, 2004:129). Pöchhacker (2004), Nolan (2005), Kohn and Kalina (1996), Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002), Kirchhoff (1976, reprinted in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:114), Jones (2002), and Bartlomiejczyk (2006:149-174) have discussed strategy use in SI. However, as indicated earlier, the focus of the present study will be on Gile’s (1995) ‘coping tactics’. Gile’s (1995) concept was chosen as the theoretical framework of this research because it offers a comprehensive classification of strategies, and most of the strategies involved in Gile’s study are problem-oriented and product-oriented – and coincide with the focus of this study. Gile (1995) discusses three types of strategies: comprehension strategies such as reconstructing the segment (also addressed by Pöchhacker, 2004; Nolan, 2005), preventive strategies such as segmentation (also explored by Kohn and Kalina, 1996; Al-Salman and Al-Khanji, 2002), and reformulation strategies such as paraphrasing and omission (also covered by Jones, 2002). Kirchhoff (1976, reprinted in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:114), and Bartlomiejczyk (2006:149-174) also explore and analyse a great number of strategies in SI. Authors such as Dam (reprinted in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:267-268), classify strategies as meaning-based or form-based. She indicates that certain strategies lead to a more meaningbased TL output, while others result in a more form-based product. She explains that form-based strategies display a high degree of lexical similarity between source text and target text while meaning-based strategies reflect a high degree of lexical dissimilarity between the source text and target text. Larson (1998) argues that form and meaning are important in translation, taking into consideration the fact that meaning is transferred through the form of a language. However, he maintains that there are two main types of translation: form-based and meaning-based. Larson
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(1998:17) explains that “form-based translations attempt to follow the form of the source language [while] meaning-based translations make every effort to communicate the meaning of the source language”. Based on the fact that “it is the meaning which is being transferred and must be held constant” (Larson, 1998:3) during interpreting.
1.2.
Research Problem
Many researchers have focused on general strategy use during SI. In other words, little research has been done on the relationship between interpreters’ choice of strategies and ST delivery speed. Also, little research has been done on strategies used during slow delivery speed, in particular, as compared to fast delivery speed As a result, it is unclear whether interpreters use the same or different strategies when confronted with a fast speech, an average speech, and a slow speech. It is also unclear whether the strategies used under these three delivery speeds are more meaningbased or form-based; just as it remains to be established which strategies, under which delivery speed, lead to a lexically dissimilar or lexically similar target text.
1.3.
Aim and Objectives
Researchers (Gile, 1995; Kohn and Kalina, 1996; Pöchhacker, 2004) have identified certain interpreting strategies used by interpreters in order to cope with difficulties related to comprehension, processing capacity, production, and memory span. The present study endeavours to examine the application of such strategies, with a particular focus on those strategies identified by Gile (1995) during actual interpreting at the PAP. Furthermore, while most of the above researchers identify strategies used in SI, few authors relate the use of specific strategies to the ST delivery speed. A study that focuses on fast, average, and slow ST delivery speed may enable a differentiation between strategies used by interpreters to deal with all three types of speech, thereby creating awareness of the way interpreters use specific strategies to cope with different delivery speeds. Therefore, the present study attempts to categorise these strategies into meaning-based (lexical dissimilarity) or form-based (lexical similarity) interpreting (Dam, reprinted in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:267-268). Such a classification will shade light on the way in which certain interpreting conditions affect interpreters’ coping tactics. The current study identifies strategies used in fast, average, and slow speeches and, will compare strategies used in both presentation and intervention types of source speech to determine whether
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different or similar strategies are used in each case. Interventions are situations in which the speakers respond to the presentations made, give comments, and ask questions. In such situations, the interpreter is not aware of what the speaker will say and, does not have copies of the speech in advance, as is the case with some of the presentations. In addition, presentations involve situations where the speakers give long presentations or speeches and, sometimes, the interpreters have hard copies of these documents. They may also have both the translated and original versions of these presentations or speeches, which ease the interpreting process. The researcher observed that some interpreters used these documents. Furthermore, the study investigates each interpreter and his/her use of strategies. It finally determines whether the strategies used by interpreters to cope with a fast speed speech, a slow speed speech, and an average speed speech are more form-based (i.e. display lexical similarity) or more meaning-based (i.e. display lexical dissimilarity), or whether they belong to both categories to a similar extent.
1.4.
Rationale for the Study
The rationale for this study is the absence of research that differentiates between the strategies used by interpreters under all three types of ST delivery speed. Also, most researchers have discussed strategies relating to fast delivery speed, however little has been said about strategies used during slow delivery speed. This research will therefore shed light on strategies used during slow delivery speed, as compared to other delivery speeds. Thus, this does not only create awareness about the difference between the various strategies, but also adds clarity on how such interpreting conditions as speed affect interpreters’ coping tactics. This study is also important because it establishes whether the strategies used under fast, average, and slow delivery speeds are categorised as meaning-based or form-based.
1.5.
Research Questions
This study seeks to address the following four research questions:
Does speed influence the interpreters’ choice of strategy?
Does the speech type (intervention or presentation) influence strategy use?
10
Is there a difference between strategies used from one interpreter to the other; if yes, is speed a reason for this difference?
Are the strategies used under the three different DS more form-based or meaning-based?
1.6.
Method
Ozben (1998:64-65) distinguishes four types of empirical research in SI; and, identifies input, process, input/output, and output as the four aspects to be considered when analysing SI interpreting. Input involves variables such as the quality of sound transmission, source text rate, source text type and number, and position of pauses. Process includes variables such as quantitative and qualitative ear-voice span. Input/output involves such variables as source language and its relation to the target language. Output comprises variables such as the propositional content of the interpretation which is compared with the source text content, pauses in the interpretation, the phonological characteristics of the interpretation, comprehension, and recall in the audience (Ozben, 1998:64-65). This research is empirical in that it focuses on both the input (source text rate) and the output (source language and its relation to the target language). This study uses a qualitative research method and focuses on empirical research design based on primary data which consists of recordings of SI in French and English at the PAP. The recordings of the speeches delivered by the parliamentarians are transcribed into written format and each segment of the interpreted speech is compared with its corresponding SL segment. A purposive sampling method will be used. The data will be selected so as to represent the three delivery speeds, male and female interpreters, speeches in English and those in French, and the different speech types (intervention speeches and presentation speeches). Deductive reasoning will be used by applying existing theories (i.e. strategies observed by other researchers) to the data collected.
1.7.
Scope
Chapter Two focuses on the literature review which provides a background to interpreting. It defines interpreting in general and simultaneous interpreting in particular. It discusses strategy use in simultaneous interpreting and defines strategies. In addition, it discusses speed and strategic use in SI. Finally, it categorises the identified strategies as form-based or meaning-based strategies.
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Chapter Three discusses the research methodology. It describes the setting of the research, provides the means through which the data are collected and selected, and how they are transcribed. It also discusses how the speech rate is determined, provides the background on the participants, and explains how the data are analysed. Chapter Four relates to data presentation. It discusses the context of the speeches shows those that were transcribed and analysed. It also provides examples of each strategy under each delivery speed, in terms of intervention and presentation speeches into English and into French, and based on each interpreter. The resulting classification will ease the data analysis, since it consists of the different aspects to be discussed in the data analysis chapter. Chapter Five deals with the data analysis. It identifies the strategies used under each delivery speed and establishes those that are common to all speech speeds and those that are only used in one of the speeds. It also classifies strategies used during interventions and presentations, and discusses the link between strategies used in both speech type and delivery speed. Furthermore, it classifies these strategies under each interpreter and compares strategy use per interpreter in relation to speed. Finally, it classifies strategies under each delivery speed and states whether they are more meaning-based or form-based. Chapter Six provides a summary of the study and an evaluation of the findings, highlights the contribution of the study, and makes recommendations for further research.
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Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1. Background to Simultaneous Interpreting 2.1.1. Interpreting Defined The definition of interpreting will enable the reader to understand the process of interpreting during the PAP sessions. Most definitions consider interpreting as a special form of translation, and highlight either its orality or its immediacy. Pöchhacker, for example, defines interpreting as a “translational activity” (2004:9), that is, as a special form of translation. However, he highlights that though interpreting is a form of translation, it is different from translation, due to its immediacy. Phelan (2001:6) explains that interpreting takes place when someone gives an oral translation of what he/she hears into another language. She further indicates that interpreting occurs when an interpreter listens to a spoken message in the source language. Other scholars, such as Mikkelson (2000), do not link interpreting to translation; nonetheless, they highlight the importance of orality in interpreting. Nolan (2005:2) defines interpreting as an activity consisting in an interpreter listening to a spoken message in a source language and rendering it orally, consecutively or simultaneously in a target language. Mikkelson (2000:67) defines interpreting as the transfer of an oral message from one language to another in real time, as opposed to translation which is the transfer of a written message from one language to another and may occur years after the original message was written.
Yet, other authors consider immediacy as the defining aspect of SI. Pöchhacker (2004:10), for instance, asserts that interpreting is not the same as oral translation, although it consists in an oral rendition of spoken messages. Clearly, he tries to avoid the dichotomy of oral versus written in
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interpreting. This is why Pöchhacker bases his definition of interpreting on immediacy. He underscores that interpreting can be distinguished from other types of transitional activities not only because it is often oral, but also due to its immediacy. This means that interpreting “is performed ‘here’ and ‘now’ for the benefit of the people who want to engage in communication across barriers of language and culture” (2004:10). The above discussion demonstrates that many scholars have attempted to define interpreting in different ways. It shows that, in most cases, the importance has been accorded to the orality of the utterances and the immediacy of the interpreting activity. The researcher’s understanding of interpreting in this study is in line with the definition of interpreting provided by Pöchhacker (2004) who highlights immediacy. In Pöchhacker’s (2004:11) own words, interpreting is “a form of translation in which a first and final rendition of a message is produced on the basis of a onetime presentation of an utterance in a source language”. That is, interpreting is the transfer of a message from the SL to the TL, performed in the here and now. It becomes important to reiterate the researcher’s awareness of the existence of different modes of interpreting, such as simultaneous interpreting and consecutive interpreting (conference interpreting), whispered interpreting, bilateral or liaison interpreting, and sight translation. However, for the purposes of this study, the researcher explores a specific type of conference interpreting known as simultaneous interpreting.
2.1.2. Simultaneous Interpreting Defined According to Phelan (2001:6), conference interpreting refers to the usage of both consecutive and simultaneous interpreting during a conference or a meeting. It should be noted that conference interpreting is commonly provided by a number of parliaments around the world (such as the PanAfrican Parliament). Nevertheless, some authors (Kirchhoff, cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002; Paneth, cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002), argue that SI does not involve a simultaneous transfer of meaning, but rather an interpretation of a target language utterance that follows its original or source language utterance. These authors identify time lag as an element that contributes to making this form of interpreting quasi-simultaneous and not simultaneous.
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Kirchhoff (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:111), for example, contends that the term simultaneous is justified only from the perspective of an observer, since the continuous production of equivalent TL segments can never take place at the same time as the production of the SL segments. This process, according to Kirchhoff, can be characterized as quasi-simultaneous, since it requires a phase shift from the SL input to the TL output. Kirchhoff (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:111) adds that “in simultaneous interpreting, the interpreter, using technical equipment, perceives a sender’s source language (SL) message in segments, processes it and renders it immediately and continuously in the target language (TL) for a receiver”. She clearly disagrees with the view of SI as a simultaneous transfer of meaning; rather, she considers it as a continuous or quasi-simultaneous transfer of meaning from SL to TL. Similarly, Paneth (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:32) stresses that simultaneous interpreting does not involve a simultaneous interpretation; rather, the interpretation of an utterance follows its original enunciation with a considerable lag of time. This means that the interpreter listens to parts of ‘phase b’ while still interpreting ‘phase a’. Therefore, the interpreter “says not what he hears but what he has heard” (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:32). According to Mikkleson, in SI, “the information is transferred into a second language as soon as interpreters understand a “unit” of meaning” (2002:72). He also agrees with most scholars that the word simultaneous is misleading, because the interpreters have to understand a minimum of information before they can interpret it into the TL. This lag between the original speech and the interpretation is called décalage. Although its length varies, it is usually not longer than seven to eight seconds (Mikkleson, 2002:72). Despite the fact that many scholars argue that the term simultaneous is inappropriate and should be replaced with quasi-simultaneous, others, such as Jones (2002:5), maintain that it is appropriate. In this regard, Jones (2002:5) observes: Here the interpreter listens to the beginning of the speaker’s comments and then begins interpreting while the speech continues, carrying on throughout the speech, to finish almost at the same time as the original. The interpreter is thus speaking simultaneously to the original, hence the name.
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Clearly, Jones disputes the fact that this form of interpretation should be called quasi-simultaneous and comments that it “appears to be a rather futile quibble” (Jones 2002:5). He prefers the term simultaneous which is also adopted in this study.
2.1.3. The Process of Simultaneous Interpreting Kirchhoff (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:111) emphasizes that simultaneous interpreting is a multi-phase process that occurs sequentially in that, while the sender’s output – except in the case of a pause – is being produced, it must be processed continuously. She sees this process as involving four phases, namely, decoding of SL segment, recording, TL production, and output monitoring (self-correction if necessary) (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:111112). Gile (1995:169) refers to these four stages as efforts in SI which he calls listening and analysis, short term memory, production, and coordination. It should be noted that during these four stages, comprehension or production problems (such as high density of speech, unknown names, deterioration of quality of sound, and fast delivery) occur, and require certain coping strategies on the part of the interpreter. In this respect, Goldman-Eisler notes that “the situation of simultaneous translation is such that the conference interpreter must continuously monitor, store, retrieve and decode the source language while at the same time recoding and encoding the translation of the previous input” (in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:70). Describing the principle of SI, Paneth (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:32) indicates that: The audience can hear a translation of a speech while it is being delivered. The interpreters are placed in more or less sound-proof booths where they receive the speech through earphones; they transmit it in another language through microphones to wireless or telephone sets in the hall, which the audience can tune in to the booth (i.e. the language) of their choice. Phelan (2001:6-8) describes the process of SI as follows: The interpreter sits in the booth wearing headphones with a microphone. There is a booth for each language and two or sometimes three interpreters in each booth. A chef d’équipe liaises between the interpreters and the conference organisers and delegates. The interpreter hears the speech through the headphones and simultaneously interprets.
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Phelan (2001:7) explains that due to the high level of concentration required for SI, there are usually two or more interpreters per language are usually required to work in intervals of 30 minutes. During these intervals, the passive interpreter may rest, or prepare the next speech, or may help his/her booth mate. This emphasises the importance of teamwork, and ensures a pleasant voice and a smooth delivery during interpreting. This is the case at the PAP where– according to the Chief Communication Officer, Dahab (personal communication, 2012) – three interpreters per language per day is a common practice. This is consistent with the researcher’s own observation of two interpreters in the booth; while the third one waits outside, until the roles are switched. The above definitions give a brief summary of the process of simultaneous interpreting which the researcher – based on her observation – sees as similar to the process that takes place during SI at the PAP. Pictures of the sound proof booths and equipment are provided in the addendum E. Delivery speed or input rate is essential during the process of SI, and determines the final outcome of the interpreter’s message. Indeed, the input rate can influence the time lag, which might lead to certain interpreting problems. The next section focuses on the delivery rate of the SL speaker.
2. 2. Delivery speed in simultaneous interpreting 2.2.1. Discussing delivery speed in SI Delivery speed is one of the main sources of difficulty during SI. Pöchhacker (2004:129) notes that the speed of the interpreter’s message delivery can also invariably be called input rate, delivery rate, or presentation rate. Meuleman and Van Besien indicate that “while it is important for students to be taught strategies for dealing with speed, knowledge of the way professional interpreters cope with these two factors is very limited” (2009:20). They stress that not much research has been done to demonstrate how professional interpreters use strategies to cope with speed. It suffices to emphasise that the speaking speed is an important factor in SI. Pöchhacker (2004:132), for example, indicates that The topic of processing strategies in interpreting has been closely linked with difficulties arising from the interpreter’s input. In particular, high delivery speed and structural complexity have been cited as factors inducing high processing loads and thus requiring coping strategies, especially under the temporal and cognitive constraints of SI. Indeed the
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corresponding strategies of ‘compression’ and ‘anticipation’ are among the most highly discussed topics [...]. However, Pöchhacker (2004) also acknowledges that slow input can equally disrupt processing in interpreting and, therefore, require the use of strategies. Nevertheless, he does not analyse any strategies used during slow delivery speed. It should be noted that several authors discuss fast delivery speed and strategy use. Some base their works on the principle of non-empirical research, while a few others ground their studies on the foundations of empirical research. 2.2.2. Non-Empirical Studies Based on existing literature on non-empirical research (Setton, 1999; Wilss, 1978; Lederer, 2002; Kade, 1967), Pöchhacker (2004) establishes a clear link between the use of certain strategies when confronted with high delivery speed and structural complexity. He states that an interpreter may adopt certain strategies such as ‘compression’ and ‘anticipation’ when confronted with fast delivery speed. Pöchhacker (2004) – who, as indicated earlier, does not consider strategies used for slow delivery speed – shows how these two strategies are used by interpreters to cope with fast delivery. However, the researcher endeavours to analyse empirical data to show which other strategies, in addition to these two, can be used to cope with fast delivery. Li (2010) identifies fast input speech as the arch enemy of simultaneous interpreters. His study, which focused on past studies, shows that fast delivery disadvantages both interpreters and listeners, particularly non-native listeners. He suggests that – according to the International Association for Conference Interpreters (IACI) and scholars such as Gerver (1969), Seleskovitch (1978), and Lederer (1981) – the average input speed in English ranges from 100 to 120 words per minute. It must be emphasised that this research sets a parameter for normal, fast, and slow speed delivery within the PAP by listening and comparing different speeches; yet, using the above range as a measurement reference). Li (2010) observes that because the simultaneous interpreter is faced with several tasks – such as listening and analysis, production, short-term memory, and coordination – certain problems are bound to arise during interpretation. These include comprehension difficulties, mistranslation, and loss of information. In this regard, Li (2010) proposes four strategies that enable the interpreter to cope with high speed delivery: the speaker is
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requested to slow down, the interpreter speeds up, summarisation, and termination of service. This study seeks to identify other strategies that can be used to cope with a fast-delivery speech. On their part, Gumul and Lyda (2007) focused on the concept of time constraint in conference interpreting as a whole. Their paper examines a range of strategies which interpreters resort to in order to minimise the impact of time pressure in both CI and SI. These strategies include lag time regulation, economy of expression, text-editing strategies, and notation techniques. However, these strategies mostly apply to SI, since time constraint is a much weaker factor in CI. In cases of overloading, the interpreter can stop taking notes and rely solely on their memory, or can resort to time-saving strategies that form part of note-taking skills. Gumul and Lyda (2007) present strategies that can be used in SI when confronted with fast speech but, do not mention any that can be used in slow delivery. 2.2.3. Empirical Studies Researchers who have used an empirical approach to strategy use have based their findings on experimental studies. Put differently, they have not used actual recordings or authentic data. Pio (2003), for example, conducted an experimental study based on the simultaneous interpretation – from German into Italian – of two original speeches written in German, read by a German mothertongue speaker, and recorded. All deliveries were recorded and transcripts were produced. She asserts the relation between ST delivery rate and quality, in simultaneous interpretation. She pays attention to the potential negative effect that a high ST delivery rate has on the simultaneous interpreter's performance, both in terms of meaning equivalence between ST and TT, and TT delivery fluency. The subjects participating in this experiment are grouped into two different categories. One group was made up of 10 students, whereas the other group was comprised of 5 professional interpreters. These two subject categories were chosen in order to assess whether, and to what extent, they would react differently when faced with the task of interpreting an ST delivered at a high rate. Her aim was reveal the difference between experts and novices in terms of how they deal with fast ST delivery. Pio (2003) found that, in certain instances, when confronted with fast speed, both students and professionals used the same strategies; whereas, in other cases, they used different strategies. She also found that high ST delivery rate is a variable that often
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aggravates the stress inherent to SI and, may undermine the quality of the interpreter's performance. Goldman-Eisler’s experimental study examined the length of the segments that the interpreter needs to monitor before he can start encoding, and how the interpreter segments the input (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:69-76). She uses 6 professional interpreters in order to eliminate the difficulties arising from insufficient training. She also uses a double-track recorder to record both the original speeches and the translations, and presents them as parallel visual tracings which show vocal speech and pauses. She demonstrates that a particular interpreting strategy known as varying the ear-voice span (EVS), which is similar to time lag, would be used, depending on the delivery rate of the SL speaker. EVS refers to the amount of information the interpreter would listen to before starting to interpret; the EVS might be reduced or increased, depending on the delivery speed. Goldman-Eisler suggests that “when input is slower interpreters can make use of the pauses in the input to translate the chunks...” (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:73). She anticipates that the EVS would increase during slow speech, and that it would decrease during fast speech. Therefore, she suggests varying the EVS as a strategy used to cope with fast and slow speeches. In her discussion of EVS, Goldman-Eisler establishes a clear link between speed and strategy use. In an experimental study, Gerver (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:52-66) examined the effects of the presentation rate of the source language on the performance of simultaneous conference interpreters. He probed the effect of variation of input rate on the interpreter’s performance by systematically varying the presentation. Then, he compared the interpreters’ performance in terms of shadowing (repeating as they hear), as the input rate increased. A French text of 550 words, extracted from a speech and recorded on a tape, and 10 professional simultaneous interpreters were involved in the experiment. Five of these interpreters were assigned a shadowing role, whereas the remaining five were given the responsibility of interpreting. He found that the interpreter may become less variable in his/her output rates, as information load increases (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:55); and that fewer words are correctly shadowed at a faster presentation rate. He demonstrates that “interpreters would either reduce pause length (reduce EVS) and increase utterance length as input rate increased, or that they would pause more
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frequently [increase EVS] and speak for shorter periods” (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:64). Gerver examined the effects of fast delivery rate on the performance of simultaneous interpreters by systematically increasing the rate of some ST passages. Like Goldman-Eisler (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:69-76), he shows that the interpreters use the EVS as a coping strategy when confronted with fast speech. Practically speaking, they increase their own speed by reducing EVS or delay the response; or, they produce their utterances in shorter periods by increasing the EVS. In the same vein, the researcher sets to identify other steps that can be taken to cope with high delivery speed. In an experiment conducted in a laboratory, with 16 professional interpreters, Meuleman and Van Besien (2009) investigated the strategies used by simultaneous interpreters when confronted with syntactically complex sentences and a high delivery speed. In dealing with the fast delivery passage, they first calculate the delivery speed of the interpreters in terms of syllables per second. Then, they verify whether the interpreters had tried to keep up with the speaker or had decided to restructure, while producing an acceptable translation (Meuleman and Van Besien, 2009:24-25). The material they used consists of recordings of fifteen professional interpreters rendering two passages (one with a complex sentence structure, and the other with a high delivery speed) from French into Dutch (Meuleman and Van Besien, 2009:21). In the case of the high delivery speed, most of the interpreters opted for a tailing strategy, while few applied segmentation. Tailing appears to be the preferred strategy; it almost always leads to an acceptable translation. Conversely, restructuring was the strategy chosen by a few interpreters, only one of whom produced an acceptable translation (Meuleman and Van Besien, 2009:21). These researchers found that only three interpreters out of fifteen produced an unacceptable translation in the case of a complex passage, and five interpreters in the case of a high-delivery-speed passage (Meuleman and Van Besien, 2009:31). This means that fast SL delivery speed has more detrimental effects on interpreting output than complex sentences in SI. The present study endeavours to identify strategies other than segmentation and tailing that interpreters use when confronted with a fast delivery speed. To conclude, research based on experimental studies has established the detrimental effect of fast delivery speed on interpreters’ performance. It should be noted that all the above mentioned
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empirical studies were based on experiments involving the analysis of recordings and unused authentic or observational data. Although these studies discuss the strategies that can be used to cope with fast speed, none of them mention strategies to be used to address a slow delivery speed. Hence, focusing on live conference interpreting, the present study investigates which of Gile’s (1995) and other authors’ strategies are used by simultaneous interpreters at the PAP, and how fast and slow delivery speeds influence interpreters’ choice of strategies. The next section elaborates on strategy use in SI.
2.3. Strategies in Simultaneous Interpreting 2.3.1. Strategies defined and discussed This section will attempt to define the concept strategy in interpreting, discuss interpreting strategies in relation to theoretical and empirical research, and explain the various strategies involved. In the field of interpreting, several scholars have attempted to define the concept ‘interpreting strategy’. Some authors have highlighted that a strategy involves an intentional or conscious step, while others have stressed that a strategy could be unintentional or unconscious. Lörscher (1991:76), for example, introduces the notion of ‘production strategy’ which he defines as “a potentially conscious procedure for the solution of a problem which an individual is faced with when translating a text segment from one language into another”. Kalina (1998) and Kohn (1990) emphasise that a strategy is always intentional and problem-/goal-oriented. Liontou (1996:39) states that a strategy refers to “potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal”. She further relate a strategy to procedures carried out by an individual; in this regard, strategy refers to elements of planning and steps involved in reaching certain goals (Liontou, 1996:38). Some authors argue that a strategy could be an unconscious step towards solving interpreting difficulties. Shleshinger (cited in Tirkkonen-Condit and Jääskeläinen, 2000:7) states that strategies are not always a conscious step, strategies may be “proceduralised to the point of operating automatically through connections in a long-term memory, such that they are not accessible to
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introspection”. This implies that strategies could be an unconscious step. In this regard, De Wit (2010) mentions that strategies could be use consciously or unconsciously. Riccardi (2005) adds that “The interpreter, first during his studies and then throughout his career, develops and constantly refines a strategic behaviour integrating conscious and unconscious strategies “. Napier (2004: abstract) argues that “the hypothesis of the study was that interpreters would make recourse to omissions both consciously and unconsciously, depending on their familiarity with the discourse environment and the subject matter” while Rongbing (2012:9) states that “an interpreting strategy, like anticipation in SI, is on the one hand an unconscious human operation, and on the other hand can be performed consciously by the interpreter”. This implies that an interpreter may consciously and unconsciously use a specific interpreting strategy based on their knowledge or familiarity with the discourse, subject matter and or knowledge and understanding of a strategy. Other authors define strategy without mentioning whether it is an intentional or unconscious step. Tarone (1981:285), for instance, defines a strategy as interpreters’ attempt to use what they know to communicate with the target speakers, as well as the steps used to negotiate meaning between speaker and hearer. Pöchhacker (2004:132) points out that, though sometimes referred to as techniques or tactics, interpreting strategies refer to “the interpreter’s awareness of – and attempt to meet – certain expectations regarding his/her product and performance”. That is, strategies are specific steps taken by interpreters in order to cope with translational difficulties. In the same vein, Kirchhoff states that “strategies indicate which decisions must be taken in a given situation or in view of certain probabilities so as to reach a goal” (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:114). Kirchhoff elaborates that: The individual steps in problem-solving (processing of segments) can be divided into component operations which must occur in a certain sequence and in a predetermined time frame. Each component operation has an impact on the overall solution [...]. The results of the problem-solving operations are determined by the efficiency of the strategies employed. (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:114) These definitions of strategy (according to Pöchhacker, 2004; Tarone, 1981; and Kirchhoff, cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002) imply that each interpreter consciously or unconsciously uses certain steps when interpreting. When faced with difficulties (such as speed) interpreters will
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spontaneously use a particular step to enable them to interpret accurately. The interpreter’s ability to solve the problem will depend on the appropriateness of the step or strategy used. Kirchhoff describes the process of interpreting and strategy use in SI; but, she does not relate the use of strategies to delivery speed. Gile (1995) regards strategies as coping tactics which are used when comprehension problems arise, or are bound to arise under time-related (such as speed) or processing-capacity-related pressure. Taking into consideration that this research focuses on Gile’s (1995) strategies, an interpreting strategy is therefore a conscious or an unconscious step used by the interpreter to cope with interpreting difficulties or to avoid the occurrence of a possible future interpreting problem. Clearly, in this research, strategy use is problem and product oriented. Having defined interpreting, this paper proceeds to discuss authors who, based on existing literature, have identified certain strategies relating to SI.
2.3.2. Non-Empirical Studies Kirchhoff indicates that SI strategies determine, among other things, decisions to delay the timing of the start of processing operations (segmentation), decisions to delay the operations or keep data (parts of segments) available, decisions concerning the types of necessary operations (information selection and reduction) and decisions concerning speed and the overall load sustainable at a given time (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger 2002:114). According to her, the interpreter uses strategies such as segmentation which consists in dividing the speech into different parts, information selection and reduction, the interpreters’ ability to anticipate linguistic and extra linguistic determinants, the way interpreters relate SL segments to TL segments (recording), and ensuring that the total output is continuous and achieves optimum communicative effect (reproduction and, if necessary, output monitoring and self-correction). Kirchhoff sees these strategies as capable of producing a better-quality end-product. Pöchhacker (2004:135) mentions two important strategies called implicitation (condensation) and explicitation (saying it all) however these strategies will not be addressed in full due to the fact that this research focusses on Gile’s (1995) coping strategies. Pöchhacker (2004:132) argues that, although the concept of strategy has long been related to difficulties arising from the interpreter’s input or factors inducing high processing loads and thus requiring coping mechanisms, strategies
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cannot be accounted for purely in terms of input load. In this connection, scholars such as Schjoldager (1995/2002) and Shlesinger (1999) classify strategies into two categories: processoriented strategies meant for coping with high-load-inducing input, and product-oriented strategies for communicating effectively with the target language audience (ibid). As for Pöchhacker, he classifies strategies into three categories. The first category comprises task-related strategies which are divided into two types: offline task-oriented strategies which precede or follow translational cognitive processing, such as preparing glossaries and marking up documents; and online taskoriented strategies which refer to a specific mode of notes-taking in consecutive interpreting. The second category relates to strategies meant for coping with structure, timing, restructuring, and anticipation (production of a sentence constituent before the corresponding constituent has appeared in the source-language input). The third category includes strategies for content communication such as condensation (abstractions or compression in response to high input speed), and adaptation (appropriate cultural adaptations) (Pöchhacker 2004:132-135). Jones (2002: 66-125) explores a great number of strategies in simultaneous interpreting. These include when to start speaking, reformulation, the salami technique (usage of short, simple sentences), simplification (making a speech more accessible), generalisation (summarise in one generic term), omission, summarising and recapitulation (adding to the original text in order to clarify), explanation, and anticipation. He summarises the above techniques under two major trends. The first relates to the interpreter’s ability to, sometimes, diverge from the literal form in order to produce a good SI. The second requires the interpreter to be able to adapt to the general context of the meeting and to the audience (Jones 2002:125). Nolan (2005) also discusses certain techniques used in interpreting, namely, anticipating the speaker, compression, clusters, and the use of general adverbial clauses. The above discussion of non-empirical studies on the use of strategies in simultaneous interpreting demonstrates that authors have attempted to classify strategies into different categories.
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2.3.3. Empirical Studies Empirical studies can be grouped into two categories: those that use retrospective interviews and those that use product-oriented data derived from transcripts. Authors such as Kohn and Kalina (1996:118-138) use introspective data obtained by means of retrospective thinking-aloud protocols to examine strategies used in conference interpreting in general. They not only discuss strategies in simultaneous interpreting, but also analyse consecutive and simultaneous interpreting from a strategic point of view. They analyse how strategies used in monolingual communication differ from those used in bilingual communication. They reveal that strategies used in bilingual communication need to be adapted to the requirements of the interpreting process. This is because, during interpreting, the interpreter may be faced with such difficulties as the communicative transfer relation between source and target discourse, the sequential organisation of source discourse comprehension and target discourse production in consecutive interpreting, the parallel organisation of source discourse comprehension and target discourse production in simultaneous interpreting, and the complexity of content and/or linguistic representation of source discourse. They recommend certain strategies that interpreters should use, when faced with these difficulties. They use product-related and process-related data to demonstrate the effectiveness of the above-mentioned strategies in real-life interpreting situations. More specifically, they suggest the use of such strategies as omission, completion, anticipation, chunking, substitution, addition, deletion, and sentence splitting, when confronted with the interpreting difficulties listed above. The present research aims to identify similar strategies that can be used when confronted with different delivery speeds. Bartlomiejczyk (2006:149-174) also analyses non-automated interpreting strategies by means of retrospective interview protocols. Her goal is to determine how the possible differences between into-A and into-B interpreting are reflected in strategic processing. She discusses strategies in SI based on directionality that is interpreting from one’s mother-tongue or A-language into a foreign language or the reverse. Her aim is to investigate the effects of directionality on strategy use. According to Bartlomiejczyk (2006:149-174), since the late 1960s, scholars have proposed various classifications of interpreting strategies. Referring to one in particular, she notes that:
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Seleskovitch (1978) postulates the existence of three “techniques of analysis” which enable understanding of the original speech: reference to pre-existing knowledge, the interpreter’s stance, and visualisation. She discusses all three in great detail and provides numerous examples to illustrate how they work (Bartlomiejczyk 2006:149-174). Kalina employs both experimental and authentic material to examine strategies the latter include anticipation, syntactic transformation, sentence splitting, compression, and repair operations (Bartlomiejczyk 2006:149-174). Kalina (cited in Bartlomiejczyk 2006:149-174) presents a very detailed classification of interpreting strategies, which are divided into two major groups: comprehension and production. Comprehension strategies include inferencing (recovering lost information on the basis of other fragments of the speech, as well as the interpreter’s general knowledge), anticipation (foreseeing the occurrence of a given source-text segment before it has been uttered by the speaker), and chunking (dividing the target text into meaningful segments and establishing relationships between them). Production strategies are more numerous than comprehension strategies and can be further divided into strategies related to the source text (transcodage or syntactic transformation) and those related to the target text (extending or narrowing the ear–voice span, text condensation, addition, and so on). Stylistic strategies (which are aimed at reaching the communicative goal rather than overcoming difficulties), and presentation strategies (pause distribution, intonation, use of non-verbal means of expression and so forth) also fall into this subcategory. Emergency strategies constitute another important subcategory of the production strategies. They come into play when other strategies lead to problems or fail; they include compression, generalisation, neutralisation, omission, approximation, and repair (Bartlomiejczyk 2006:149-174). Bartlomiejczyk (2006:168) found that certain strategies were more commonly used when translating into English or into Polish. For SI from English into Polish, inferencing and parallel reformulation, as well as transcodage, were hypothesised to be considerably more frequent than in the opposite direction. Transcodage was favoured by 10 subjects, when interpreting in Polish; and by four, when converting into English. A number of hypotheses had also been formulated concerning strategies expected to be more closely associated with interpreting from Polish into English. Syntactic transformation was more common, when passing from Polish into English. This is due to language pair-specific factors, as well as transfer, approximation, paraphrase,
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anticipation, personal association, and personal involvement caused by directionality. This research will not consider directionality; however, it will look at similar strategies that can be used during different delivery speeds. It is important to note Bartlomiejczyk’s claim that retrospective interviews have shortcomings and his propositions that “to offset these possible shortcomings, it is advisable to combine retrospection with product-oriented research methods” (2006:171). Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002:607-626) base their product-oriented research projects on the concept of achievement as well as reduction strategies derived from second-language acquisition research. Through the use of questionnaires, and by examining the actual performance of some professional interpreters, these authors aim at either supporting or refuting the claim that simultaneous interpreters are more efficient when interpreting from a foreign language into their mother-tongue (Al-Khanji et al. 2000:548-557). They find that interpreters are more comfortable interpreting into their second language. In their own words, “interpreters seem to be more comfortable when interpreting from Arabic into English than from the latter to the former. We are, therefore, inclined to conclude that it may not always be the case that people generally perform the same task (in speaking or in interpreting) less well in a second language than in a first (AlSalman & Al-Khanji 2002:624). The present research focuses on the classification of these authors’ strategies. Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002:607-626) also discuss strategies such as approximation (provision of near equivalents), anticipation, filtering (compressing the utterance with a view to finding a more economical way of expressing it), skipping (making desirable omissions of unnecessary repetitions, redundant expressions and so on), as achievement strategies; and incomplete sentences, code-switching (shifting the style from standard to colloquial), literal interpretation, and message abandonment (extensive omissions), as reduction strategies. In their view, more achievement strategies and fewer reduction strategies are the key to higher-quality interpretation. Donato (2003:101) investigates whether and to what extent the language pair involved in the interpreting process determines the choice of the strategies adopted by the interpreter during simultaneous interpretation. Donato (2003) reports on a detailed study involving the application of product-oriented methods to detect a number of strategies (classified as comprehension
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strategies, reformulation strategies, and emergency strategies) used in interpretations from English (B or C) into Italian (A), and from German (B or C) into Italian (A). The above-mentioned and other authors, such as Riccardi (1996; 1998; 2005) and Zanetti (1999), have discussed a wide variety of strategies used in interpreting to establish their relevance to the particular interpreting scenarios and/or languages. It must be noted that Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002) and Kalina (cited in Bartlomiejczyk 2006:149-174) are some of the few authors who analyse strategy use based on authentic data or actual interpreting. It is therefore important for the present research to discuss more strategy use based on authentic data. However, the two authors singled out above focus on directionality and strategic use, while this research focuses on delivery speed and strategy use. The present research will use authentic data and will be based on Daniel Gile’s proposed strategies for SI, which constitute its theoretical framework. However, it should be noted that strategies such as the interpreter’s resort to ‘approximation’ – which is not mentioned by Gile (1995) but is mentioned by Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002), and Kohn and Kalina (1996:118-138) – will also be explored alongside Gile’s (1995) strategies. It is important to note that a number of authors sometimes discuss the same strategies as those considered by Gile (1995), using another term. For example, ‘reconstructing’ is used by Gile (1995), ‘chunking’ is used by Pöchhacker (2004), while ‘salami technique’ is used by Jones (2002) to refer to the same strategy. The researcher chose Gile’s (1995) concept because it provides a more detailed and comprehensive list of interpreting strategies which he refers to as ‘coping tactics”. Another reason is that most of his strategies are product-oriented, taking into consideration that this research focuses on transcripts. Having discussed the relationship between strategies and SI, this paper attempts to classify the explored strategies as meaning-based or form-based.
2.4. Classification of Strategies 2.4.1. Meaning-based versus Form-based Strategies The distinction between meaning-based and form-based strategies is based on the extent of the influence that the linguistic form of the source-text exerts over the target-text; it aims at establishing whether an interpreted text is either produced on the basis of an essentially non-verbal representation of the meaning of its source-text or based on its linguistic form (Pöchhacker and
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Shlesinger, 2002:267). Dam (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:268) uses meaning-based and form-based strategies from a product-oriented angle. The question that she poses seeks to determine the type of target-text that the interpreters produce. Form-based refers to the case where there is a direct passage from the source to the target text that leads to a high degree of formal similarity in relation to the source-text; whereas meaning-based leads to a target-text in which there are very few traces of the linguistic form of the source-text, that is, a text that shows a high degree of lexical dissimilarity in relation to its source-text (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:268). This research argues that certain strategies are form-based while others are meaning-based. Strategies will be classified, accordingly, after data analysis. However, it is imperative to understand the strategies that will be used during the data analysis.
2.4.1.1. Strategies Explained Gile (1995) discusses both product-oriented and process-oriented strategies. However, the researcher will focus on Gile’s (1995) product-oriented strategies and other product-oriented strategies identified by other scholars, due to the nature of the data. The research will consist of transcribed interpreting speeches and the strategies will be identified not according to the process, but rather based on the end product (interpretation). It should be noted that the strategies explained below are examples of possible product-oriented strategies that may be used in SI. It will only be possible to name the strategies that were actually used after data analysis. Below are explanations of the strategies that may be identified. 1. Replacing a segment with a superordinate term or a more general speech segment: This strategy is likely to be used when the SL speaker is fast, in a bid to convey the meaning. According to Gile (1995:197), when the interpreters are not able to understand a speech segment or reformulate it, they may reformulate the message in ‘a less accurate manner by using a superordinate in the case of a single word, or by reconstructing a more general segment in the case of a whole segment. For example ‘cent soixante trois mille’ (one hundred and sixty three thousand) may be interpreted as ‘about one hundred and sixty thousand’ or ‘Madam Chandré Milton’ (Mrs. Chandré Milton’) may be interpreted as ‘the speaker’. This strategy requires little time, but implies loss of information in the target language (TL), though the information may be recovered in later sentences (Gile, 1995:197). Jones (2002:101) refers to
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this strategy as generalisation, which he defines as a situation where a number of specific terms can be expressed in one generic term. For example, ‘Many people want to have a fridge, TV, radio, washing machine, vacuum cleaner, not as a necessity but as a luxury’ could be interpreted as ‘many people have electrical appliances not as a necessity but as a luxury’. Kohn and Kalina (1996: 132) explain this strategy by stating that the interpreter will generalize through approximation by building propositions of a higher micro level and deleting those of a lower level, or through attenuation by substituting the elements of discourse not fully understood. Kohn and Kalina (1996: 132) refer to this strategy as compression or condensation, which they refer to as a situation where the speaker is fast and “only those elements are rendered that are of higher macro level, also, repetitive or redundant information is deleted” (1996: 132). Pöchhacker refers to the same strategy as compression or abstracting, which he defines as “a case for a synthetic rather than saying it all approach” (2004: 135) which involves “abstracting in response to high input speed and/or information density in the simultaneous mode” (2004: 134). He highlights that this strategy sometimes involves omission of information (id). Bartlomiejczyk (2006:149-174) also refers to this strategy as compression, which she defines as a situation where a longer fragment is summarised by means of a shorter phrase which is supposed to convey the same meaning, but expressed in a more concise and general way. 2. Summarising: According to Li (2010), summarisation occurs when the interpreter decides to produce a more succinct speech than the original, usually when the speaker is fast and the interpreter cannot keep up with the pace. He highlights that in cases where speeches are densely packed with information, summarising might lead to omission (Li, 2010). According to AlSalman and Al-Khanji (2002:611), summarising occurs when the interpreter renders the message in a shorter version. As stated above, this strategy is likely to be used as a means to convey the meaning, when the speaker is fast. 3. Omission: It should be noted that deletion and omission are regarded as the same strategy in this research. Kohn and Kalina (1996) indicate that omission occurs when the speaker omits information that can disrupt meaning in the TL text; for example, ‘a circumstance which may have distracted the interpreter’s attention and diminished her concentration; personal thanks by the speaker to his friend (the chairman) and then some factual remarks preceded this stretch
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of discourse where formal thanks are expressed’ (Kohn and Kalina, 1996: 134). Donato (2003:107) as well as Kohn and Kalina (1996: 135) refer to the same strategy as deletion, which they characterise as the deletion of redundant or superfluous information. Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002) refer to the same strategy as skipping, which refers to the “omission of unnecessary repetitions, redundant expressions or unimportant utterances” (Al-Salman and AlKhanji 2002:611). Barik (1971:200) refers to this same strategy as skipping omission, which he claims occurs when there is a single omission of word or short phrase which does not change the sentence or grammatical structure and does not lead to a significant shift in meaning. AlKhanji et al (2000:553) refer to the same strategy as skipping, which occurs when an interpreter omit single words to avoid incomprehensible output, either because the information is redundant or because the interpreter was lagging in time. It should be noted that the researcher does not have the means to establish why an addition was used; however, this research will focus on noting instances of the use of this strategy. 4. Explaining or Paraphrasing: According to Gile (1995:198), this strategy is used when the interpreter understands a term, but does not know the appropriate equivalents; in this case, he or she may decide to explain it (this is also mentioned in Jones, 2002: 104-105). For example, ‘tableur’ (spreadsheet) can be interpreted as a programme which defines rows and columns and allows for calculations to be made. This strategy is efficient in providing information; but, it requires a large amount of time and processing capacity, and may also draw the delegates’ attention to the fact that the interpreter does not know the right term and may reduce the interpreter’s credibility and therefore the impact of his speech (Gile, 1995:198). Though this research cannot prove that the interpreter did not know the term, this strategy will be identified when the interpreter explains a complex term. This strategy is employed in order to transfer meaning; it may be difficult to explain if the speaker is fast. This strategy is therefore likely to be used in a slow delivery speech. 5. Simplification (mentioned by Jones, 2002:98): The interpreter may decide to simplify a highly technical speech in order to render technical details or because he feels the text is too technical for the TL speakers (Jones 2002: 98).Donato (2003:107) indicates that simplification occurs when the interpreter lexically or stylistically simplifies the SL message. This strategy
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is likely to be used during a slow speech in order to transfer meaning, because the interpreter might not have the time to simplify when the SL speaker is fast. 6. Recapitulation (mentioned by Jones, 2002: 104 as recapitulation): This strategy is used to summarise or recapitulate what the interpreter has already interpreted, especially when the interpreter feels that the TL listeners have failed to understand the point. Jones highlights that summarising is not used to provide a summary or correct the interpreter’s mistake; rather, it is used to clarify what is unclear (Jones, 2002: 104).However, it may be difficult to recapitulate if the SL speaker is fast: recapitulation is likely to occur if the SL speaker is slow, or at the end of the SL speaker’s speech. 7. Segmentation: According to Gile (1995:195-196), when the interpreter is faced with overload of memory (which may result from fast delivery speed on the part of the SL speaker), embedded structures in the SL, or unclear sentences, he may choose to reformulate speech segments earlier than he would normally do. Sometimes, this happens before he or she grasps the full picture of what the speaker wants to say. This strategy may occasionally reduce shortterm memory requirements; or may increase processing time capacity during the production effort, as the interpreter may end up producing many short sentences instead of one long sentence (Gile, 1995:195-196). Kirchhoff (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002: 114) defines segmentation as the interpreter’s choice of either delaying the response before reconstructing, or waiting before reconstructing. Jones (2002: 91) refers to the same strategy as the salami technique, which he defines as a strategy that usually results in reformulation that requires the interpreter to maintain the right distance from the speaker by sometimes expressing themselves in simple, short sentences. On his part, Pöchhacker calls this strategy chunking or restructuring, which is defined by Kirchhoff (2002) as “the extraction and rendition of independent input segments at phrase or clause level before the end of a complex input structure” (Pöchhacker, 2004: 133). This strategy is referred to as sentence splitting by Kohn and Kalina (1996). 8. Transcoding: According to Gile (1995:199), this strategy consists in interpreting a SL term or speech segment into the TL word for word. It is effective in the same cases where naturalisation is used and may facilitate comprehension for the TL speakers (Gile, 1995:199).
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Transcoding is a form-based strategy, since it is the transfer of the sentence and not necessarily that of the meaning. Due to fast speech, the interpreter is likely to transcode. 9. Parallel reformulation: This strategy is used when it is imperative to continue speaking, despite inability to listen or understand. The interpreter may invent a segment compatible with the SL speech, but which is usually not a faithful reflection of the speaker’s content. This strategy should be used cautiously in exceptional cases. (Gile, 1995:201). This form-based strategy is likely to be used if the speaker is fast, or if the interpreter is tired. If there is evidence of loss of meaning as the interpreter translates the segments, the researcher will assume that there is reformulation. 10. Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech: According to Gile (1995:198), in cases where the interpreter does not recognise a term or name, he or she may decide to reproduce the sound heard. This strategy may be used in both fast and slow speeches. In certain instances, it is effective, especially if the delegates recognise the name; but, in other cases, it may be seen as distortion of information which may discredit the interpreter (Gile, 1995:198). This strategy does not involve a transfer of meaning, but rather a lexical transfer. The interpreter’s aim is to transfer a word with the same sound and which can be lexically close to the original. This strategy can therefore be classified as form-based. This strategy may be adopted if the speech is fast and the interpreter may not have enough time to look for the appropriate term. It is noted that, though the researcher might not be able to establish whether the interpreter knows the term or not, in cases where the sound is translated rather than the appropriate meaning or word, the researcher would assume that the interpreter used sound reproduction. 11. Instant naturalisation: In cases where the interpreter does not know the appropriate term in the TL, he or she may naturalise the SL term by adapting it to the morphological or phonological rules of the TL. For example “télédétection’ (remote sensing) was interpreted as ‘teledetection’ in English. This strategy is often effective in languages that are morphologically close, in cases where there is a lot of borrowing between SL and TL, and in cases where the delegates have done much reading in the SL (Gile, 1995:198). Words that are most often naturalised are known as ‘false friends’; their use is common among bilingual speakers of English and French, and highly common when interpreting in English and French. However,
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because this paper is based on product rather that process-oriented data, it cannot state whether the interpreter did not know the term. Instead, the researcher will look for instances where the interpreter used words that are morphologically or phonologically close in order to identify this strategy. This strategy may be used during fast, average, and slow speeches, bearing in mind that most speakers of close languages tend to use this strategy even during a normal conversation. 12. Substitution: According to Al-Khanji et al (2000:553), substitution occurs when the interpreter uses a lexical item in the TL which does neither transfer the desired concept nor retain the meaning of the item in the SL. 13. Changing the order of elements in an enumeration: The interpreter may resort to reformulating the last elements in a segment first, so as to free the memory from the information and then move to other elements. This is because enumerations impose a high load on short term memory and, changing the order may reduce memory effort. However, according to Gile (1995:196), no analyses have yet been performed to prove how this strategy reduces memory load. This strategy is likely to be used in a fast speech and can lead to either a form/meaning-based interpreting. 14. Addition: According to Kohn and Kalina (1996:135), addition occurs when the interpreter adds a phrase to find a closer approximation to co-operate and make up for the vagueness of the previous utterance. Information provided by Donato (2003:107) can be added to explain how content is added in order to clarify a message or to maintain coherence and continuity. In this study, the researcher will examine the different instances in which an interpreter added information. Barik (1971:202) refers to addition as material which is added to the TL text by the interpreter. 15. Fillers: Liontou indicates that stalling is used to “counter language-specific difficulties; e.g. to “fill” the waiting time” (1996:51). According to Donato, stalling by using neutral material refers to an instance where an interpreter uses neutral word in order to buy time “by producing generic utterings [or fillers], absent in the SLT [Source Language Text], which provide no new information” (2003:106). Donato (2003:106) states that stalling enables the interpreter to delay the production of a SL text. Consideration that this research focuses on text, it will be difficult
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to examine whether the interpreter uses a filler to avoid long pauses; some typical examples of stalling include ‘emm and err’. 16. Output monitoring and self-correction: According to Kirchhoff (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002: 117), this strategy involves the monitoring of output and correction of errors at the phonological, syntactical, and lexical levels. However, Gerver (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:54) argues that corrections does not always mean fixing of errors, it could simply mean discontinuity in the SL message. Kirchhoff (cited in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002: 117) adds that the interpreter will not perform any corrections if the processing capacity is exhausted. This suggests that, in a high-speed delivery situation, the interpreter will not have time to monitor or correct. Self-correction is a process whereby an interpreter self-corrects his output in order to transfer the meaning of the SL text. The interpreter may resort to this strategy in a slow-delivery context. It should be noted that this strategy will be referred to as selfcorrection in the research. It should be noted that not all interpreting strategies are used in this research. Only strategies explained above will be identified. Therefore strategies such as Pöchhacker (2004:135) implicitation and explicitation are excluded, not being the focus of this study. 2.4.1.2. Table 1: Classification of SI Strategies Meaning-based strategies
Replacing a segment with a superordinate term or a more general speech segment Summarising Explaining or Paraphrasing Simplification Recapitulation Segmentation Addition Fillers Self-correction Omission Form-based strategies
Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Instant naturalisation Changing the order of elements in an enumeration Substitution
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Transcoding Parallel reformulation
The table above shows the strategies which are more meaning-based and those that are more formbased. It should be noted that a number of authors proposed certain strategies that could be used during fast and slow speeches. Pöchhacker (2004), Li (2010), Goldman-Eisler (in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002), Gerver (in Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:52-66), and Meuleman and Van Besien (2009), for example, argue that compression and anticipation, request for the speaker to slow down, the interpreter’s speeding up, ear-voice span, tailing strategy, segmentation, reduced pause length, summarisation, and termination of service are used when confronted with fast delivery speed. Though, amongst all these strategies, only the product-oriented strategies will be used. Based the literature review, strategies can be classified into two main categories. The first category comprises strategies used during fast speed. These include replacing a segment with a superordinate term or a more general speech segment, summarising, simplification, recapitulation, segmentation, transcoding, parallel reformulation, reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech, and instant naturalisation. The second category is constituted by strategies used during slow speed. These include explaining or paraphrasing, reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech, instant naturalisation, changing the order of elements in an enumeration, and output monitoring and self-correction.
2.5. Summary This chapter provides a background on delivery speed and the interpreter’s use of strategies in SI. Strategies have been discussed in relation to the delivery speed of the speaker or the source language. As seen shown, the input rate is one of the factors that determine the interpreter’s use of strategies during interpreting. It is also noted that delivery speed plays a significant role in the interpreter’s choice of strategies. While many of the above – discussed authors focus on general strategy use during SI, little research has been done on how interpreters’ choice of strategies relates to ST delivery speed. It is therefore unclear whether interpreters use the same strategies when confronted with a fast speech and a slow speech, or whether different strategies are used under
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these two conditions. It is important to note that the researcher chose to focus on strategies that are product-oriented. Having established the link between speed and strategy use, it is important to note that strategies can be divided into meaning-based strategies and form-based strategies. During data analysis, the present study will examine strategies used during slow speeches and those employed during fast speeches. The purpose of this examination will be to determine whether these strategies display a high degree of lexical similarity between source-text and target-text (form-based), or rather a high degree of lexical dissimilarity between the source-text and target-text (meaning-based). The next chapter focuses on the method through which this research was conducted.
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Chapter 3 Methodology This chapter discusses the method used in conducting this research. The chapter presents the hypothesis and the setting, and describes the research method and the data collection process. Furthermore, it discusses the ethical considerations and examines how the data was selected and transcribed. The chapter also explains how the delivery speed was established and how the data will be analysed.
3.1. Hypothesis Scholars have asserted that certain strategies are used by interpreters during simultaneous interpreting in order to cope with certain difficulties, including the delivery speed of the SL speaker. Nonetheless, as indicated in the previous chapter, some scholars only suggest strategies to be used when confronted with high speed, while others use such experiments as laboratory recordings. A few researchers have also used live experiences, such as live conference interpreting, as is the case with the present study. Pöchhacker (2004) identifies slow speech and fast speech as an interpreter’s arch enemy in the context of SI. However, no empirical study has been carried out to demonstrate that slow speeches can cause problems for interpreters in SI. Hence, the researcher seeks to investigate the influence of delivery speed (fast and slow) on simultaneous interpreters’ choice of strategies. Most researchers, including Donato (2003), Kohn and Kalina (1996), Oléron and Nanpon (2002), Pio (2003), Paneth (2002), Goldman-Eisler (2002), Gerver (2002), Meuleman and Van Besien (2009), Bartlomiejczyk (2006), and Zanetti (1999) analysed the relationship between strategy and speed by means of laboratory-based experimental studies. Conversely, a few researchers have conducted their research based on actual live conference interpreting. These include Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002), Al-Khanji et al. (2000), and Oléron and Nanpon (2002) (both live interpreting and laboratory experiment).
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A possible question is whether the difference between experimental and authentic studies influences interpreters’ use of strategies under certain interpreting conditions. However, this research seeks to discuss speed and strategy during authentic conference interpreting at the PAP. Though an experiment has its advantages like the fact that the researcher may manipulate the variables, it is hypothesised that a study grounded on authentic data is better than one based on a laboratory experiment. This hypothesis is informed by the fact the researcher does not run the risk of distorting data – due to the absence of an artificial setting in authentic research– but may objectively observe what really happens in practice.
3.2. Setting This research was conducted during a live conference interpreting that took place in July 2012, at the Pan-African Conference, in Midrand, Johannesburg. There are six sound-proof booths corresponding to the PAP’s six official languages (English, French, Arabic, Kiswahili, Portuguese, and Spanish). Each interpreter was provided with a bottle of water and some documents to help them before (prepare) or during interpreting. The booths are situated behind the conference room, on a high platform. This enables the interpreter to see the speaker in the conference room. The interpreting equipment is provided by Congress Rental. There is also a control room from which the entire process is monitored and recorded. The data for this research was collected from the control room, thanks to the kind assistance of Congress Rental employees. There was a parallel recording of interpreting from English to French and from French into English. Pictures of the control room, the equipment, and the booths are provided in addendum E.
3.3. Method and Data Collection Lui (cited in Nicodemus and Swabey, 2011:88-89) states that, in interpreting-related studies, a qualitative research method can be used. The latter involves, among others, the use of audio and video recordings to collect data. He emphasised that, when using this method, the transcripts of the recordings are the primary form of data which are analysed. This study follows a qualitative approach and will use recordings to identify existing strategies used during actual interpreting.
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Gile (cited in Lambert and Moser-Mercer, 1994:41) notes that input and output can be observed and recorded. Input can be observed by means of placing cameras in the booths. However, this research focused on recorded audio input and output. With regard to input and output, Gile (cited in Lambert and Moser-Mercer, 1994:41) observes that: In simultaneous interpreting, input comes essentially through the interpreters’ earphones and can therefore be observed and recorded…With regard to the interpretation output as it reaches the audience, it is entirely contained in the message sent to the listeners’ earphones, and is therefore easy to observe and record. This empirical study is based on authentic conference interpreting and is carried out through audio recordings and questionnaires. As it becomes apparent, this study is a mixture of both qualitative and quantitative research. This is because the frequency of strategy use will also be explored. Based on the transcripts, this research will recommend strategies that may be more successful in SI. Questionnaires provide biographic background information on the interpreters, while the recordings of both the original speeches and the interpreting are used to identify strategies in all three DS. The information collected from the questionnaires is attached in addendum C.
3.3.1. Recordings Consecutive interpreting was not performed at the PAP during the time of data collection. Therefore, this research focuses on the second mode of conference interpreting known as simultaneous interpreting. The recordings contain authentic data – from actual interpreting – collected during the July 2012 session of the PAP. The data will be analysed through an electronic parallel corpus. Both the original and interpretation will be presented in separate word documents, and the source segment will be aligned in parallel to the target segment, in order to identify the strategies. Before collecting the data, permission to make recordings was obtained from both the PAP and the interpreters themselves. Interpreters were requested to sign consent forms, giving permission for their interpreting to be used for the purposes of this research. A consent form was also signed by the PAP. The permission letter issued by the PAP appears in the addendum D, while the interpreters’ individual forms have been omitted to protect their identity. The recordings of interpreting in English and French were made during the July 2012 parliamentary session at the PAP’s headquarters, in Midrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002) conduct their analysis using cassettes, and later transcribe the recordings. Oléron and Nanpon (2002) use a double-track recorder that records both the original and interpreted speeches, which are also transcribed and analysed. Given that they use the latter method, the researcher obtained double-track recordings of both the English and French interpreting from the technical services at the PAP. These recordings were made from the head technician’s computer. His computer has a double-track recording device that simultaneously records speeches into and from English and French. These recordings are selected according to certain criteria, and are subsequently transcribed and analysed. This interpreting took place during the seventh ordinary session of the PAP, from the 21st to 31st of May 2012, at this institution’s headquarters located in Midrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. The original speeches considered in this study are those delivered by the parliamentarians and the bureau (which consists of the president and the four vice-presidents) during the plenary sessions. There were two types of sessions: the plenary (general sessions) and the committee sessions (the more specialised sessions). However, recordings were made only during the plenary sessions, due to technical convenience for the researcher. The structure of the committee rooms did not allow for a double-track recording. Only single recordings of each speech (in English and in French) could have been made; this would have required two different recorders. The data collection took four days. On the first day, the recording was done for two hours, eighteen minutes and eleven seconds (2:18:11). On the second day, the recording was made for seventeen minutes and thirty-three seconds (17:33). The recording of this day was shorter because of a technical problem which made it impossible to complete the task. However, the problem was solved before the third day. On the third day, the recording was made for four hours, twenty-one minutes and two seconds (4:21:02). The recording of the fourth day lasted four hours, fourteen minutes and eighteen seconds (4:14:18).
3.3.2. Questionnaires The researcher developed questionnaires in order to obtain the biographical information of the participants. These questionnaires provide information on the interpreters’ gender, age, mothertongue, years of experience as an interpreter, educational background on interpreting, status (freelancer or permanent interpreters in the PAP), and the number of years they have been working
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at PAP. This background information was later used during the analysis. These questionnaires were sometimes filled in by the interpreters themselves and sometimes by the researcher who interviewed the interpreters and wrote down their answers. The questionnaires were distributed throughout the four days. It must be noted that, due to the interpreters’ confidentiality, the information on the questionnaires cannot be matched with the interpreters on the recording.
3.4. Ethical Considerations As indicated earlier, the PAP consented to the researcher recording its 2012 plenary session. Interpreters also signed consent forms, giving permission for their interpreting to be used for the purposes of this research. The consent forms have been omitted in order to protect interpreters’ identity. What is more, to maintain the interpreters’ anonymity, they were instructed not to include their names on the questionnaire and their names will not also be mentioned in the recordings. This research is useful to the PAP, in that, it promotes the existence of this institution which was established only recently, in 2004. Furthermore, it will help interpreters, in general, to be aware of their strategy use when interpreting speeches of different delivery speed, since they will have a guide which indicates the strategies that are more successful in each delivery speed.
3.5. Data Selection The study used the probability sampling method in which each element has an equal chance of being selected. First, the researcher used a stratified sampling method. She randomly chose four most recent SI recordings per day. Then, she selects speeches from both male and female speakers. The researcher ensured that the SL speech represented both genders, and chose speeches that were interpreted by both males and females. Afterwards, the researcher transcribed and then listened to the recordings, before establishing the delivery speed based on the wpm. The researcher then chose two fast speeches and two slow presentation speeches, as well as two fast and slow intervention speeches for analysis. To obtain more precise data, the researcher had to ensure that all participants interpret speeches at slow, average, and fast speeds. However, this would have been possible only in a laboratory experiment. The data were divided into two major parts: presentations and interventions. Presentations were speeches that were presented to the plenary. Sometimes, copies of these (in both the original and
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translated versions) were provided to the parliamentarians and interpreters. It can be argued that these copies eased the interpreters’ job; however, it cannot be proven whether interpreters used these copies, or whether they interpreted without them. Interventions were responses to the presentations made. They comprised of comments, recommendations, or questions posed to the presenters. It is argued that these speeches, though short, were spontaneous. This means that the interpreters did not know what the speakers would say, since they did not have copies of the speakers’ speeches. It must be stressed that interventions were done only in the third and fourth day. It is, therefore, important to establish if interpreters used the same strategies during presentations or interventions, when confronted with fast and slow speeches. The selection of the data was done purposefully, based on four criteria. Firstly, the researcher chose speeches interpreted into English and French. Secondly, the researcher attempted to create gender balance in this selection. Thirdly, speed was taken into account. Fourthly and finally, the speech type was considered. Concerning the first criterion; the researcher chose four speeches per day: two speeches into English and two into French. However, it was not possible to have a balance of target languages, because there were less French speakers, i.e. fewer recordings of the English interpreting booth. Indeed, day one of the presentations consisted of three English speakers and one French speaker; day two registered two English speakers; day three consisted of three English speakers and one French speaker; and day four had two English and two French speakers. The interventions were made by two English and two French speakers on day three and day four. With regard to the second criterion, gender was taken into account, when choosing these speeches. That is, the researcher attempted to strike a balance between male and female speakers. The researcher randomly chose the first speaker and ensured that the next English speaker was from the opposite gender. However, it was not possible to have an equal gender balance, because the presentations and interventions were not based on gender, but rather on other factors such as countries and the agenda of the session. For example, day four had no female presenters; it consisted of four male speakers; day one witnessed three male speakers and one female; day two involved one male and one female speaker; and day three had two female speakers and one male. The interventions were made by two female and two male speakers, on day three and day four.
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3.5.1. Table 2: Data presentation Day One Presentations
Day Two No Interventions
English into French Female Speaker Male Speaker Female Speaker French into English Male Speaker Day Three Presentations English into French Female Speaker Male Speaker Female Speaker French into English Male Speaker
Presentations
No Interventions
English into French Male Speaker Female Speaker
English into French Female Speaker
Interventions
Day Four Presentations
Interventions
English into French Male Speaker Female Speaker
English into French Male Speaker Male Speaker
English into French Female Speaker Female Speaker
French into English Male Speaker Male Speaker
French into English Male Speaker Male Speaker
French into English Male Speaker Male Speaker
3.6. Data Transcription The study used the software Adobe Audition to listen to either the original speech or its interpretation individually or both of them at the same time. The researcher paused one speech (e.g. English) and listened to the other (e.g. French), or listened to both of them. This software eased the transcription. The data were transcribed using the European Parliament Interpreting Corpus (EPIC) Transcription Convention. The researcher transcribed all the spoken words. However, just as stated by the EPIC transcription conventions, it is “virtually impossible to reproduce all characteristics of speech in writing as there are many levels (i.e. linguistic, paralinguistic and extra-linguistic) comprising an infinite number of features e.g. pauses, repetitions, prosody, body language and many more” (SSLMIT Dev Online). The following linguistic and paralinguistic EPIC transcription characteristics were considered, when transcribing the data.
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At the linguistic level, an orthographic transcription of the oral words of both the speaker and the interpreter was made. The researcher excluded all punctuation since it could be misleading and might create problems during the analysis. The transcribed texts were based on segments of meaning-based on the speakers’ intonation and the syntactic information of the sentence. At the end of each segment of meaning, a double-bar sign // was used to indicate the end of each segment. The figures, dates, and percentages were fully spelt out; while unintelligible words were replaced by ‘#’ and the word sound was transcribed in the annotation. At the paralinguistic level, truncated words were followed by a dash; for example, transfor- . In cases where the interpreter corrected himself, the researcher did not include the right word in bars. However, when he did not correct himself, the researcher included the full word in bars; for example, transfor- /transformation/. Concerning mispronunciations, the original pronunciation was provided followed by the mispronunciation for example, pressé /prassé/. Silent pauses were indicated with ‘…’, while filled pauses were indicated with ‘er’. If the ‘er’ was extended, more ‘r’s were added; for example, ‘errrrr’. It should be noted that, in each case, no information was provided about the duration of the pauses. All repeated words were transcribed; for example, ‘les’. Any extra information was annotated.
3.7. Determining Speed per Language (English and French) After calculating the speed rate, it was then compared to the speed provided by various researchers to distinguish between fast and slow speech delivery speed. It must be emphasised that this determination focuses on the delivery speed of the original speech, that is, the speaker’s and not the interpreter’s. Many factors are considered, when determining the delivery speed. These include gender, context of the speech, age and so on. However, this research will not take into account all these aspects in determining the delivery speed. Rather, the delivery speed will be determined based on what other researchers found to be a fast, average or slow delivery speed. Roach (1998: 150) states that “we all make judgements about how quickly someone is speaking, but it is not at all easy to work out what we base these judgements on. Speakers of some languages seem to rattle away at high speed like machine-guns, while other languages sound rather slow and plodding”. This means that there are certain elements to consider when determining the delivery speed which
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also differs from language to language. The delivery speed can be determined according to syllables per second; however, this research will determine the speed based on words per minute. The researcher calculated the delivery speed of the speeches recorded at the PAP’s plenary session. The rate was established according to the number of words per minute. The speed was calculated as follows:
Duration (hours, minutes, seconds)
Number of seconds = Minutes x 60 + seconds
Number of words (excluding annotations)
Words per seconds (wps) = Number of words divided by number of seconds
Words per minute (wpm) = wps x 60
This research attempted to determine fast, average, and slow delivery speed in two languages – English and French. The delivery speed in English is discussed followed by that in French. According to Li (2010), interpreters suggest that in order “to ensure the quality of interpretation, a rate between 100 and 120 (English) wpm is optimal for speeches that are not read from a written text, although the figure may differ for different types of speech. Lederer suggested that, for recited texts which are devoid of hesitation and redundancy which characterise official speeches, “the maximum rate should be 100 wpm” (2010:20). This suggests that the average delivery speed in English, for interventions, should be 100 and 120 wpm; while presentations should be 100 wpm. Li (2010:20) suggests that the delivery speed from the International Association of Conference Interpreters (AICC), which is at 100-120 wpm, is acceptable; while any speech exceeding 140 wpm is fast. According to Gile (Alvstad et al. 2011:203), a normal speech in English is about 120 wpm. Gile (Alvstad et al. 2011:203) notes that, according to Shlesinger, an English speech of 120 wpm is classified as lower rate, while 140 wpm is faster rate. According to Korpal (2012: 106), a fast speech in English is 177 wpm, while a slow speech is 130 wpm. Griffiths (1990) states that a fast speech rate is 200 wpm, average is 150 wpm, while slow is 100 wpm. According to Gerver (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:55), slow delivery speed varies between 95 and 112 wpm, average speed is 120 wpm, while fast delivery speed is about 164 wpm. For Pio (2003:73), a slow
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speech consists of 108 wpm, while a fast speech rate is at 145 wpm. Based on the above findings, for both presentations and interventions, a normal or average delivery speeds in English is approximately 120 wpm, while a slow speed is 100 wpm, and a fast speed is at 125 and above. French speeches are usually delivered at a faster rate. Rodero [n.d.] notes that French radio news broadcasters are moderately fast, between 190 and 220 wpm, and moderately slow, between 130 and 160 wpm. According to Paneth (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:35), a normal sounding good speech in French progresses at an average of 160 words per minute. Gerver (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:55) indicates that a slow rate French speech is 95 wpm, while a faster rate speech is 164 wpm. Meuleman and Van Besien (2009:23) suggest that a fast delivery speech in French is read at 184 wpm. According Grosiean (2013), the average rates found were 176 wpm for English and 174 wpm for French. Smith (2007) distinguishes the delivery speed of native French speakers from that of French non-native speakers according to words per minute. For the purposes of this research, the delivery speed of non-native French speakers will be the focus. This is so because most of the French speakers at the PAP speakers are Africans; as such, French is not their native language, but rather their official or national language. Smith (2007) states that the average delivery speed for non-natives speakers is 214 wpm, which is fast when compared to the findings of other authors. From the findings above, French speeches are usually slightly faster. In French, a slow delivery speed ranges between 95 and 119 wpm, an average speed is between 120 and 160, and a fast speech is between 161 and 250 wpm. These rates will be used as parameters in determining the speech delivery speed.
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3.7.1. Table 3 : Data presentation: duration of speeches Day One
Day Two
Presentations
No Interventions
English into French 1st Male Speaker (124 wpm)Duration: 6:06 2nd Male Speaker (107 wpm) Duration: 16:36 3rd Female Speaker (111 wpm) Duration: 12:10 French into English 4th Male Speaker (96 wpm)Duration: 9:9 Day Three Presentations English into French 1st Female Speaker (128 wpm)Duration: 18mins 3rd Male Speaker (115 wpm)Duration:22:27 4th Female Speaker (142 wpm)Duration: 11:19 French into English 2nd Male Speaker (144 wpm)Duration=14:22
Interventions English into French 1st Male Speaker (133 wpm)Duration:2:02 4th Female Speaker (123 wpm)Duration:2:32 French into English 2nd Male Speaker (109 wpm)Duration:45secs 3rd Male Speaker (153 wpm)Duration:32 secs
Presentations
No Interventions
English into French 1st Male Speaker (125 wpm) Duration: 9:9 2nd Female Speaker (133 wpm) Duration: 2:23
English into French 2nd Female Speaker (133wpm) Duration: 2:46
Day Four Presentations English into French 2nd Male Speaker (90 wpm)Duration: 4:06 3rd Male Speaker (127 wpm)Duration: 20:04 French into English 4th Male Speaker (133 wpm)Duration:24:24 1st Male Speaker (97 wpm)Duration:15:09
Total Duration of Speeches: 188:51 English
French
Slow = 90-99 wpm
95-119 wpm
Average = 100-120
120-160wpm
Fast = 125 wpm and above
161 wpm and above
Interventions English into French 2ndFemale Speaker (145 wpm)Duration:2:02 3rdFemale Speaker (111 wpm)Duration: 1min French into English 1stMale Speaker (120 wpm)Duration:2:56 4thMale Speaker (174 wpm)Duration:27secs
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Strategies used in all three delivery speeds will be examined, even though emphasis will be placed on slow and fast speeches.
3.8. Participants There are two permanent Portuguese interpreters in the PAP, namely, Mr. Fernando Facitela and Mr. Deolondo Casimiro. One of these permanent interpreters can assume the function of Chief Interpreter during one of the yearly sessions (July or October session). Mr. Fernando Facitela assumed this function in the July 2012 session. All the other interpreters were freelancers who were called upon to interpret during the session recorded by the researcher. According to a questionnaire conducted by the researcher, the PAP interpreters are above the age of 40 and have about 10-35 years of experience as interpreters. It must also be noted that it was not the first time for most of these interpreters to work with the PAP. Some of them have been working with the PAP for 5-7 years, only one of the interviewed interpreters was working with the PAP for the first time. There were ten English and French interpreters (seven with French as their mother-tongue and, out of these seven, three relayed into Arabic and Spanish, while three have English as their mother-tongue and French as second language. However, they were working in a group of three, per language combination and per day. Out of the ten French and English interpreters, four were females and six were males. This implies that most interpreters were interpreting into their first language, except in cases where they relayed into their second or third language. It needs to be emphasised that these interpreters included African as well as French interpreters. This background information is represented in addendum C. The interpreters who participated in this research were chosen according to the SL speeches. That is, in selecting speeches, the focus was not on the interpreters, but rather on the interpreting speed (fast, average, and slow speeches). After the researcher chose the speeches, at all three DS, the interpreters that interpreted those speeches were automatically included in this study. This means that not all interpreters interpret at all three delivery speeds. This may limit the analysis which will be confined to comparing the strategies used by different interpreters, if all interpreters did not interpret fast, average, and slow DS speeches. After the selection of the SL speeches, nine (9) interpreters were identified: two (2) females and seven (7) males, as illustrated below.
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Participants Female Int. A Male Int. B Male Int. C Male Int. D Male Int. E Male Int. F Male Int. G Female Int. H Male Int. I
3.9. Data Analysis Donato (2003:106) classifies strategies in SI by using Gile’s (1995) classification of strategy as a theoretical framework for her study. This study also uses Gile’s (1995) coping strategies as well as other authors’ strategies as theoretical framework used to identify strategies in all delivery speeds. Though I use Gile’s (1995) strategies and other few, I further classified them under broader categories referred to as Meaning-based and Form-based interpreting strategies, which were proposed by Dam (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:268). The researcher’s classification of these strategies as meaning-based and form-based is presented in Table 1. These strategies represent the tool used to investigate and analyse the transcriptions. During the analysis, the researcher opened parallel Microsoft windows, compared each segment to the other, and identified the strategies used. For example, by putting two segments together, the researcher determined if the interpreter omitted information (omission) or summarised the message (summarisation). This study identifies strategies used in fast, average and slow DS speeches. It must be noted that though the speed rates for both languages differ, they shall be classified under these three conditions, based on their specific delivery speeds. Firstly, the researcher divided the data into three sections: strategies and fast delivery speeches, strategies and average delivery speeches, and
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strategies and slow delivery speeches. The study further divided the three sections into two sections: presentations and interventions. The researcher chose four speeches per DS. In each case, the researcher attempted to select two speeches per category (presentation vs interventions), and one per language (that is French and English). Subsequently, in each case, the researcher identified a strategy and then aligned a source language segment with its target segment, to demonstrate the use of that particular strategy. In addition, the study compared strategies used in both speeches and determined whether different or similar strategies are used in a fast speech and a slow speech. Using the table that was provided in the literature review, the researcher finally determined whether the strategies used in a fast speech are more related to form-based interpreting (lexical similarity) or meaning-based interpreting (lexical dissimilarity), and whether the strategies used in a slow speech are more related to form-based or meaning-based interpreting. Step 1: Fast DS
Average DS:
Slow DS
Presentations English Day three 4th Female Speaker (142wpm) Day three 1st Female Speaker (128wpm) Day four 3rd Male Speaker (127wpm) French No fast Presentations English Day one 2nd male Speaker (107wpm) Day one 3rd Female speaker (111wpm) Day three 3rd Male Speaker (115wpm) Day one 1st Male Speaker (124) French Day three 2nd Male Speaker (144wpm) Day four 4th Male Speaker (133wpm) Presentations English Day four 2nd Male Speaker (90wpm) French Day one 4th Male Speaker (96 wpm) Day four1st Male Speaker (97wpm)
Interventions English Day four 2nd Female Speaker (145wpm) Day two 2nd Female Speaker (133) French Day four 4th Male Speaker (174) Interventions English Day four 3rd Female Speaker (111wpm) Day three 4thMale Speaker (123wpm) French Day three 3rd Male Speaker (153wpm) Day four 1st Male Speaker (120wpm)
Interventions English No slow French Day three 2nd Male Speaker (109 wpm)
The speeches coloured blue are those used during data analysis. The researcher selected them based on the above characteristics. An attempt was also made to choose fastest rates when selecting fast speeches, and slowest rates when choosing slow speeches. Gender was also taken into
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consideration. The researcher attempted to choose speeches from both male and female speakers. The next step consists in choosing the strategies used based on the speed, then according to the interpreter; this is followed by the speech type; and lastly, the strategies are classified under MB and FB. Step 2 Strategies Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Total number of strategies
Fast DS % % % %
Average DS % % % %
Slow DS % % % %
Total strategy use
Step 3 Strategic use in fast delivery speed : Strategic use in average delivery speed: Strategic use in slow delivery speed :
Presentations Presentations Presentations
Interventions Interventions Interventions
Step 4 Strategies
Female Int. A
Male Int. B
Male Int. C
Male Int. D
Male Int. E
Male Int. G
Male Int. F
Female Int. H
Male Int. I
Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Total number of strategies
Step 5: Meaning-based Strategies Fast Delivery Speed Average Delivery Speed Slow Delivery Speed
Form-based Strategies Fast Delivery Speed Average Delivery Speed Slow Delivery Speed
After identifying the various strategies used in the different SI conditions, the researcher highlighted strategies that are used in similar delivery speeds and those that are peculiar to a specific delivery speed or condition (Intervention and presentation). The research further
Total
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compared strategies used across different interpreters and their relationship to speed and speech type. Lastly, the researcher identified strategies amongst the three DSs that are more MB and/or FB.
3.10. Summary This chapter describes the method through which this research was conducted. It highlighted the purpose of the study, provided the means through which data was collected and selected, demonstrated how the data was transcribed, and showed how delivery speed was established. Chapter Three also provided information on the participants and the setting, and explained how the data will be analysed. In a nutshell, a number of authors have identified some of the strategies used during fast speech. In this study, the researcher will not only attempt to identify other strategies that can be used during fast speed, but will also endeavour to determine whether these are similar or different to those mentioned in the existing literature. The next chapter focuses on the presentation of the data. In this chapter, the researcher shall examine the strategies used during the SI of both fast and slow speeches and, then, classify them as meaning-based or form-based.
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Chapter 4 Data Presentation 4.1.
Content of SL Speeches
4.1.1. Day One The first session, on 21st June 2012, was the official opening of the seventh ordinary session. It included the administration of oath, as well as statements and messages of solidarity from the PAP’s member states. The second session involved an address by the Guest of Honour, His Excellency Idriss Déby, President of the Republic of Chad, and Chairperson of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS). One of the noteworthy speakers was Abraham Godson, Member of Parliament of Poland, who spoke about the relationship between Africa and Europe. He emphasised that, just like China, Africa could grow to be a great continent. He exhorted Africa to rise and take control of and responsibility for its affairs, and be independent from other continents. He stressed that it is only then that Africa will be a successful continent. The Vice President of Chad, Françoise La Belle, read the President’s (Idriss Déby) speech. In this solidarity speech, he welcomed the members, spoke about the aim of the summit, and the relationship between the PAP and both governments and heads of governments. He spoke about the role of the diaspora, the PAP, and governments in developing a strong and independent Africa. He also mentioned some of the problems Africa is facing; and indicated that at the end of the summit, a few recommendations to remedy these ills would be made. 4.1.2. Day Two On the 22nd of June 2012, there were presentations on the global African diaspora. These were followed by questions or comments (interventions) on each presentation. Presenters defined the term diaspora and talked about the benefits of a good and sustained relationship between Africa, the PAP, and people from the African diaspora. An MP called for a general reawakening of the diaspora and their realisation that there is a place called home – Africa, which colonisers called the Dark Continent and, yet, fought so much to retain control of. She emphasised that the African
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diaspora has a duty to criticise undemocratic governance, without fear of appraisal, and encouraged the PAP to seek better ways to collaborate with the African diaspora. 4.1.3. Day Three On the 23rd of June 2012, presentations on the global African diaspora continued, and were followed by interventions on each presentation. Day-three presentations were of the same nature as those given on day two. One of the presenters talked about the origin of the term diaspora, the reasons for migrations, the different types of migration, the African diaspora, education, and culture. One of the concerns raised by parliamentarians related to how diasporic Africans can use their university skills to contribute to the enhancement of university education in Africa. With regard to the presentation on education and culture, an MP from Mali spoke about the existence of a top ten programme in Mali, which enables lecturers from the African diaspora to give lectures in universities in Mali. Honourable Yah Ashantewah Ashangi, project director for Africa, spoke about the second liberation of Africa. She stressed that this liberation will not be complete until Africa is independent from all other international bodies. She advocated for a second reawakening, re-unification, neocolonialism, self-reliance, and sustainable governance. She underscored that united, Africa will be one of the great forces in the world. Therefore, she emphasised the need for Africans to consolidate, create, and sustain African diaspora activities in all six regions in order to consolidate and strengthen Africa. Most MPs commended the speakers for their good presentations. 4.1.4. Day Four The first session of day four consisted of a presentation on the report of the Pan-African Parliament, given by His Excellency Idriss Ndele Déby, President of the PAP. This was followed by a debate ignited by the interventions or questions and comments by the parliamentarians. The second session was a presentation on the evaluation report of the Committee on Administration and Financial Evaluation. It was made by the Chairperson of the Committee on Administration and Financial Evaluation, Honourable Fobakary Tombong Jatta. This presentation was followed by interventions from the parliamentarians.
The first concern, with regard to the second
presentation, was that the PAP is failing to adhere to financial procedures, particularly those of the donors. The second concern was the fact that the roles of the Bureau and the Secretariats of this
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committee were not clearly defined. Finally, the third concern related to the MPs travels: the national parliaments are getting highly inconvenienced because of the late communications from the PAP and, sometimes, the inconsistent information regarding flights and accommodation. In between these two presentations, there was a solidarity message delivered by an MP from Congo, who acknowledged the help Congo received from the PAP and other African countries which he thanked for their collaboration. This MP emphasised that, with such a collaboration, Africa will move forward. Also, an MP from Sudan passed a motion asking the PAP to take action in Sudan, with regard to the ongoing conflicts within the two sister countries. She requested national and international organisations to work with the PAP to ensure that Sudan and South Sudan implement the United Nations Security Council’s resolution which calls for an end to the hostilities and a return to the negotiating table, to resolve the outstanding issues facing the two countries. She encouraged the strengthening and consolidation of Africa’s democratic institutions, to promote respect and the protection of human rights, as well as good governance. It suffices to reiterate that some days were characterised by longer presentations by speakers and shorter “interventions” from parliamentarians. As explained earlier, interventions are situations where the speakers respond to the presentations made, give comments and ask questions. As such, the interpreter is not aware of what the speaker will say and does not have copies of the speech in advance. As for presentations, they consist in speakers giving long presentations or speeches of which interpreters may have hard copies. Sometimes, they may even have the translated and original versions of the presentation, which eases the interpreting process. The researcher observed that some interpreters used these documents. This section distinguishes between strategies used during these two situations because interpreters may possibly resort to different strategies under these two situations as some strategies may be more suitable and used more often when having reference documents available while other strategies may be more suitable when working without any documentation. The strategies are presented under these two situations and further presented under each interpreter. This is so because one of the research questions seeks to investigate if there is a difference between strategies used from one interpreter to the other and if speed is a possible reason for this difference.
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It should be noted during the analysis of strategic use that follows below the researcher chooses two to three examples per strategy and counts and records all the instances in which that specific strategy was used. Also the back translation will be provided in brackets with examples that require a back translation for analysis. It should also be noted that an interpreter can make use of more than one strategy in one example – mixed strategy use. The interpreter will first explain the strategy under which the example is provided then add any other strategy used in that same example. 4.1.5. Table 4: Summary of Data Used Presentations of speeches (both interventions and presentations) that will be used according to the various delivery speeds (DS) and categorised are as follows: Fast DS
Presentations English (presentation) 1.Day three 4th Female Speaker (142wpm)
2.Day three 1st Female Speaker (128wpm)
French (presentation) No fast
Interventions English (intervention) 3.Day four Male 2nd Female Int. C Speaker (145wpm)
Female Int. A
No. of Words = 937
Male Int. B
No. of Words Male = 675
4.Day two 2nd Female Speaker (133)
Female Int. A
No. of Words = 319)
Total: No. of Words = 1612
Day Male Speaker (174)
Male Int. E
61
Male Int. C
(No. of Words = 297)
No. of Words = 2307 French (interventions) 5.Day four 4th Male Male Speaker Int. E (174)
No. of Words = 61
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Average DS:
Presentations English (presentation)
Interventions English (intervention)
6.Day one 1st Male Speaker (124wpm)
(Male Int. I)
(No. of Words = 758)
8.Day four 3rd Female Speaker (111wpm)
Male Int. C
No. of Words = 111)
7.Day four 4th Male Speaker (133wpm)
Male Int. G
No. of Words = 3257
9.Day three 3rd Male Speaker (153wpm)
Male Int. G
No. of Words = 153
Female Int. H
No. of Words Male Int. G = 1435 Total no. of Words Female Int. H = 1822
Slow DS
Presentations English (Presentation) 10.Day four 2nd Male Speaker (90wpm)
Interventions English (Intervention) Male Int. F
No. of Words = 369
French (presentation)
11.Day one 4th Male Speaker (96 wpm)
No slow
French (intervention)
Female Int. H
No. of Words = 879
12.Day three 2nd Male Speaker (109 wpm)
Male Int. D
No. of Words = 82
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13.Day four 1st Male Speaker (97wpm)
Male Int. G
No. of Words = 1480
4.1.6. Table 5: Total number of words across delivery speeds (DS) and speech type (intervention and Presentation) Total Number of words during fast DS Total Number of words during average DS Total Number of words during slow DS Total Number of words during presentations Total Number of words during interventions Total number of words
4.2.
4596 4279 2810 10662 1023 11685
Strategies used during Fast Delivery Speed
4.2.1. Strategies used during Interventions a. English to French i. Int. C Omission Example 1: SL: I want to thank the CAFE and note the members for the work well done however I have about three comments I will like to concur with the report and even previous speakers// TL: Je souhaites remercier la CAFE et les membres pour leur excellent travail réalisé cependant j’ai trois observations à émettre// (I want to thank the CAFE and the members for their excellent work however I have three comments to make)
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Int. C omitted ‘With the report and even previous speakers’, ‘about’ and ‘I will like’ were omitted from the SL segment. It could be argued that the interpreter omitted the last part of the ST segment because the speaker was fast. Therefore, he may have assumed that the listeners know that the three comments are responses to the speeches of the previous presenters, that is, he may have assumed general knowledge. Hence, omission was a good strategy to cope with the speed. It is difficult to know if the interpreter omitted this information because he thought it was not necessary; but, even so, there is loss of information, since we cannot prove whether the TL speakers had the assumed knowledge. Self-correction Example 2: SL: About the auditory report I feel a bit uncomfortable that the PAP has continued to register and even in the report recognised that we are failing to adhere to financial procedures particularly of the donors// TL: Et dans le sciage de ce que mon précéder notamment de ce qui concerne le rapport dédit je suis mal à l’aise que le pana- /panafricain/ que le parlement connait donc le rapport que nous échouons à nous avons échoué à adhérer aux procédures financiérs notamment des donateurs// (And in the sciage of what my predecessor in particular that which concerns the said report I am uncomfortable that the pana- /panafrican/ that the parliament therefore knows the report that we are failing we have failed to adhere to the financial procedures particularly of the donors) Int. C continuously corrects himself until he is able to convey the SL meaning. First, Int. C says ‘et dans le sciage (and in the sciage’), which is meaningless since the highlighted word does not exist in English; then, he self-corrects to ‘de ce que mon précéder notamment’ (of what may precede in particular) which, again, does not make sense grammatically or lexically; and does not reflect the SL meaning. Finally, he self-corrects to ‘de ce qui concerne le rapport dédit (that which concerns the said report), which transfers the meaning of the SL text – ‘about the auditory report’. He further self-corrects from ‘nous échouons’ (we are failing) to ‘nous avons échoué’ (we have failed).
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Truncating Example 2: SL: About the auditory report I feel a bit uncomfortable that the PAP has continued to register and even in the report recognised that we are failing to adhere to financial procedures particularly of the donors// TL: Et dans le sciage de ce que mon précéder notamment de ce qui concerne le rapport dédit je suis mal à l’aise que le pana- /panafricain/ que le le le parlement connait donc le rapport que nous échouons à nous avons échoué à adhérer aux procédures financiérs notamment des donateurs// (And in the sciage of what my predecessor in particular that which concerns the said report I am uncomfortable that the pana- /panafrican/ that the the the parliament therefore knows the report that we are failing we have failed to adhere to the financial procedures particularly of the donors) In this example, Int.C uses a truncated word ‘pana-’ probably a truncated version of “panafricain”, which he does not have the time to complete and which is inappropriately placed before (instead of after) “parlement” from a grammatical point of view. This means that truncation may be used to cope with fast speed, that is, when the interpreter does not have enough time to process the full word. It could also be used as a filler while the interpreter waits for more information, or when the interpreter realises that the word is wrongly positioned. It should be noted that this is a new strategy found by the researcher. This strategy may have been used under a different name; however, the researcher has not noticed the use of this strategy in previous research. This strategy is fully explained in section 5.1. Substitution Example 2: SL: About the auditory report I feel a bit uncomfortable that the PAP has continued to register and even in the report recognised that we are failing to adhere to financial procedures particularly of the donors//
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TL: Et dans le sciage de ce que mon précéder notamment de ce qui concerne le rapport dédit je suis mal ὰ l’aise que le pana- que le le le parlement connait donc le rapport que nous échouons ὰ nous avons échoué à adhérer aux procédures financiérs notamment des donateurs// (And in the sciage of what my predecessor in particular that which concerns the said report I am uncomfortable that the pana- /panafrican/ that the the the parliament therefore knows the report that we are failing we have failed to adhere to the financial procedures particularly of the donors In the above example, the word ‘sciage’ is also used in the TL text, even though it does not transfer the desired meaning in both the TL and SL segments. It suffices to note that ‘le le le’ function as fillers. Fillers Example 3: SL: We go out and we are booked in hotels when you get there the hotel is not there and you have to pay your own money which you were not informed in time// TL: Err nous allons de err nous nous réservons des chambres dans des hôtels et quand on arrive les réservations ne sont pas là parfois nous devons verser des dépôts avant err avant même// (Err we will of err we we will reserve rooms in hotels and when we arrive the reservations are not there sometimes we have to provide deposits before err even before) Int. C makes use of ‘err’ and ‘nous nous’ (we we) as fillers, as he attempts to faithfully process the ST. First, he says “we will of’; then, realises it is not faithful and uses fillers such as ‘err we we’ in order to get the meaning; then, continues translating. He uses ‘err’ the last time to self-correct, but he is still not able to complete his sentence. This could be due to speed. Though fillers might have helped him to get the full meaning, speed might not give him enough time to finish the sentence, as is the case in the preceding example. Parallel reformulation Example 4:
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SL: Because it is really uncomfortable and cannot take on its work because we are not able to tap on the biggest donor source which will be accessible to us. TL: Il est bien dommage que le parlement ne puisse pas s’inquiéter de sa mission # ne satisfaisons pas un certain nombre de…// (It is rather unfortunate that the Pan-African parliament cannot worry about its mission # not satisfy a number of…) It is seen from the back translation that the TL does not reflect meaning in the SL segment. In the SL, the speaker says it is uncomfortable because they cannot make use of their donor, while Int. C says the PAP does not care about its mission. It is therefore possible that the interpreter continues interpreting without understanding the SL segment. A second possibility is that he may have misheard the SL segment. Another reason may be that he was unable to accurately reformulate a correctly understood SL segment into the TL. Regardless of the reason, he continued interpreting. It is argued that if the interpreter continues to interpret and the final rendition is not reflective of the SL text, he is using an interpreting strategy called parallel reformulation. Mispronunciation Example 5: SL: This one puts us in a very shaky position because PAP is the apex body of Africa// TL: Ceci nous met dans de situations de grande vu- vulll- vulnérabilité en tant que /organisative/ organisation en Afrique// (This one puts us in a very vu- vulll- vulnerable position as an organisation in Africa// It is acknowledged that, sometimes, the interpreter mispronounces a word. However, in this research, it is considered as an interpreting strategy. In example 5, it can be argued that the interpreter mispronounces ‘organisation’ as ‘organisative’. This is a new strategy found by the researcher since it has not been used in previous research. This strategy is explained in section 5.1.
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Table 6: Frequency of Strategic use Omission Parallel reformulation Mispronunciation Substitution Truncating Filler Self-correction
1 1 1 1 1 5 4
ii. Int. A Self-correction Example 6: SL: The realisation that there is a place they call home Africa which colonisers called the Dark Continent and yet which continent they fought so much to retain control of// TL: Le constat qu’il y a ce que l’on appelle chez nous l’Afrique que les colonisateurs appellent le continent noir et pourtant ce continent noir errr ce continent ils luttent pour en garder le contrôle// (The realisation that there is that which they call home Africa which the colonisers call the Dark Continent and yet this dark continent errr this continent they fight to retain control of) Example 7: SL: Madam President the story of Africa is a sad one especially now when we are in control as rulers and the determiners of our people’s fate// TL: Madame err le sort de l’Afrique est triste surtout maintenant que nous sommes nous avons le pouvoir en main et que nous déterminons le sort de nos populations// (Madam errr err the fate of Africa is a sad one especially now that we are we have power in hands and that we determine the fate of our people) From the back translation, in example 6, it can be seen that Int. A self-corrected herself from ‘ce continent noir’ (this Dark Continent) to ‘ce continent’ (this continent). In example 7, Int. A selfcorrects herself from ‘nous sommes’ (we are) to ‘nous avons’ (we have). The self-correction in both instances leads to a more faithful rendition of the TT meaning.
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Example 8: SL: The interesting thing is that the diasporians have rose above the situation and are able to speak out and be heard//
TL: Donc que err ceux de la diaspora ont un rôle à jouer au-dessus de la situation au-delà de la situation// (That is people of the diaspora have a role to play above the situation beyond the situation) She also attempts to self-correct from ‘above the situation’ to ‘beyond the situation’. Though she self-corrects and produces a literal translation of ‘au-dessus’ (above), au-delà (beyond) would have been a right interpretation. This is because it also translates the same meaning as above. Transcoding Example 9: SL: The interesting thing is that the diasporians have rose above the situation and are able to speak out and be heard//
TL: Donc que err ceux de la diaspora ont un rôle à jouer au-dessus de la situation au-delà de la situation// (That is people of the diaspora have a role to play above the situation beyond the situation) Again, in example 7, from the back translation, it can be argued that there is loss of meaning in the TL text. Indeed, although the interpreter interprets the words in the SL text, what he does is a lexical transfer, not a semantic transfer – transcoding. It can be argued that the interpreter may have misheard “rose” as “role”, which led to a literal translation or transcoding. Omission Example 10: SL: The interesting thing is that the diasporians have rose above the situation and are able to speak out and be heard//
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TL: Donc que err ceux de la diaspora ont un rôle à jouer au-dessus de la situation au-delà de la situation// (That is people of the diaspora have a role to play above the situation beyond the situation) The interpreter omitted ‘and are able to speak out and be heard’ in the TL segment which. This causes a slight loss of information. Example 11: SL: If you may be aware in some countries like mine you don’t talk of democracy without first identifying who is around you// TL: Dans les pays comme le mien on ne parle pas de démocratie sans faire sans d’abord faire attention ὰ qui est autour de vous// (In countries like mine you don’t talk of democracy without paying without first paying attention to who is around you) ‘If you may be aware’ is omitted from the SL segment. It is often hard to determine to what extent “meaning” has been retained, what type of meaning is important to retain, and what may safely be omitted. In this case, it should be noted that the meaning is maintained; however, what is lost is the rapport that the speaker establishes with the listener, the “common ground” which he supposes they share. In other words, he assumes that the listeners are already aware of what follows. Example 12: SL: African leaders are playing brotherhood game hence injustices are noticeable and sustained in many African nations all in the name of pan-africanism// TL: Nos frères souffrent de l’injustice et une injustice soutenue dans de nombreuses nations africaines au nom du panafricanisme// (Our brothers suffer from injustice and this injustice is supported by many African nations in the name of pan-africanism) In example 12, ‘playing a brotherhood game hence’ was omitted from the TT. The segment he (the interpreter) omitted is the reason for injustices in Africa. The brotherhood game is the reason for the existence of injustice. Clearly, there is a slight loss of information.
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Table 7: Frequency of Strategic Use Self-correction Fillers Omission Transcoding
5 3 5 1
b. French into English iii. Int. E Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Example 13: SL: Le bureau a fait de son mieux pour améliorer le fonctionnement de notre transition// (The bureau did its best to improve the functioning of our transition) TL: The Parlia- Parliament has done its best to improve this process to make it conducive to transformation// Int. E used a more general word ‘parliament’ instead of ‘bureau’. This causes a slight shift in meaning, because ‘bureau’ refers to a specific organ in the parliament. Bureau refers to the president and four vice presidents, whereas parliament consists of all the MPs, including the Bureau. He also uses truncation as a filler, because the truncated word is followed by the full word. Omission Example 14: SL: Le rapport est clair concis et une fois encore je remercie l’honorable président Idriss Ndele pour son courage et sa ténacité durant son mandate…// (The report is clear and concise and once again I thank the honourable president Idriss Ndele for his courage and tenacity during his tenure// TL: And I thank the outgoing president for the courage he has displayed during his tenure// Example 15:
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SL: Merci Monsieur le Président // (Thank you Mr. President) TL: Thank you// In example 14, the interpreter summarised the SL text and omitted ‘the report is clear and concise’, ‘once again’, and ‘tenacity’ in the TL text. Though there is no major loss of meaning, a segment was omitted. Also, in example 15, ‘Mr. President’ was omitted in the TL segment. Table 8: Frequency of Strategic Use Omission Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Truncation
1 1 1
4.2.2. Strategies Used during Presentations a. English into French iv. Int. A Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Example 16: SL: Patrice Lumumba Robert Sobukwe Stephen Bantibekwoh and Winnie Mandela amongst the voice that said mayibuye Africa let Africa return//
TL: Patrice Lumumba Sibukwe Sibiko et Winnie Mandela parmi les voix qui ont dit mayibuye Africa laissons l’Afrique venir ὰ elle-même// Example 17: SL: In this regard we join the lights of honourable Chen Chimutengwede MP of Zimbabwe who writes eloquently about this need for Africa’s second liberation// TL: Et ὰ cet égard nous nous joignons au Président Tengwende parlementaire du Zimbabwe qui a écrit sur le besoin par l’Afrique d’être libérée une deuxième fois// Example 18: SL: And most importantly we reflect on the honourable Marcus Gavin
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TL: Et plus important encore nous réfléchissons sur ce qu’a dit Mark Gavi According to Gile (1995:198), in cases where the interpreter does not recognise a term or a name, he may decide to reproduce the sound heard. In example 16, the interpreter attempts to reproduce the sounds ‘Sobukwe’ as ‘Sibukwe and Sibiko’. There is a slight phonetic difference between SL words and TL ones. Similarly, in example 17, ‘Mark Gavi’ is used instead of ‘Marcus Gavin’; and, in example 18, ‘Tengwende’ is used instead of ‘Chimutengwede’. In all three examples, this strategy is applied to the interpretation of proper names, which could be notoriously difficult for interpreters when they are not familiar with the person in question. Parallel reformulation Example 19: SL: The problem of the twentieth century honourable members is the problem of colour line the question as to how far our differences of race which show themselves shivering the colour of the skin and texture of the hair are going to be made// TL: Le problème qui se pose c’est le problème d’économiser comment est-ce que les différences de races qui se voient à travers les couleurs de la peau et des yeux// (The problem that exists is the problem of saving money how the racial differences that are seen accross the colour of the skin and eyes). Example 20: SL: Hereafter the basis of the ninth over half the world has the right of sharing in their utmost ability the opportunities and privileges of modern civilisation// TL: Comment on va faire ces différences comment est ce que on va avoir le droit d’arriver ὰ la stabilité et de partager les opportunités de la sous civilisation// (How are we going to make the differences how are we going to have the right to achieve stability and to share the opportunities of under civilisation) From the back translation, it is evident that the interpreter continues to interpret even though h does not capture the full meaning of the SL segment. The SL text speaks of sharing in the utmost
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ability, opportunities, and priviledges of modern civilisation, whereas the interpreter speaks of achieving stability and sharing the opportunities of under (not modern) civilisation. Though the TT is unrelated to the ST, the interpreter is able to fool the SL listeners. This is because he speaks of differences and opportunities, just as the SL speaker. That is, the form or lexis of the TT is compatible with that of the ST, but not the meaning. Omission Example 21: SL: Patrice Lumumba Robert Sobukwe Stephen Bantibekwoh and Winnie Mandela amongst the voice that said that mayibuye Africa let Africa return//
TL: Patrice Lumumba Patrice Sibukwe Sibiko et Winnie Mandela parmi les voix qui ont dit mayibuye Africa laissons l’Afrique venir ὰ elle-même// In this example, Int. A also omitted ‘Stephen Bantibekwoh’. This causes a slight loss of information. The interpreter excluded one of the people who said let Africa return. He may have not heard the name, or he may have left it out because of speed, as he was trying to hear the next name. The reasons for the omission cannot be ascertained. Example 22: SL: Kwame Nkramah the founding president of Ghana Africa’s first independent state reminded us in nineteen sixty-one divided we are weak united Africa will become one of the greatest forces for good in the world// TL: Kwame Nkrumah err Président fondateur rappelé en mille neuf cent soixante-un nous sommes divisés et nous sommes faibles mais unis nous constituons la plus grande force pour le bien du monde// (Kwame Nkramah the founding president reminded us in nineteen sixty-one we are divided and we are weak but united we constitute the greatest force for the good of the world) ‘Ghana’, ‘Africa’s first independent state’, was omitted from the SL segment. There is no major loss of information, because it is general knowledge that Kwame Nkrumah was President of
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Ghana. Therefore, the interpreter may have assumed that the MPs know that Kwame Nkrumah was President of Ghana, which is the first African state to gain its independence. And, since the speaker is fast, omitting such information will help the interpreter cope with the speed. Table 9: Frequency of Strategic Use Parallel reformulation Self-correction Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Fillers Omission
6 7 5 6 5
v. Int. B Omission Example 23: SL: And so in seeking to attain the unattainable to reach the unreachable we may unfortunately have to on the way touch the untouchables to step on the toes of those who are unmoved by this movement and to bulldoze those who are impediments resisting this change that we must take// TL: Donc en cherchant à attendre ceux qui ne peuvent pas être atteints nous pouvons toucher ὰ ceux qui est intouchables il faut que nous puissions suivre ceux qui résistent à ces changements// (So in seeking to attain those who are unattainable we may touch those who are untouchable we need to be able to follow those who resist these changes) ‘To step on the toes of those who are unmoved by this movement’ was omitted from the SL segment, this causes loss of information. One of the things that Africans need to do, ‘which is steeping on the toes of those who are against’, was excluded. The meaning is maintained in the TT; but, part of the information is lost. Parallel reformulation Example 24: SL: We have to be cautioned because they are coming yet again for us//
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TL: Donc nous devons être prudents parce qu’ils sont cruels// (We have to be cautious because they are cruel) Though the TT ‘cruel’ (heartless) is not related to the ST ‘coming yet again for us’, the use of ‘cruel’ is convincing to the TL speakers and makes sense in the sentence. Hence, the interpreter produces the form, but the meaning is not maintained. The interpreter therefore uses parallel reformulation (or form) to convince the TL speakers that he is translating faithfully. Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Example 25: SL: Africa teaches us no race no people no nation has ever been freed to cowardice…// TL: L’Afrique nous apprend qu’aucune nation qu’aucun peuple n’a pu être libéré par la croidice…// ‘Croidice’ is not a French word; the interpreter applies the morphological and phonological rules of the TL to the SL word. Table 10: Frequency of Strategy Use Parallel reformulation Self-correction Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Omission Instant naturalisation
2 1 1 3 1
vi. Int. C Self-correction Example 26: SL: The honourable president of PAP the vice president our distinguish guess ladies and gentlemen it gives me great pleasure to present before you this paper which talks about the African diaspora education and culture// TL: Honorable président du PAP err donc que le vice président nos invités nos chèrs invités honorable mesdames et messieurs mais c’est un grand plaisir moi de vous présenter
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devant vous de présenter ce papier qui (...) parle de la diaspora africaine de l’éducation et de la culture// (The honourable president of PAP err that is the vice president our guests our dear guests ladies and gentlemen but it is a great pleasure to present you before you to present this paper which (...) talks about the African diaspora education and culture) Example 27: SL: From this we then understand the term African diaspora to refer to the dispersal of Africa outside the African continent or the scattering of the homogenous African people throughout the world// TL: A partir de la nous comprenons que la diaspora africaine réfère au mot despera en tant que qui se trouve errr les personnes qui se trouvent en dehors du continent africain ὰ travers le monde éparpillées ὰ travers le monde// (From this we understand that the African diaspora refers to the word despera such as who are err people who are outside the African continent all over the world scattered throughout the world) In example 26, Int. C self-corrects from ‘nos invités’ (our guests) to ‘nos chèrs invités’ (our dear guests). He also corrects himself from ‘de vous présenter devant vous’ (to present you before you) to ‘de présenter’ (to present). In Example 27, the interpreter constantly corrects himself in an attempt to capture the meaning in the SL text – and he is able to transfer the intended meaning. He self-corrects from ‘au mot despera’ (to the word despera) to ‘en tant que qui se trouve’ (such as who are found) and, finally, to ‘les personnes qui se trouvent en dehors’ (people who are outside). The latter is the faithful renditon of the ST. Furthermore, the interpreter uses the word ‘despera’ which is not a French word. This indicates the use of another strategy– mispronunciation. It can be argued that he mispronounces‘dispersé’ as ‘despera’. Omission Example 28: SL: The African Union defines the African diaspora as I quote consisting of people from African origin living outside the continent irrespective of their citizenship and nationality
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and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union I close quote// TL: Lllll’union africaine définit llll la diaspora africaine comme étant err consiste des personnes d’origine africaine qui vivent en dehors du continent africain quelque soit leur nationalité et citoyenneté et qui souhaitent contribuer au développement du continent africain et la construction de l’union africaine également voilà fin de cotation// (The African Union defines the African diaspora as err consists of people of African origin who live outside the African continent whatever their nationality and citizenship and who wish to contribute to the development of the African continent and also the construction of the African Union here end of cotation) ‘As I quote’ was omitted in the TL segment. This causes a loss of information and may engender confusion at a later stage, when the interpreter says ‘end of quote’. The TL speakers might have become confused when the SL speaker opened the quote. The speaker uses instant naturalisation when he interprets ‘quote’ as ‘cotation’. He instantly naturalises the SL term by adapting it to the phonological rules of the TL. This may disrupt meaning, considering that the word ‘quote’ means ‘citation’. Indeed, ‘cotation’ does not mean citation, but rather to fix prices. Example 29: SL: Two the first plantation age this was the period between sixteen hundred and eighteen hundred which were the two centuries which were dominated by the slave trade corners with the Dutch the English and the French//
TL: Plusieurs plantations se fut le période du dix-huitième siècle et et durant les deux siècles qui ont été dominés par le trafic des personnes par les français et les anglais//(Many plantations it was the period of the eighteen century and and during the two centuries that were dominated by the trade of people by the French and English) The interpreter summarises the information. This leads to omission and loss of information. It can be observed, from the back translation, that important information was excluded. For example, ‘plantation age’ was interpreted as ‘plantation’. ‘The period between sixteen hundred and
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eighteen hundred’ was interpreted as ‘the period of the eighteen century’, which causes a shift in meaning. In addition, Dutch was excluded in the TL segment. Fillers were also used ‘et et’ (and and). It could be argued that the interpreter repeats this word while waiting for new incoming SL information, or while trying to think of a way to reformulate the TL segment. Example 30: SL: Black leaders developed a pan-African racial identity and with it launched some of the earliest efforts to build modern nations// TL: Et là les chefs africains ont développé une identité panafricaine lorsqu’elle la perdu des lorsque- et…// (And the African leaders developed a Pan-African identity when it lost its when and…) The interpreter omitted information (‘some of the earliest efforts to build modern nations’) when he stopped interpreting for some seconds in order to understand the meaning, before continuing the interpreting. This caused him to omit the rest of the segment. Therefore, he produces an incomplete sentence which does not convey the full meaning of the ST. Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Example 31: SL: The word diaspora originates from the Latin word diaspeirein, which means disperse// TL: Le mot diaspora vient du mot latin disperine qui veut dire disperse// Int. C reproduces the sound ‘dispeirein’ instead of ‘diaspeirein’. There is also the use of instant naturalisation when he interprets ‘disperse’ with the same phonological term ‘disperse’, instead of the French equivalent ‘dispersé’. Transcoding: Example 32:
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SL: The struggle for the second liberation of Africa shall even be longer it is clear that our liberation will not be realised just because we are no longer caught up in other peoples’ war// TL: La deuxième libération de l’Afrique ne devrait pas se faire attendre elle ne peut pas se réaliser simplement parce que nous sommes pris entre deux guères// (The second liberation of Africa should not be awaited it can’t be realised just because we are caught between two wars) From the back translation, the interpreter interpreted the SL segment word for word, which is transcoding. He renders an opposite meaning to that of the SL segment. The SL speaker says that the second liberation shall be longer, but the interpreter says the second liberation should not be longer. Again, in the ST, the speaker claims we are no longer caught in other peoples’ wars, whereas the interpreter states that we are caught in between two wars. He therefore provides a literal translation, but the original meaning is not maintained. Example 33: SL: Reasons for the African diaspora the two reasons for the existence of the African diaspora are forced dispersion and dispersion by choice// TL: Les raisons pour la diaspora africaine maintenant le l’existence de la diaspora africaine a forcé …err a donc que on immigré maintenant par par choix// (the reasons for the African diaspora now the existence of the African diaspora is forced ...err that is have migrated by by choice) The above is a word for word transfer of SL segment into the TL; however, the meaning is not properly conveyed. This results from the fact that the interpreter does not construct a full and coherent sentence. The fact that the meaning is unclear makes it difficult for the TL speakers to understand the original message. Example 34:
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SL: In fact some scholars e.g. James Walt two thousand and ten claim that Africa ambitious go overseas in that most err of Africa’s most talented go to the US and Europe to further their education and pursue careers// TL: Et donc que des personnes disent que les ambitions de l’Afrique qui partent à l’étranger et errr les personnes les plus éduquées partent aux État Unis et en Europe pour poursuivre les carrières// (And that these people claim that the ambitions of Africa who go abroad and errr the most educated people go to the United States and to Europe pursue their careers) Example 35: SL: Perhaps we need to give more attention to this than we have done in the past and do our research properly to ensure that we maximise their assistance to our continent//
TL: Peut-être que nous aurons besoin de nous concentrer sur ce volet lὰ beaucoup plus que dans le passé et faire et pour s’assurer que nous maximisons les ressources// (Perhaps we need to give more attention to this more than in the past and make sure that we maximise resources) Looking at the back translations, it becomes clear that, in examples 34 and 35, the interpreter constructs a word for word interpretation. However, the meaning is not fully transferred from the SL to the TL. Parallel reformulation Example 36: SL: However no diaspora communities have been chased to this period//
TL: Toutefois notre diaspora a étée donc que transportée dans de dans// (However our diaspora was then transported in inside) Example 37:
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SL:I am not here so much to list Africa’s problems because we are Africans we know our problems but I am here to identify the solutions to some of the problems we face as Africans in the world// TL: Je ne suis pas ici err pour err pour parler des problèmes de l’Afrique parce que nous les connaissons je suis lὰ pour parler des défis et des problems aux quels on fait face// (I am not here to err to talk about Africa’s problems because we know our problems but I am here to talk about some of the problems we face) From the back translation of examples 36 and 37, it can be observed that Int. C did not interpret the meaning. The fact that he continues to interpret without grasping the content refers to parallel reformulation. Fillers are also used in example 36 – ‘notre’ (our our) and ‘err’. Example 38: SL: According to Manim two thousand and nine the African labourers who were relatively shipped when obtained as captives were preferred because they were available capable of enduring difficult conditions and and capable to survive diseases better than the other populations// TL: D’après donc que l’article la main d’œuvre africaine qui a étée peu couteuse et ont été capturés et donc que peuvent souffrir et peuvent souffrir er peuvent survivre aux maladies comparé aux autres communautés//( According that is the article the African labourers that were cheaper and were captured and that is can suffer and can suffer and er can survive diseases compared to othercommunities) Example 39: SL: The development of the economy of the new world at this time rested largely on this enslaved labour force of their valour strength and fertility// TL: Le développement de cette de l’économie du monde de nouveau monde a crée une communauté très fertile//(The development of the economy of the world of the new world created a very fertile community)
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Example 40: SL: During the slave trade many of these people had no or very little formal education and a number had certain skills that they needed and used in their African communities in order to survive// TL: Durant le trafic de personnes et de l’esclavage et et beaucoup de personnes ont des capacités qu’ils peuvent utiliser dans leurs communautés africaines pour survivre// (During the trade of people and slave trade and and many people have skills they can use in theirAfrican communities to survive) Example 41: SL: Men were strong men and had a rich culture and traditions that they had practiced in their communities and environment for many years//
TL: Err des ils sont une tradition riche et ils ont des contactes avec leurs communautés d’origine// (Err the they have a rich tradition and they have contacts with their communities of origin) Example 42: SL: The black families developed new traditions on the African continent and in the diaspora as economic and political conditions changed while rejecting racial hierarchy// TL: Et ils ont loué des nouvelles traditions avec l’Afrique l’Afrique avec les avec le changement des conditions politiques// (And they rented new traditions withAfrica Africa with the with the change of the political conditions) Example 43: SL: In addition to the great strike made in education and the skills required in working there African diaspora community turns local expressive cultures into more cosmopolitan culture and output in taking advantage of newly formed audiences//
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TL: Et ont avec les grands efforts fait dans l’éducation la diaspora africaine a exprimé la à travers une dimension cosmopolitaine en err // (And we with great efforts done in education the African diaspora expressed there through cosmopolitan dimensions in in errr) From the back translations of the above examples, it can be seen that Int. C continues to interpret without grasping the content. He provides a lexical transfer, but the meaning is not properly conveyed. And, in most instances, he omits important information. In example 38, the interpreter also self-corrects from ‘peuvent souffrir’ (can suffer) repeats ‘peuvent souffrir’ (can suffer) and finally to ‘peuvent survivre’ (can survive). In example 37, he also self-corrects from ‘avec les’ (with the) plural form to ‘avec le’ (with the) singular form. Fillers are used in example 40, when the interpreter repeats ‘et et’ (and and) as a filler; and in example 42, when he repeats ‘l’Afrique l’Afrique’ (Africa Africa) to fill in the space while he attempts to understand the incoming segment. Summarising: Example 44: SL: The slave trade therefore provided a cheap supply of captives who were necessary for the Europeans´ profitary//
TL: Ceci a donné donc une fourniture de personnes de captives// (This provided a supply of people of captive) Firstly, he renders ‘slave trade’ by means of a general term ‘this’. Observing the previous segments and the use of this pronoun, it is unclear what ‘this’ refers to. Also, the interpreter omits ‘who were necessary for the Europeans profitary’. This makes the interpretation concise, but does not reflect the full meaning. Example 45: SL: The operation that these workers experienced fostered individual and group resistance and larger social movements//
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TL: Donc ils participent dans les mouvements d’africains// (That is that is they participate in African movements) The interpreter summarises the SL into a much more concise segment. Fillers are also used when Int. C repeats ‘donc donc’ (that is that is) to fill in the space, as he waits for more information from the SL. Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Example 46: SL: According to Manim two thousand and nine... TL: D’après le rapport…(According to the report) Example 47: SL: In fact some scholars e.g. James Walt two thousand and ten claim that TL: Et donc des personnes disent que… (And so people claim that…) In the two examples above, the author´s name and the year of publication were replaced with a more general term ‘rapport’ (report) and ‘personnes’ (people). Here, althought information has been omitted, meaning is not obstructed. Suffices to note that both examples involve names, which are notoriously difficult for interpreters to interpret. Gile (1995:198) rightly states that an interpreter may decide to reproduce the sound heard in cases where he or she does not recognise a term, or in the case of a name.
Changing the order of elements in an enumeration: Example 48: SL: Their work range from building colonial cities in the Americas to constructing railways in our continents from harvesting sugar and grass to extracting silver gold diamonds coal and petroleum from operating hand loans to handling textile mails from hosting sales and tunneling subways and bomb shelters and from blacksmithing and assembling automobiles to computer programming//
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TL: Donc que ils ils ont participé à la construction des chemins de fer et dans les plantations de sucre et dans et dans le secteur du pétrole et du diamant ils ont participé dans les usines de textile et donc qu’ils ont construit les les métros et dans la construction d’automobile et participé également dans err l’industrie d’ ordinateur// (That is they participated in the railway construction and in sugar plantations and in the petroleum sector and of diamonds they participated in textile industries and they built metros and in the construction of automobiles and also participated in err computer industries) The interpreter changed the enumeration; he did not follow the same order as the SL text. He mentions ‘petroleum’ in the TL before ‘diamonds’. This can also be considered a summarising strategy, because it can also be noted that some information is omitted, such as ‘building colonial cities in the Americas’, ‘silver gold’, and ‘bomb shelter’ . This strategy can also be construed as segmentation. Because the sentence in the SL text is complex, instead of saying ‘from this to that’, the interpreter constructed shorter sentences linked by means of ‘and’. For example, ‘Their work ranges from building colonial cities in the Americas to constructing railways in our continents from harvesting sugar and grass to extracting silver gold diamonds coal and petroleum’ was interpreted as ‘railway construction and in sugar plantation’. Instead of constructing a long sentence, as in the SL text, the interpreter decided to construct shorter segments. As noted above, interpreters can make use of more than one strategy in one segment. Example 49: SL: …investors who improved transportation medicine agriculture manufacturing techniques as well as developed new techniques in the arts and communication I close quote// TL: …des personnes qui ont amélioré qui la médicine le transport l’agriculture les techniques de err manufacture et les communications le transport// (people who improved medicine transportation agriculture manufacturing techniques and communications and transport) Again, the interpreter changed the order of the items by starting with medicine and transportation, which is different from the TL segment. Another strategy is used in this example when the
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interpreter replaced a specific word ‘investors’ with a more general term ‘people’. This strategy is referred to as replacing a segment with a superordinate term. Example 50: SL: …this through the permanent committee on education culture tourism and human resources// TL: …à travers le communauté comité du tourisme et d’éducation et de ressources humaines// (…through the community committee of tourism and education and human resources)
According to an official document collected at the Pan-African Parliament, this committee in English is officially called The Committee on Education, Culture, Tourism and Human Resources. In French, it is referred to as La commission permanente de l’éducation, de la culture, du tourisme et des ressources humaines. This therefore means that, again, the interpreter changes the enumeration as he starts with ‘tourism, education and human resources’. Mispronunciation Example 51: SL: The African diaspora was thus the historic movement of the Africans and their descendants to other places throughout the world predominantly to the Americas and also to Europe the Middle East and other places around the globe//
TL: La diaspora africaine a été le mouvement africain et ce sont les descendants de d’africains qui sont dispersés à travers le monde prédonement err dans les Amériques et également en Europe, au Moyen Orient et dans autres coin du monde entier//(The African diaspora was thus the historic movement of the Africans and their descendants to other places throughout the world prédonement to the Americas and also to Europe the Middle East and other places around the globe)
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The interpreter mispronounces the word ‘prédominant’ as “prédonement’. It can be argued that he mispronounces because he was already thinking of the next word, or because he was trying to grasp the meaning of the next incoming segment. He might also have mispronounced because he did not know the right pronunciation, or he might have accidentally slipped up with the pronunciation. Table 11: Frequency of Strategic use Parallel reformulation Self-correction Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Addition Fillers Changing the order of elements in an enumeration Transcoding Segmentation Omission Summarisation Instant naturalisation Mispronunciation
15 24 5 1 4 11 3 4 1 13 3 2 2
4.2.1.1. Table 12: Total Number and Frequency of Strategies Used during Fast Delivery Speed Speech The table below represents the total number of strategies used in each day. This number is obtained by adding strategies used under both intervention and presentation. Parallel reformulation 1. Self-correction 2. Replacing a segment with a superordinate term 3. Reproducing the sound heard in the sourcelanguage speech 4. Addition 5. Fillers ‘err and emm’ 6. Omission 7. Instant naturalisation 8. Changing the order of elements in an enumeration 9. Substitution 10. Transcoding 11. Segmentation 12. Summarisation 13. Mispronunciation
1+6+2+15 4+5+7+1+24 1+5
24 41 6
5+1+1
7
4 5+3+6+11 1+5+1+5+3+13 1+2 3
4 25 28 3 3
1 1+4 1 3 1+2
1 5 1 3 3
85
14. Truncating Total
4.3.
1+1 156
2 156
Strategies Used during Average Delivery Speed
4.3.1. Strategies Used during Interventions a. English into French vii. Int. C Addition Example 52: SL: You outgoing president you have proven it because you have demonstrated to use your skill from medical scientist to social science// TL: Vous entant que président sortant vous l’avez prouvez car vous avez prouvé err que vous pouviez utiliser vos compétences et savoir médical au profit de notre organisation// (You as outgoing president you have proven it because you have proved that you can use your skill and medical knowledge to the advantage of our organisation) Example 53: SL: You are a strategist and tactician// TL: Vous êtes un stratège et un tacticien err prouver// (You are a strategist and tactician err proved) ‘To the advantage of our institution’ was added in example 52, and ‘proved’ was added to the TL segment in example 53. In both examples, the information added by the interpreter does not add new meaning, rather, it clarifies the ST. In example 52, Int. C also self-corrects from ‘vous l’avez prouvé’ (you have proven it) ‘vous avez prouvé’ (you have proved). Self-correction Example 54:
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SL: Henceforth I will like also to join Honourable Chief Tom Bia that the only way we can honour you is to pass a motion to declare you an honourable member of PAP// TL: Je souhaite également joindre ma voix ὰ celle de l’honorable Bia qui ὰ la seul façon de nos honorer et vous de passer une motion déclarant membre honorifique du père- du PAP// (I will also like to join my voice to that of Honourable Bia that the only way to honour us and you is to pass a motion declaring honourable member of the father of the PAP) The interpreter corrects himself from ‘of the father’ to ‘of the PAP’. Also, ‘Henceforth’ and ‘Chief Tom’ were omitted in the SL text, however, this does not cause a shift in meaning. This is because ‘henceforth’ is a linking word that makes the text coherent, but does not add meaning. Conversely, ‘Chief Tom’ provides both the title and first name of the individual. Thus, since his surname was mentioned in the TL, the TL speakers can still identify the person concerned by his surname. Therefore, there might be loss of information, but meaning is maintained. Omission For example: SL: May God bless you thank you TL: Que Dieu vous bénisse (May God bless you) ‘Thank you’ is omitted, which causes loss of information. Though meaning is not affected, the TL speakers are not aware that the SL speaker said ‘thank you’. Therefore, information is lost in the TT text. Though it does not implicitly affect meaning, the TL speaker might create a wrong image of the SL speaker who finishes a presentation without thanking the audience. Table 13: Frequency of Strategic Use Addition Self-correction Omission
2 2 1
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b. French to English vii.
Int. G Replacing a segment with a superordinate term
Example 55: SL: Et parler particulièrement d’un programme qui existe dans mon pays qui est le programme top ten qui permet err aux universitaires de la diaspora de venir donner les cours ὰ l’université// (And talk specifically of the programme that exists in my country which is the top ten programme which enables err university lecturers from the diaspora to come and give lectures at the university)
TL: And more specifically I wish to refer to the programme that applies in my country that programme enables university lecturers from the diaspora to come and give lectures at university// ‘The top ten programmes’ was interpreted as ‘the programme’, which is a more general term. Parallel reformulation Example 56: SL: Et compt tenu donc du manque de professeurs dans nos pays et surtout dans des spécialisations très pointues celὰ a donné des très bon résultats// (And due to the lack of lecturers in our countries and more especially in specific specialised fields which produced very good results) TL: And to train lecturers in our countries and in various sophisticated areas and that has provided very good results// From the back translation, it is evident that the interpreter starts interpreting without grasping the SL meaning. He might have convinced the TL speakers because the TT words or semantics, and
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even the length of the TT sentence, are compatible with the SL. However, the full content is not transferred. Table 14: Frequency of Strategic Use Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Parallel reformulation
1 1
4.3.2. Strategies used during Presentations a. English to French viii.
Int. I Self-correction:
Example 57: SL: It is an honour for me to present this goodwill message on behalf of Europe// TL: C’est pour moi un honneur de participer de vous transmettre ce message au nom de Europe// (It is an honour for me to participate to transmit this message on behalf of Europe) In this example, Int. I self-corrects from ‘de de participer’ (to to participate) to ‘de vous tramsmettre’ (to transmit). ‘Goodwill’ was omitted from the TL segment. ‘Goodwill’ is the adjective that describes the type of message. Though some information is lost, the sentence still makes sense. Example 58: SL : Now…I am not speaking as a European MP but as an African whose health, whose heart goes out and longs to see positive changes across the continent// TL: Je ne parle pas entant que européen comme un membre parlement européen mais comme africain qui a eu ces une une d’échanges positifs par rapport au continent// (I am not speaking as a European as a member of the Europeen Parliament but as an African who has had positive exchanges in relation to the continent)
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Here, Int. I self-corrects from ‘as a European’ to ‘as a member of the European parliament’. ‘Whose health, whose heart goes out and longs to see’ was omitted in this example. This causes some information to be lost. The use of ‘échanges’ (exchanges) in this example also reflects an instance of substitution. Indeed, the word ‘exchanges’ does not translate the SL word changes, nor does it convey the appropriate meaning in the TL segment. Parallel reformulation Example 59: SL: Europe and Africa has had a long and sometimes turbulent relation// TL: L’Europe et l’Afrique ont eu une longue histoire une relation très longue// (Europe and Africa have had a long history a very long relation). Example 60: SL: This also calls for strategic changes in policies and practices// TL: Donc avec les plans les vraa les changes stratégiques ainsi que les les les les changements (That is with the plans the vraa the strategic changes also the the the the changes) The back translation shows that the interpreter continues to interpret even though he does not grasp the meaning. This may convince his audience, in terms of semantics, that he was interpreting faithfully. In example 59, he speaks of long relations, which makes sense as a whole, but excludes the fact that these relationships are turbulent. In example 60, he speaks of strategic changes, but does not construct a comprehensive sentence that reflects the ST. The sentence does not make sense as a whole. As a result, it is not clear that it is a call for strategic changes in policies and practices. Therefore, in both examples, the full meaning is not transferred. Fillers are also used ‘les les les les’. The interpreter also uses improvisation – ‘vraa’ – which is a sound but not an actual word in both SL and TL. It should be emphasised that this is a new strategy identified by the researcher. It is explained in detail in section 5.1.
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Substitution Example 61: SL: Africa is still struggling with the same problems it had forty years ago// TL: Donc la l’Afrique a eu les mêmes problèmes qu’avait qu’avait la Chine il y a trente ans// (So Africa has had the same problems that that China had thirty years ago) Example 62: SL: Today China is lending money to the world TL: Et aujourd’hui la Chine et et trente et de prêter l’argent au monde (Today China and and thirty and is lending money to the world) The interpreter uses a lexical item, in the TL, which does not transfer the desired concept; nor does it retain the meaning of the item in the SL. He uses ‘thirty years’ instead of ‘forty years’. In the second example, the desired concept was ‘en train de’ (is currently); however, the interpreter uses ‘et trente’ (and thirty) which does not transfer the desired concept in French, nor does it retain the meaning in English. He might have substituted because he did not hear the ST word, or because he did not have enough memory capacity to interpret the right equivalent. Fillers are also used in example 62 when the interpreter repeats ‘qu’avait qu’avait’ (that had that had). Transcoding Example 63: SL: What policies and systems and systems changes do we need in order to push the continent into its rightful place in the world// TL: Quel est la politique et les systèmes les systèmes les systèmes sont entrain de de changer nous devons pousser le continent qui doit être qui doit avoir des changements dans le monde// (What is the policy and the systems the systems the systems are changing we need to push the continent which has to have changes in the world)
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Example 64: SL: Asking the right and strategic questions and answering them honestly is the entering point to a greater Africa// TL: Est-ce qu’ils doivent c’est une question stratégique et nous nous ne pouvons la répondre si nous voulons la répondre nous devons faire en sorte que l’Afrique devient plus grande// (Do they have to it is a strategic question and we we cannot answer it if we want to answer it we need to make sure Africa becomes greater) From the back translation, the two examples above demonstrate a word-for-word translation with loss of meaning. Every word in the SL text has been interpreted; however, the meaning is lost in the TL segment. The SL speaker said that the answer to the questions will make Africa great, while Int. I rendered it as if we want to answer the question, we need to make Africa great. So, in the TL, questions will make Africa great; while in the TT, a great Africa will give answers to the question. This clearly demonstrates loss of meaning. The interpreter also self-corrects in the second example as he goes from ‘we cannot answer it’ to ‘if we want to answer it’. Int. I also repeats ‘les systèmes les systèmes les systèmes’ (the systems the systems the systems); these serve as fillers in example 63. In the same way, in example 64, he repeats ‘nous nous’ (we we). Instant naturalisation Example 65: SL: Africa is a continent that is blessed with abundance of resources both human and natural// TL: L’Afrique est un continent qui est prassé avec une abondance de ressources et avec des des ressources humaines et natural// (Africa is a continent that is prassé with abundant resources and with with human and natural ressources). The interpreter adapts the lexical and phonological rules of the SL word (natural) to the TL word (natural). The French or TL equivalent is ‘naturel’, which should have been spelt ‘naturelles’ in the context of the above example.
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Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Example 66: SL: The time for alms begging should be over the time for constantly looking for financial help from the outside should be over TL: Donc le temps est devant nous devant le temps de prendre des des armes et maintenant dépassé nous devons penser penser ὰ autre chose que porter des armes// (That is the time is in front of us in front of the time to take the the arms and now gone we need to think think of another thing than carrying arms) The interpreter interprets the sound he hears ‘alms’ as ‘arms’ which in turn leads to parallel reformulation, since the entire segment does not transfer the SL meaning. Table 15: Frequency of Strategic Use Fillers Parallel reformulation Self-correction Transcoding Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Addition Improvisation Omission Substitution Instant naturalisation
9 8 11 2 1 1 1 4 6 2
b. French to English ix.
Int. G Addition
Example 67: SL: Mesdames messieurs comme il est de tradition à chaque session générale de notre illustre institution le bureau a ainsi l’honneur de vous donner un rapport des activités du parlement// (Ladies gentlemen as it is the tradition of every general session of this
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prominent institution the Bureau therefore has the honour to give you a report of the activities of the parliament// TL : Ladies and gentlemen members of the Pan-African Parliament…er as it is the tradition of every oral session by illustre institution the Bureau has syndra honour to present to you an activity report of the parliament// The interpreter added ‘members of the Pan-African Parliament…er’ to the TL text. This addition can be due to the fact that interpreters get used to the general way in which most speakers greet. Therefore, Int. G integrates that greeting, even if the SL speaker does not include it in his or her speech. Instant naturalisation is also used when the interpreter adapts the morphological and phonological rules of the word ‘illustre’ to the TL segment. It is noted that the interpreter also improvises by interpreting ‘ainsi’ with ‘syndra’, which is neither a SL, nor a TL word. He, therefore, produces a sound which is neither reflective of the ST nor the TT. This constitutes improvisation. Example 68: SL: En application à la décision quatre-cent cinquante-neuf quatorze la de la conférence qui a demandé au parlement panafricain d’amender son règlement intérieur afin de se conformer aux institutions aux instruments juridiques de l’union africaine// (In application of the decision four hundred and fifty nine fourteen of the assembly that requested the Pan-African Parliament to amend its rules of procedure in order to conform to the legal institutions and instruments of the African Union) TL: In application of its decision DOC is CCL stroke four five nine of the conference of the assembly requested the Pan-African Parliament to amend its rules of procedure in order to conform the legal instruments of the African Union// The interpreter added ‘DOC is CCL stroke’ in the SL segment. Summarisation was also used, in that, instead of interpreting ‘four hundred and fifty nine’, the interpreter omitted ‘hundred and’ and simply said ‘four fifty nine’. This does not cause loss of information, given that in normal speech, sometimes, the figures are given without ‘hundreds or thousands’. Just by stating the
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numbers, the speaker can make the link and establish if it is hundreds or thousands. Int. G also omitted ‘fourteen’ and ‘institution’ in the TL text. The omission of ‘fourteen’, however, engenders a loss of information which might disrupt understanding. The interpreter also self-corrects from ‘of the conference’ to ‘of the assembly’. Example 69: SL: Le secrétaire général a été instruit de prendre toutes les dispositions y relatives un avocat a été recruté pour assister et conseiller le parlement panafricain en cette affaire// Une plainte a été déposée contre le gestionnaire principal du compte ainsi qu’une autre plainte a été déposée contre banque où a été hébergé les comptes du fond fiduciaire// (The secretary general was instructed to take all necessary measures a lawyer was recruited to assist and advise the Pan-African Parliament// A complaint was submitted against the senior manager of the account as well another complaint was submitted against the bank that was keeping accounts of the trust fund//) TL: The clerk was instructed to take all the measures on the issue a lawyer was recruited to assist and advise the parliament in that case//To date we are still waiting for the plenary results of his investigations//A complaint has been submitted to the manager of the fund and the complaint was also submitted to the bank that was holding the funds of the trust fund// The back translation reveals that Int. G added an entire segment in the TL text – “To date we are still waiting for the plenary results of his investigations”. This sentence is not in the ST. Interpreters at the PAP have been interpreting in this setting for years and some have a general knowledge of what happens at the PAP. Furthermore, documents were provided. So, it is possible that during reading, the interpreter came across this information and mistakenly included it in the TT. Or, he may have just invented the segment so as to continue interpreting. Self-correction Example 70:
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SL:Cette période représente toute la mandature de la deuxième législature que j’ai eu insigne honneur de présider avec les quatre vice-présidents// (This period represents the entire tenure of the second parliament that I had the singular honour to preside over with the four vicepresidents) TL: This report this period represents the entire tenure of the second parliament that I had the singular honour to preside over with four parliaments// Example 71: SL: …avec l’élection du nouveau président et de son bureau le lundi vingt-huit mai deux-mille douze// (…with the election of the new president and his bureau on Monday twenty eight May thousand and twleve) TL: …with the election of the new president and his/her bureau on mundi on Monday twenty eight May twenty twelve// Example 72: SL: Les permanences des membres du bureau// (The permanent duty period of the members of the bureau) TL: Em the permanent err due to the period of the err due to the period of bureau members// In example 70, the interpreter corrects himself from ‘this report’ to ‘this period’; and in example 71, he self-corrects from ‘mundi’ to ‘Monday’. The interpreter might have first interpreted ‘lundi’ as mundi’, since mundi is phonologically close to ‘lundi’. Hence, he naturalises ‘lundi’ which becomes ‘mundi’, before self-correcting to ‘Monday’. In example 72, the interpreter corrects himself repeatedly, but still does not get the right equivalent. Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Example 73:
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SL: Nous aurons également le renouvellement du bureau de tous les organes panafricains au cours de la même semaine// (We shall also renew the bureau of all the organs of the PanAfrican Parliament during the same week) TL: We shall also renew the bureau of all the organs of the Pan-African Parliament during the same period// In this example the interpreter uses a more general term ‘period’ instead of ‘week’. Example 74: SL: Le développement intérieur a été révisé conformément ὰ la demande du Conseil lors de la cinquième session ordinaire tenue en octobre deux-mille onze…// (The internal development was revised as requested by the council and amended during the fifth ordinary session held in October twenty eleven…) TL : The rules of procedure were revised and amended during the fifth ordinary session held in October twenty eleven…// The interpreter used a more general term ‘rule of procedure’ to interpret ‘internal development. ‘As requested by the council’ was omitted from the TL segment. Although it does not change the meaning, information is lost.
Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Example 75: SL: Face au respect et ὰ l’application de notre règlement intérieur j’ai l’insigne honneur de vous présenter ce matin un rapport bilan du bureau sortant pour toute la période de la deuxième législature// (With regards to respect and the implementation of our rules of procedure I have the remarquable honour to present to you this morning a report balance sheet of the outgoing bureau for the entire period of the second parliament//
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TL: While respecting the implementation of our rules of procedure I sintera- honour to present to you this morning er a report of the outgoing bureau for the entire period of the second parliament// Example 76: SL: Cette approche participative de la consultation régionale// (This participative approach for of regional consultation) TL: This participarel approach for of regional consultation// In example 75, it may be argued that the interpreter does not know the equivalent word in the SL text. This assertion is based on the fact that this is the second instance in which the interpreter reproduces the sound instead of providing the right equivalent. Indeed, in this example, he interprets ‘insigne’ as ‘sintera’ which is phonetically close to ‘insigne’ instead of the right equivalent ‘remarkable’. In the example 76, the interpreter renders ‘participative’ as ‘participarel’ instead of ‘participative’. Omission Example 77: SL: Le premier ministre de la République Fédéral d’Éthiopie son Excellence Meles Zenawi et lundi dernier son Excellence Idriss Déby président de la République du Chad qui s’est engagé à nous apporter son soutien pour l’adoption du nouveau protocole// (The prime minister of the Republic of Ethiopia his Excellency Meles Zenawi and on Monday his Excellency Idriss Déby the president of the Republic of Chad who decided to provide support for the adoption of the new protocol) TL: The prime minister of the Republic of Ethiopia his Excellency Meles Zenawi et his Excellency Idriss Déby from Chad who also expressed his support for the adoption of the new protocol//
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‘The president’ was omitted in the TL; however, this does not disrupt meaning, since the name of the president was mentioned. The interpreter also instantly naturalises by rendering ‘et’ (and) by means of a repetition of the same word ‘et’ in the TL text. Example 78: SL: Si bien sûr l’élection de membres de l’exécutif de la commission ne prend pas ensemble du temps de ce sommet// (If of course the election of the members of the executive of the committee will not take the entire time of this summit) TL: Of course the election of the members of the executive of the committee errs…will not take the entire time of the summit// The omission of ‘if’ in the TL segment causes shift in meaning. In the TL, the speaker is stating that ‘if the election does not take the entire time’, whereas the TT is stating that ‘the summit will not take the entire time’. The omission of ‘if’ causes the shift (difference) in meaning from probability to certainty. Parallel reformulation Example 79: SL: La conférence a estimé que certaines dispositions notamment les articles cinq et dix du protocole… (The assembly estimated that certain provisions in particular that of rule five and ten…) TL: The assembly felt that certain provisions of rules five and twelve of the protocol… The interpreter continued interpreting without grasping the exact figures; he interpreted ‘ten’ as ‘twelve’. It could also be argued that he did not have the time to process it and interpret it.
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Table 16: Frequency of Strategic Use Parallel reformulation Self-correction Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Addition Fillers Omission Instant naturalisation Improvisation Summarisation
x.
1 8 2 3 3 3 8 2 1 1
Int. H
Simplification Example 80: SL: Les femmes parlementaires contre les pratiquants génocide en particulier les mutilations des génitales féminines le six et cinq octobre deux-mille neuf// (Parliament women against genocide practices in particular female genital mutilation on the fifth and sixth of October two thousand and nine) TL: Parliament women against traditional and harmful practices in particular female genital mutilation circumcision on the fifth and sixth of October two thousand and nine// The interpreter simplifies the term ‘genocide’ by rendering its meaning. Instead of just saying ‘genocide’, he interprets this word as ‘traditional and harmful’, which is not even an accurate explanation of the word. She also self-corrects from ‘mutilation’ to ‘circumcision’. His correction transfers the equivalent meaning, because mutilation refers to the act of inflicting pain and damage; whereas circumcision consists in removing the external part of a female’s genitals (clitoris), or the penis’s foreskin in the case of a boy or a man. Therefore, circumcision is the right equivalent in this context.
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Table 17: Frequency of Strategic Use Addition Omission Parallel reformulation Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Instantnaturalisation Self-correction Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Simplification
4 6 3 2 1 3 1 1
4.3.2.1. Table 18: Total Number and Frequency of Strategies Used during Average Speed Delivery Speech 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Total
Parallel reformulation Self-correction Reproducing the sound heard in the sourcelanguage speech Simplification Addition Replacing a segment with a more general speech segment Transcoding Fillers Omission Instant naturalisation Substitution Improvisation Summarisation
1+8+1+3 2+11+8+3 1+3+1
13 24 5
1 2+1+3+4 1+2+2
1 10 5
2 9+3 1+4+8+6 2+2+1 6 1+1 1 106
2 12 19 5 6 2 1 106
Strategies Used during Slow Delivery Speed
4.4.
4.4.1. Strategies Used during Interventions a. French into English: xi.
Int. D
Omission: Example 81:
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SL: Merci beaucoup Monsieur le président (thank you very much Mr. President/Chair)
TL: Thank you Chair Int. D omitted ‘very’. In this case, it is not clear why the interpreter omitted that word. Int. D may have omitted ‘very’ simply because he is conditioned to omit any unnecessary material, even at slow speeds. It could also be attributed to the fact that he cannot yet know whether the speech that is to follow will be fast or slow. The interpreter may still apply this as a risk-averse strategy in case the speaker will speed up, considering that this is the beginning of the speech. Self-correction Example 82: SL: Je voudrais savoir err par rapport aux deux présentations err comment est-ce que nous pouvons utiliser de façon efficace les capacités intellectuelles universitaires de la diaspora pour les contributions aux renfoncements des institutions universitaires en Afrique// (I would like to know err regarding the two presentations err how we can effectively use the university intellectual skills of the diaspora to contribute to the the enhancement of university institutions in Africa)
TL: Now in respect of the two statements here I want to know how we can use the intellectual skills the university skills in the diaspora… to contribute to the enhancement of university education in Africa// In the segment: ‘How we can use the intellectual skills the university skills in the diaspora’, the interpreter first said ‘intellectual skills’ and then changed it to ‘university skills’. Omission was also used in the example since the interpreter omitted ‘effectively’ in the TL segment. ‘Now’ was added in the TL text. It could be argued that ‘now’ is implied in the ST. Therefore, it is an addition that makes the sentence coherent and does not disrupt/add information to the original text. It acts as a ‘filler’. Fillers Example 83:
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SL: Que fait pour au moins canaliser toute cette capacité de formation pour les pays africain// (What can be done at least be to channel all those training skills for African countries) TL: Now how do we channel those skills and to provide training for or in the African countries// This is the second instance in which the interpreter added ‘now’. In both examples, he uses ‘now’ at the beginning of the sentence. As mentioned above, it can be argued that he uses ‘now’ to make the sentence coherent. It could also be that he uses this word while he waits for more information or to fill in the space – in this context ‘now’ is a filler. Table 19: Frequency of Strategic Use Omission Self-correction Fillers
2 1 2
4.4.2. Strategies Used during Presentation b. English into French xii.
Int. F Omission
Example 84: SL: Cognizant of the objectives of the Pan-African Parliament to promote peace security and stability with a view to contribute to a more prosperous future of the peoples of Africa// TL : Connaissant les objectifs du parlement panafricain qui visent ὰ promouvoir l’appelle ὰ la sécurité afin de contribuer ὰ un avenir plus prospère pour les peuples d’Afrique// (Cognizant of the objectives of the Pan-African Parliament which aims to promote security with a view to contribute to a more prosperous future of the peoples of Africa) ‘Peace and stability’ was omitted in the SL text. This causes a slight loss of information. Indeed, it is omitted that the objective of the PAP is to promote not only security, but peace and stability. It could be argued that, at this point, the TT speakers will know the objectives of the PAP, given
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that they are members of this parliament , Int. F may have omitted that information in order to increase his memory capacity, by assuming that the MPs know this information. Self-correction Example 85: SL: …I quote notwithstanding the provisions of rule sixty a member may with the leave of the presiding officer give oral notice of the motion during seating// TL: …je lis nonobstant les dispositions de l’article soixante-un un membre peut donner err motion err présentation oral d’une motion nonobstant de l’article soixante// (I read notwithstanding the provisions of rule sixty-one a member may give a err motion err oral presentation of motion notwithstanding rule sixty) The interpreter first said ‘notwithstanding the provision of rule sixty one’ and then self-corrected at the end by saying ‘notwithstanding rule sixty’. He also self-corrected from ‘a motion’ to ‘oral presentation of a motion’. Furthermore, he omitted ‘with the leave of the presiding officer’. The absence of this information might disrupt meaning in the sense that ‘the leave of the presiding officer’ is a prerequisite for a member to give an oral presentation of a motion. It forms part of the rule; thus, its omission in the TT may disrupt meaning. Example 86: SL: Noting with deep concern the recent increase in the conflict between Sudan and South Sudan and particularly conscious of the deterioration in the relationship between the two sister countries// TL: Ayant pris ayant noté avec préoccupation le la hausse ces derniers temps du conflit et les observations du conflit entre le Soudan et le Soudan du Sud notamment la détérioration de la situation dans les relations entre les deux pays frères// (Having taking noting with deep concern the recent increased in the conflict observations of conflicts between Sudan and South Sudan and particularly conscious of the deteriorating in the relationship between the two sister countries)
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The interpreter self-corrected from ‘having taking’ to ‘noting’ and from ‘conflicts’ to ‘observations of conflicts’ ‘Conscious of’ (which makes the text more coherent) was also omitted from the TL text; however, the meaning is maintained. Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Example 87: SL: As one of the essential provisions of the comprehensive peace agreement of two thousand and five some of which were not implemented// TL: En tant que une des principales dispositions de l’accord général doté de deux-mille cinq certaines dispositions du de errr donc certaines dispositions n’ont pas été appliquées// (As one of the essential provisions of the general agreement of two thousand and five some provisions of the errr that is certain provisions were not implemented) ‘Comprehensive peace agreement’ was interpreted by means of a more general segment ‘general agreement’. Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Example 88: SL: Further recalling the address by the honourable Daniel Awed court first deputy speaker of the national legislative assembly of the republic of South Sudan TL: Rappelant également l’intervention du Professeur Daniel Oté premier président de l’assemblée législative nationale de la République du Sud Soudan (Further recalling the intervention by Professor Daniel Oté first president of the national legislative assembly of the republic of South Sudan) He interpreted ‘Awed’ as ‘Oté’. Again, it is noted that interpreters often reproduce the sound heard when interpreting names. Table 20: Frequency of Strategic Use Output monitoring and self-correction Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech
4 1
105
Omission Replacing a segment with a superordinate term
2 1
c. French into English xiii.
Int. H
Mispronunciation Example 89: SL:Honorables membres distingués invités les chefs d’états et de gouvernements de l’union ont exprimé à travers de multiples rencontres de porter haut le flambeau des idéaux du panafriicc-…du panafricanisme chères au père fondateur de l’unité africaine// (Honourable members distinguished guests heads of states and governments of the Union expressed through various meetings to hold high the main ideals of pan-afriicc-…panafricanisme which are dear to the founding fathers of the organization of African unity) TL: Honourable guests the Head of States and governments of the union have express through various meetings err …looking at the various ideas of pan-africanisme which are dear to the founding fathers of the organization of African unity// Int. H renders ‘idéaux’ (ideals) as ‘ideas’. It could be argued that she confused ‘idéaux’ (ideals) with ‘ideas’, since the interpreter had enough time to process the right pronunciation.
Self-correction
Example 90: SL: Au-delà de l’intégration des états ces idéaux n’ont de sens que dans la poursuite d’un sentiment de solidarité entre les populations africaines…// (Above the integration of the states its ideals make sense only in the pursuit of a feeling of solidarity amongst the African populations) TL: In addition to the integration of the states its ideals are faced on they are f…are based on the facts that we peruse the feeling of solidarity amongst the African populations The interpreter self-corrected from ‘are faced on they are f…’ to ‘are based on the’.
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Omission
Example 91: SL: L’Afrique fait face de nos jours à beaucoup de défis guerres SIDA sècheresse famine mal gouvernance etc. // (Africa is facing nowadays many challenges wars HIV AIDS, famine poor governance etc.) TL: Africa is facing nowadays many challenges which include wars, HIV AIDS, poor governance etc. // ‘Famine’ was omitted from the TL segment. This causes a slight loss of information. However, the use of ‘etc’ covers up that omission in the sense that ‘etc’ in the TT may also include ‘famine’ and others unmentioned factors. So, the TL speakers are aware of the fact that there are more challenges. Therefore, the meaning is somehow maintained. ‘Which include’ was added in the TL text. However, this does not add new information but rather acts as a linking phrase, which makes the sentence more coherent.
Substitution
Example 92: SL: …qui aura lieu dans quelques jours le vingt-cinq mai prochain ici même en Afrique du Sud// (…which will take place in a few days on the 25 of May here in South Africa// TL: which will take place in June in errrr errrrr South Africa// The interpreter substituted ‘May’ with ‘June’. This does not retain meaning in both SL and TL texts. Furthemore, he omits the day ‘25’. This substitution disrupts meaning in the sense that the TL speaker will not know the day of the event and this might cause confusion as to when the event will take place. Table 21: Frequency of Strategic Use Self-correction Mispronunciation Substitution Fillers Addition Omission
3 1 1 7 1 5
107
xiv.
Int. G
Fillers Example 93: SL: C’est ὰ juste titre que nous apprécions cette marque d’estime et d’attention manifestée ὰ l’égard de l’assemblée nationale mondataire- mandataire du people congolais//(It is right that we appreciate this mark of esteem and attention to the National Assembly mondatairemandate of the Congolese people) TL: It’s rightly it’s rightly that we should err express our satisfaction err with the mandate that we have received as the people of Congo// Int. G repeats previously processed information – ‘It’s rightly’ which functions as a filler. It can be argued that the interpreter repeats that information to fill in the space while he waits for more information from the ST. Parallel reformulation Example 94: SL: Aussi a-t’elle inscrit la vocation africaine parmi les principes directeurs de sa politique étrangère// (She also inscribed the African vocation amongst the main directors of its foreign policy)
TL: And we will like to be in line with the vocation of Africa in line with each foreign policy err principles founder// Example 95: SL: À ce sujet nous exhortons le parlement panafricain à naitre à être au antipode de l’union africaine pour ne pas sombrer dans ce que l’organisation de l’unité africaine avait finalement institutionnalisé les accolades entre les chefs d’états membres pendant le sommet pour se perdre dans les amitiés privées avec les chefs d’états des pays du nord et
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oublier totalement de traiter les multiples problèmes qui minent notre chère Afrique// (As concerns this we urge the Pan-African Parliament to be born to be on the opposite side of the African Union in order not to sink in what the Organisaton of the African Union had finally institutionalised the accolades between the member heads of states during the summit to get lost in private friendships with head of states of the north and totally forgets to look for solutions to the various problems face by our dear Africa). TL: So with on that we would like to urge the Pan-African Parliament to continue to accompany the Sud African Union so that they we move forward with what has been institutionalized by the OUA that’s the accolade between the heads of states members of err this great continent so that we together with the different head of states can be able to move forward without forgetting the treaties which were signed and which move our continent together// The back translation of examples 94 and 95 reveals that Int. G interpreted a segment that was literally compatible or lexically similar with the SL; however, his interpretation was not a faithful reflection of the content or meaning of the original. It may therefore be suggested that the interpreter continued speaking without grasping the content or understanding the meaning of the SL. This could be influenced by problems of comprehension and listening. Self-correction Example 96: SL: Notre souhait le plus ardent est de voir le parlement panafricain très doté des pouvoirs législatifs de contribuer a l’harmonisation des normes sur le plan continentale dans plusieurs domains vitaux tel que la santé l’éducation l’environnementetc// (Our strongest wish is to see the Pan-African Parliament having legislative powers in order to contribute to the harmonization of the norms at the continental level in various vital domains such as health education environment etc)
TL : Our wish our strongest wish is to is to see the Pan-African Parliament having legislative powers in order to contribute to the harmonization of the standards at the
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continental level in different vital domains such as health education environment and so on and so forth// Int. G self-corrected from ‘our wish’ to ‘our strongest wish’. It is possible that interpreters, at slow speed, follow the SL speaker too closely, resulting in more frequent instances of self-correction like in the above example. If the interpreter had increased her lag time a little bit, she would have heard the ‘le plus ardent’ in time, and the self-correction would have been unnecessary. Truncation Example 97: SL: Pays signataires du protocole relatif au parlement panafricain la République Démocratique du Congo entend parachever le processus de l’adhésion par la ratification du protocole du qui devrait intervenir auprès après les débats parlementaires au cours de cette année//
TL : As a signatory to the protocol rating to the Pan-African Parliament the DRC emm err will like to endorse the adhe- adhesion process by ratifying protocol which wou- should be used after the parliamentary debate during this year// Example 98: SL: Honorable président du parlement panafricain honorable membres du bureau distingués honorables députés mesdames mesdemoiselles et messieurs// TL: Honourable President of the PAP honourable members of the Bureau distadistinguish parliamentarians ladies and gentlemen// In example 97, the interpreter uses a truncated word then self-correctes in two instances in this sentence: ‘adhe- adhesion’ and ‘wou- should’. In example 98, he corrected himself once – ‘distadistinguish’. When the speaker is slow, the interpreter sometimes needs to wait for more output from the speaker in order to understand the segment before interpreting. This means that an interpreter also needs to use strategies during slow speed. The interpreter can therefore use a
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truncated word as a filler, followed by the full word. Also, the interpreter uses ‘emm errr’ which are fillers. The interpreter makes use of filler such as ‘emmm’ or ‘errr’ sixteen times. Example 99: SL: Au lendemain de mille neuf cent soixante date de l’accession de la RDC à sa souveraineté nationale et internationale le Ghana la Guinée et le Maroc ont exprimés leurs solidarités ὰ l’égard de mon pays durant les troubles dans lesquels le pays sombrais// (Following the year of nineteen sixty when the DRC attained its national and international sovereignity Ghana Guinea and Morocco expressed their solidarity towards my country during the trouble that the country was undergoing) TL: For instance err following the year of nineteen sixty when DRC became a sovereign national country Ghana Guinea and Morocco expressed their solidarity towards their country during the trouble that the country was undergoing// In example 99, it could be argued that the interpreter starts interpreting without getting the meaning and then self-corrects after processing the full meaning. He self-corrects from ‘for instance’ to ‘following’. Also, the interpreter omits ‘international’, leading to an omission. Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Example 100: SL: Ainsi les parlements Congolais pourront s’impliquer dans le rayonnement de l’organe legislatif panafricain// (In this way the Congolese parliament will be able to be involved in the outreach of the Pan-African legislative organ)
TL: The Congolese parliament will like to be involved in the work of the Pan-African Parliament// The interpreter reformulated the message in a less accurate manner by using a superordinate. The word ‘work’ which is a more general term was used to interpret ‘outreach’. This caused a slight shift in meaning. This could also be construed as omission, given that ‘legislative organ’ was omitted in the TL, causing a slight shift. The interpreter omits ‘in this way’; however, in this case,
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there is no loss of information because ‘in this way’ is a linking word. It may make the TT less coherent, but there is no loss of meaning. Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Example 101: SL: Au nom du président de RDC son excellence Joseph Kabila Kabange et au nom du président de l’assemblée national de la République Démocratique du Congo honorable Aubin Minaku nous aimeront profiter de cette tribune pour remercier les peuples frères et amis de l’Afrique qui ont accompagné le peuples congolais dans l’accomplissement de son devoir électoral// (And on the behalf of the president of the of DRC his Excellency Joseph Kabila Kabange and on the behalf of the president of the national assembly of the Republic of Democratic Republic of Congo honourable Aubin Minaku we would like to take this opportunity to thank the our brothers and friends in Africa who supported the Congolese people in the accomplishment of this electoral task)
TL: And on the behalf of the president of the Republic of Democratic Republic of Congo his Excellency the president of DRC Joseph Kabila Kabange and on the behalf of the president of the err national assembly of the DRC honourableAubinMinaku we would like to take this opportunity to thank err the our brothers in Africa who supported supported the Congolese people in the accomplishment of this electro task// Example 102: SL: C’est le cas du peuple d’Afrique du Sud d’Angola et de la RDC grâce ὰ leur appuis logistique la commission électorale nationale indépendante s’est réunie en cigle a pu relever les défis d’organiser les élections transparentes libres et démocratiques dans un pays aux dimensions sous continentale//
TL: Err The case with the the case in point is South Africa Angolo- and the Republic of Congo thanks to their logistic support the electro the national electro-commission err was
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able to overcome the challenges of organizing transparent and democratic elections in this err vast country// Example 103: SL: La CEMI a entrepris une auto-évaluation de ces actions avec l’aide des partenaires bilatéraux et multilatéraux avant de finaliser le processus électorale par l’organisation des élections provinciales et locales//
TL : Err we undertook a self evaluation of these actions with the support of biolateralpartners and multrateral- partners before finalizing the electro process err through the organisaton of the local and provincial elections// In examples 101, 102, and 103, ‘électorale (electoral)’ is interpreted as ‘electro’ instead of ‘electoral’. In example 103, he interprets ‘bilatéraux et multilatéraux (bilateral and multilateral)’ as ‘biolateral and multrateral’. The interpreter provides a lexical translation which is close to the SL word, but the meaning has been shifted. It could be argued that the interpreter does not know the appropriate term and therefore he reproduced the sound. In example 101, the interpreter selfcorrects from ‘president of the Republic of Democratic Republic of Congo’ to ‘the president of the DRC’. In the same example, the interpreter repeats previously processed information – ‘supported’ and ‘the’, which leads to repetition. In example 103, replacing a segment with a superordinate term or a more general speech segment is used: the interpreter replaces ‘CEMI’, which refers to Commission Electorale Mixte Indépendante (Independent Joint Electoral Commission (CEMI)), with ‘we’. Explaining or paraphrasing: Example 104: SL: Puis plusieurs batailles qui ont tenté de balkaniser la RDC ont motivé les parlements des pays africains à autoriser leurs armées les armées de leur pays respectifs pour voler au secours de la RDC// (During several wars that balkanised the DRC motivated parliaments of African countries to authorise their armies the armies of their respective countries to come and help the DRC)
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TL : Then there were different wars that were aimed at destabilizing and dividing the country motivated African parliaments to authorize their armies the armies of their respective countries to come and help the Democratic Republic of Congo// The interpreter explained the term ‘balkanised’ instead of providing the exact equivalent. Gile (1995:198) argues that this strategy is used when the interpreter understands a term but does not know the appropriate equivalents. However, it is not possible to establish if the interpreter did not know the equivalent, or simply decided to provide the explanation because he felt that the term was highly technical. The interpreter also added ‘then’ at the beginning of the sentence; this acts as a filler, while he waits for more input from the SL speaker. Omission Example 105: SL: Plus récemment une guerre d’agression par des voisins de la RDC allait sans doute faire réécrire toute l’histoire et faire redresser la géographie de l’Afrique mais heureusement la lucidité de pays de plusieurs pays d’Afrique en général et celle de quelques membres de la SADC en particulier a sauvé les pays de la dérive// (Just recently an aggression war by the neighbours of the DRC was going to influence the entire history and reverse the geography of Africa but fortunately the strength of countries of many African countries in general and that of some members of SADC in particular came in to prevent the country from being drifted// TL: Just recently there was an aggression war by the neighbours of the Democratic Republic of Congo err play the role of trying to reverse the geography of Africa but fortunately err the strength of African countries in general and that of some members of SADC in particular came in to solve the country// ‘Influence the entire history’was omitted from the TL. The omission of this segment causes loss of information. The TL speakers do not understand that the aggression on the DRC will affect the entire history. Though meaning is not affected, there is loss of information. The interpreter replaced the segment ‘prevent the country from being drifted’ with a more general word ‘solve’. Example 106:
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SL: C’est pourquoi son excellence Joseph Kabila Kabange est passé respectivement de l’unification et de la pacification de l’ ère de Congo ὰ parti de deux mille un ὰ la consolidation de la paix et au lancement du programme de la res- reconstruction de cinq chantiers pour prôner en deux mille onze la stabilisation de la paix et la révolution de la modernité// (That is why his Excellency Joseph Kabila Kabange moved from the unification and participation of the era of the DRC from two thousand and one to peace building and the launching of the resreconstruction programme of five construction sites in two thousand and eleven to ensure that there is stability of peace and that revolution of modernity) TL: That is why his Excellency gils- Kabila Kabange err ensured that the unification and participation of the DRC from two thousand and one towards the towards peace building and towards the launching of the reconstruction programme to ensure that there is stability and peace and that we move towards err modernity// The interpreter omits ‘five construction sites in two thousand and eleven’. These are statistics that may be important to the understanding of the TL speakers. Also, the interpreter reproduces the sound heard in the source-language speech – ‘gils’ instead of ‘Joseph’. Again this strategy is used in interpreting names (Gile, 1995:198). Summarisation Example 107: SL: Ces visions n’ont été réalisables elle ne pourrait être encore que grâce ὰ la preuve vivante et ὰ la chaleureuse solidarité des pays africains// (These visions were not achievable and will only be achievable due to the living proof and warm solidarity of African countries) TL: This vision is not easy to achieve err unless there is solidarity from other African countries// The SL text is concise, compared to the SL text. Though certain words are omitted, the general meaning is conveyed. The interpreter omitted ‘and will only be achievable due to the’ and replaced it with a more general word, “unless’, which captures the original content. The phrase ‘living proof and warm’ merely qualifies the adjective ‘solidarity’. Therefore, though he summarises by using
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a more general term and by omitting the degree of solidarity, and the interpreter still manages to maintain the ST meaning. Table 22: Frequency of Strategic Use Parallel reformulation Self-correction Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Addition Fillers Explaining or paraphrasing Omission Summarisation
4.4.2.1.
3 14+1-2 2+1 4 3(delete) 16+2+3 1 3 1
Table 23: Total Number and Frequency of Strategies used during Slow Delivery Speed Speech
4.4.2.1.1.
Parallel reformulation
3
3
4.4.2.1.2. 4.4.2.1.3.
Self-correction Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Fillers Addition Explaining or paraphrasing Omission Substitution Summarisation Mispronunciation
1+4+3+13 1+3
21 4
1+4
5
2+7+21 1 1 2+2+5+3 1 1 1 81
31 1 1 12 1 1 1 81
4.4.2.1.4. 4.4.2.2. 4.4.2.3. 4.4.2.4. 4.4.2.5. 4.4.2.6. 4.4.2.7. 4.4.2.8. Total
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Chapter 5 Data Analysis 5.1. Analysis and Comparison of Strategies in all Three Delivery Speeds (DS) 5.1.1. Table 24 : Presentation of Strategies in Fast, Average and Slow DS Strategies
Fast DS
Average DS
Slow DS
Parallel reformulation Self-correction Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Addition Fillers Explaining or Paraphrasing Omission Instant naturalisation Changing the order of elements in an enumeration Improvisation Substitution Transcoding Segmentation Summarisation Simplification Mispronunciation Truncating Total number of strategies
24 (0.5%) 41 (0.8%) 6 (0.13%)
13 (0.3%) 24 (0.5%) 5 (0.15%)
3 (0.1%) 21 (0.7%) 4 (0.14%)
Total strategy use 40 86 15
7 (0.15%)
5 (0.11%)
3 (0.1%)
15
4 (0.1%) 25 (0.5%) 0 (0%) 28 (0.6%) 3 (0.06%) 3 (0.06%)
10 (0.2%) 12 (0.2%) 0 (0%) 19 (0.4%) 5 (0.11%) 0 (0%)
1 (0.03%) 31 (1.1%) 1 (0.03%) 12 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0%)
15 68 1 59 8 3
0 (0%) 1 (0.02%) 5 (0.1%) 1 (0.02%) 3 (0.06%) 0 (0%) 3(0.06%) 2(0.04%) 156 (3.39%)
2 (0.04%) 6 (0.14%) 2 (0.04%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.02%) 1 (0.02%) 0 (0%) 0 (0.0%) 105 (2.45)
0 (0%) 1 (0.03) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.03%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.03) 2 (0.07%) 81 (2.88)
2 8 7 1 5 1 4 4 342 (2.92%)
5.1.2. Table 25: Total number of words across delivery speeds (DS) and speech type (intervention and Presentation) Total Number of words during fast DS Total Number of words during average DS Total Number of words during slow DS Total Number of words during presentations Total Number of words during interventions Total number of words
Total instances of strategy use: 340
4596 4279 2810 10662 1023 11685
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5.1.2. Findings: All Gile’s (1995) strategies and related strategies that were discussed in the literature review were identified during the data analysis. It must be emphasised that not all the existing interpreting strategies were discussed; rather, the study focused on the strategies used to deal with such interpreting challenges as speed. As noted in the literature review, authors such as Lörscher (1991), Kalina (1998), Kohn (1990), and Liontou (1996) highlight that a strategy is used to solve an interpreting problem, or even to prevent an imminent one (risk-averse behaviour), according to Gile’s (1995) classification of strategies. Therefore, strategy use is problem-oriented and productoriented. The most used strategies were self-correction, omission, fillers, and parallel reformulation; while the least used strategies were simplification, segmentation, and explaining. During fast DS, all the strategies were used, with the exception of ‘explaining’. During average DS explaining, changing the order of elements, and segmentation were not used. Finally, during slow DS, changing the order of elements in an enumeration, improvisation, segmentation, simplification, and summarisation were not recorded. The reasons for these occurrences will be discussed below. 5.1.3. Discussion 5.1.3.1. Strategies most used in fast delivery speed include:
Parallel reformulation A significant disparity in the use of this strategy was observed between the abovementioned instances, in all three speed types. This strategy was used during fast DS (24/0.5%), average DS (13/0.3%), and slow DS (3/0.1%). Li (2010:19) argues that if the speed is too fast, no interpreter can transmit the message in full, even if the interpreter is an expert. This is because human beings have a limited mental capacity. Gile (1995:161) adds that when the speed is fast, listening and analysis will consume time and little mental capacity will be left for production, which leads to ‘mistranslations and loss of information’ Li (2010:19). It can therefore be argued that the faster the speed, the more the interpreter is likely to continue speaking, despite his/her inability to understand the meaning. This leads to a form-based or literal text.
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When examining all instances of the use of parallel reformulation in examples 4, 7, 19, 24, 36, 37, the interpreters were not able to interpret the original meaning which, in most instances, led to a major shift in meaning. A translation shift, according to Munday and Hatim (2004:26), refers to small changes or ‘shifts’ (especially in terms of meaning) that occur between units in an ST and a TT. Toury (Munday and Hatim, 2004:32), on the other hand, refers to translations shifts as the search for error, failure, and [meaning] loss in translation. In this regard, shifts refer to instances where the interpreter fails to transfer the SL meaning in the TL text. Therefore, this strategy interprets the form without conveying the intended meaning. As such, it should be discouraged. The problem with this strategy emanates from the fact that it is form-based. In this regard, Lasron (1998:17) observes that those literal translations “are of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are interested in the meaning”. The ineffectiveness of this strategy explains why it should be discouraged. Self-correction This strategy was mostly recorded during fast DS (41/0.8%), average DS (24/0.5%), and slow DS (21/0.7%). Kirchhoff (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002: 117) contend that the interpreter will not perform any corrections if their processing capacity is exhausted. Contrary to the hypothesis that the interpreter is likely to self-correct during slow DS, it was discovered that interpreters mostly used this strategy in fast DS. Just as Li (2010:19) states, fast DS overloads the brain, ‘leaving no room for proper processing of information to produce a coherent translation’. Kirchhoff (Pöchhacker & Shlesinger, 2002:117) also states that ‘among beginners, the number of corrections (under time pressure) will remain constant despite a rising error rate when little processing capacity remains available for this final operation in the problem solving process”. She claims that novice interpreters will continue self-correcting despite the delivery speed. However, this research revealed that it is not beginners alone who self-correct, experienced interpreters (taking into consideration that all interpreters have above 10 years of experience) will also self-correct even during a fast DS. It is noted that this strategy is less used during average DS. It can be argued that the interpreter will have more mental capacity during an average DS and will produce more accurate translations; this leads to less strategy use. Therefore, it can be concluded that at fast
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DS, interpreters are more likely to make mistakes and self-correct than at both slow DS and average DS.
In examples 2, 7, 7, 8, 26, 27, and others, the interpreters self-corrected their output, which usually led to a better interpretation in that they were able to convey an equivalent meaning. Nevertheless, in a few instances, the interpreter was unable to self-correct successfully. Though it can be argued that there may not be enough time for the interpreter to self-correct when the speaker is fast, this study has demonstrated that interpreters use this strategy successfully when the speaker is fast. Indeed, due to the fact that the speaker is fast, interpreters will usually start interpreting without understanding (may be in order to save time) and then self-correct after they realise they are not interpreting faithfully. Self-correction, in most cases, led to a better interpretation in terms of meaning. As such, it can be recommended. Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech This strategy was commonly used during fast DS (7/0.15%), slow DS (5/0.11%) and average DS (6/0.14%). This shows that this strategy is likely to be used in all three delivery speeds, but slightly less in average DS. This may be because interpreters use fewer strategies during average DS. In most instances, regardless of the DS, this strategy is used when interpreting names. As Gile (1995:198) rightly states, in cases where the interpreter does not recognise a term, or in the case of a name, he may decide to reproduce the sound heard. Therefore, a text that contains many names may influence the use of this strategy more than the DS. In Examples 16, 17, 18 and, 31, though the name or noun (in the case of example 26) was not pronounced rightly, there is no major shift in meaning. This may be because, in this setting, parliamentarians are familiar with most of the names; thus, from the sound, they may guess which name the interpreter meant. In Example 14, the president of Zimbabwe may help the target speakers understand that the sound produced is actually the name of the president. This is therefore a good strategy to use, especially when interpreting names, when the speaker is fast. Transcoding
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This strategy was recoded 5 times (0.1%) during fast DS, 2 times (0.04%) during average DS, and 0 (0%) times during slow DS. This suggests that this strategy is more likely to be used when the DS is fast, as compared to slow DS and average DS. In this regard, Lasron (1998:17) states that literal translations “are of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are interested in the meaning”. Therefore, it can be argued that the interpreter will only resort to this strategy when there is not enough memory capacity to translate the meaning, or when the speed is too fast. The interpreter will resort to this strategy in order to facilitate comprehension for the TL speakers (Gile 1995:199). In examples 8, 32, 63, and 64, it is evident that this strategy leads to a form-based and not a meaning-based translation. Thus, the use of this strategy may be discouraged. Omission Omission occurred more during fast DS (28/0.6%) than during average DS (19/0.4%) and slow DS (12/0.4%). Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002), Al-Khanji et al (2000:553), Donato (2003:107) and (Kohn & Kalina, 1996: 135) argue that this strategy is used when the interpreter deletes or skips information that may be redundant and unnecessary. Barik (cited in Lambert and MoserMercer, 1994:122-123) calls these two types of information omissions as skipping omission and comprehension omission. He defines skipping omission as the fact of omitting a single word or a short phrase which is inessential. This is acceptable in simultaneous interpreting. As for comprehension omission, it occurs when the TL speakers have failed to understand the interpreted text. Therefore, skipping omissions can be useful to interpreters, whereas comprehension omissions should be discouraged. As illustrated in examples 1, 15, 16, 23, and 28, omitting information may be useful in trying to cope with speed, because it does not disrupt meaning in the TL segment. A case where the speaker provided the full names of persons, but the interpreter omitted one name is typical example of the use of this strategy. Conversely, omission could cause a major shift in meaning. In Example 7, the interpreter omitted information. This caused a slight loss of meaning. It was noted that most information omitted during fast DS and slow DS was important, while most omissions that occurred during average delivery speed involved information that did not disrupt meaning.
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Hence, it can be argued that, during fast and slow DSs, interpreters are not able to discern which information is important and which can safely be omitted. Also, the percentage of omissions is higher in fast DS. Consequently, it can be concluded that an interpreter is more likely to make use of a strategy when confronted with fast speed. As Jones (2002:102) states, omission could be useful when the speaker is fast. However, the interpreter should be careful not to omit necessary information. Omission is a meaning-based strategy which aims at conveying meaning, not form. This is why it should be encouraged. Mispronunciation In this study, the mispronunciation of a word by an interpreter mi qualifies as an interpreting strategy. The interpreter may mispronounce a word because of memory load which limits his or her capacity to process the right pronunciation. The interpreter might mispronounce because he or she is already thinking of the next word, or because he or she is trying to grasp the incoming segment. He or she may also mispronounce because he or she does not know the right pronunciation. Mispronunciation could also occur accidentally. Nevertheless, mispronouncing could be a strategy an interpreter may use to reduce memory load. This strategy occurs more in fast DS (0.06%) than in slow (0.03%) and average (0%) DSs. During fast DS, in example 5, Int. C may have mispronounced in order to cope with the fast speed. However, it could be argued that Int. H, who was interpreting during slow DS, misheard ‘idéaux’ (ideals) for ‘ideas’, or did not have time to process the right pronunciation. It is important to underscore that mispronunciation does not occur in average DS. The reason could be that during average delivery speed, as mentioned before, the interpreters can clearly hear the speaker and have sufficient time to process the right pronunciation. Though an interpreter may use this strategy because he or she did not hear the ST word – because the DS was fast – it can be concluded that speed is the main variable that may cause an interpreter to mispronounce a word. Summarisation Summarisation was recorded the most during fast DS (3/0.06%); and then during slow DS (1/0.03%); while it was recorded the least during average DS (1/0.02%). According to Li (2010), summarisation usually occurs when the speaker is fast and the interpreter cannot keep up with the
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pace. The frequency of the use of this strategy, in this research, confirms Li’s (2010) hypothesis. Hence, it can be argued that the interpreter will likely summarise either when the speaker is fast, that is, when he needs to cut off information to save time. He or she may also summarise when the SL speaker is slow and the interpreter needs to wait for segments of meaning; this could lead to a more concise interpreting, in a bid to capture the SL meaning instead of its form. As seen in examples 68 and 107, the summarisation maintained the meaning. Therefore, summarisation leads to a meaning-based interpretation. As such, it could be a good strategy to use when the speaker is fast, since it saves time.
5.1.3.2. Strategies only Recorded in fast DS
Segmentation Segmentation was recorded only in fast DS. Gile (1995:195-196) states that when the interpreter is faced with memory overload (which may result from fast delivery speed on the part of the SL speaker), embedded structures in the SL or unclear sentences, the interpreter may choose to reformulate speech segments. This confirms the hypothesis that segmentation is usually used as a result of memory overload, which in this case, is due to fast delivery speed. As seen in Example 48, this strategy may be useful when the speaker is fast, because it reduces memory load while retaining the original meaning. It was, however, noted that it is not a common strategy. This may be due to the potential loss of information that may occur when one splits complex sentences. Although this strategy should not be used frequently, it may be useful when the speaker is fast. Changing the order of elements in an enumeration This strategy was used only during fast DS (3/0.06%). Enumerations were used in all three DSs. However, the order was changed only in fast DS. According to Gile (1995:196), enumerations impose high load on short-term memory; hence, changing the order may reduce memory effort. This suggests that this strategy may be used when the speaker is fast because fast speed also increases the interpreter’s memory capacity. In example 48, it is observed that meaning is not disrupted, although this strategy was used, once, during fast delivery speed. This, therefore, ascertains that changing the order of elements in an enumeration will be useful in fast DS. It also
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suggests that speed may not be the only reason for the use of this strategy. In other words, it could be argued that, regardless of the speed, texts that contain enumerations will likely lead to the use of this strategy.
5.1.3.3. Strategies Most Used in Average Delivery Speed
Replacing a segment with a more general word In examples, 13, 49, and other instances, this strategy did not cause a major shift in meaning. In the first instance, the ‘Bureau’ is interpreted as ‘parliament’ and, in the other example, ‘investors’ is interpreted as people. The ‘Bureau’ is part of the parliament, though it is more specific. Thus, the use of ‘parliament’ did not cause any major shift in meaning. ‘Investors’ are people and, just as in the first case, meaning is maintained. This is a strategy that may be useful to interpreters, when the speaker is fast, especially when interpreters do not know the equivalent but understand the original term. Thus, using a superordinate may save time while transferring the meaning. The highest frequency of this strategy was recorded during average DS (7/0.15%), followed respectively by fast DS (5/0.11%) and slow DS (3/0.1%). Kohn and Kalina (1996:132) and Pöchhacker (2004:135) argue that this strategy is likely to be used when the speaker is fast. The frequency of use of this strategy shows that there is only a very slight difference across DSs. It can, therefore, be argued that interpreters may struggle to find the “correct” TL term regardless of the SL speed, and that a slow speed does not make the search for the correct TL equivalent any easier. It can therefore be concluded that this strategy will be used equally across DSs. Addition Addition was more recurrent during average DS (10/0.2%), followed by fast DS (4/0.1) and slow DS (1/0.03%). Thus, it can be argued that interpreters will likely add new information when the delivery speed is a major challenge. In an average DS, interpreters have enough time to add information that will not disrupt meaning. Clearly, this strategy will be useful if interpreters add information that does not disrupt meaning. This strategy may also be useful when interpreters are slow; yet, they convey the implied meaning. The absence of the implied meaning in the SL text does not disrupt comprehension, as evidenced in examples 52 and 53. In Example 71, the speaker
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says ‘Ladies and gentlemen’ and the interpreter adds ‘members of parliament’. The addition of this information here does not disrupt meaning, considering that the ladies and gentlemen referred to are in fact members of the parliament concerned. This strategy is a meaning-based, and it has proved to be useful. Nonetheless, interpreters should be careful not to add information that will disrupt meaning. Indeed, in cases where the speaker is too fast, adding information may cause the interpreter to increase the lag time thereby causing more problems. This strategy was most common in average speed; this reinforces why it should be used in average or slow speeds.
Instant naturalisaton Instant naturalisation occurred more during average DS (5/0.11%) and then fast DS (3/0.06%); it did not occur in slow DS. Gile (1995:198) suggests that this strategy is especially used in languages that are morphologically and lexically close. Indeed, in most instances, interpreters used words that were lexically close to the ST segment such as ‘cowardice’ and ‘croidice’. However, from the percentages above, it can be argued that the interpreter is likely to naturalise when the DS is average. It can therefore be concluded that speed may not have a great influence on this strategy use. As mentioned in Chapter 2 (strategies explained), even bilingual speakers of English and French tend to naturalise. Therefore, the use of this strategy could be explained by the fact that English and French are morphologically and lexically close. This means that an interpreter may use this strategy when he does not know the right TT equivalent, regardless of the speed. As seen in examples 25, 28, 30, and 45, this strategy usually causes shift in meaning. However, beacause it is close (lexically) to the SL segment, it can be argued that the TL speakers may understand what the interpreter means, especially because French and English are lexically close. Nonetheless, because it usually results in an unfaithful interpretation, this strategy should be discouraged. Interpreters may only use this strategy as an ultimate escape, if they do not know the equivalent; otherwise, it should be discouraged since it is based on a lexical tranfer rather than a transfer of meaning.
5.1.3.4. Strategies only Recorded in Average DS
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Substitution Substitution occurred more during average DS (6/0.14%) than during fast DS (1/0.02%) and slow DS (1/0.03%). This shows that the interpreter is likely to substitute a lexical item in the TL at average delivery speed. However, this does not transfer the desired concept nor does it retain the meaning of the item in the SL (Al-Khanji et al 2000:553). It could have been argued that the interpreter will likely substitutes when the speaker is fast, since he may not have time to process the word so as to use the right TT equivalent. This suggests that even in an average DS, an interpreter may still not hear or understand a word, which leads to substitution. In examples 2, 61, 62, and 92 it is seen that, just as with parallel reformulation, substitution leads to a literal translation. As Munday (2001:20) states that the word for word translation should be disregarded because it cloaks the sense of the original meaning. Therefore, the use of this strategy should be discouraged. Improvisation Improvisation occurs when the interpreter uses a sound which is not an actual word in both the SL and the TL. This sound is not lexically or phonologically close to the SL word. The word to which this sound refers does not exist in both SL and TL dictionaries (Grand Larousse Universal, 1995, Online French Dictionary Larousse; Online Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary; Rey and ReyDebora, c2004; Rey, 1993; Store, G. & Move, 2003 and Wordreference Online Dictionary). What is more, the TL is not lexically close to the SL word. What is important to note is that the sound the interpreter uses is usually nonexistent in both languages. Interpreters may use improvisation in any case where they do not have enough memory capacity to process the right word, or in cases where they do not understand the TT, or if they do not know the TT word. In order to save time and continue interpreting, they may decide to produce a sound which is not an actual word. Improvisation occurred only in average DS. This shows that speed may not be a reason for the use of this strategy. Therefore, the interpreter may use this strategy when he does not know the right equivalent or if he did not hear the ST word. This strategy leads to form-based interpreting. The interpreter uses an unintelligible word which just fills in the space but does not convey meaning. This strategy should be discouraged, regardless of the delivery speed.
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Simplification Simplification only occurred once during the average DS. The researcher argued, in Chapter 2, that this strategy is likely to be used during a slow speech in order to transfer meaning. This is because the interpreter might not have the time to simplify when the SL speaker is fast. The fact that this strategy was recorded during average DS confirms this hypothesis. As seen in Example 80, this strategy leads to a meaning-based interpretation and may be encouraged. However, this strategy is time-consuming and is only advised when the speaker is slow or speaks at an average speed, as this will give the interpreter time to simplify the term.
5.1.3.5. Strategies Mostly Used in Slow Delivery Speed
Fillers Fillers were recorded more during slow DS (31/1.1%) than during fast DS (25/0.5) and average DS (12/0.2). According to Donato (2003:106), addition (fillers) enables the interpreter to avoid long pauses, when faced with comprehension difficulties. Similarly, Liontou states that stalling is used to “counter language-specific difficulties; e.g. to “fill” the waiting time” (1996:51). This suggests that the interpreter is likely to use this strategy when the speaker is slow, as it requires more time. The data prove that this strategy is indeed likely to occur in slower delivery speeds, though it can also occur when the speaker is fast, or when he speaks at an average DS. There was no instance in which fillers disrupted meaning. They were mostly used in slow speed. Fillers are very useful when the speaker is slow, because they fill time while the interpreters wait to grasp the meaning; thus, avoiding a literal translation. Fillers are sometimes even present in the SL segment, as they form part of some individual speech characteristics. Fillers may constitute a useful strategy which should not be overused, as it may prevent the message from flowing smoothly. Indeed, it may become unpleasant to listen to a speech filled with ‘emm’. This strategy should therefore be used occasionally. However, it should be noted that this strategy may also be useful in fast and average DSs. In other words, when the interpreter is faced with comprehension problems, he or she may use it while he or she processes the right equivalent, even though this is time-consuming.
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Explaining or paraphrasing Explaining or paraphrasing occurred once in slow DS. Gile (1995:198) indicates that this strategy requires a considerable amount of time and processing capacity. The fact that this strategy was found only in slow DS only confirms the hypothesis that this strategy can be used when the speaker is slow. This strategy, according to Gile (1995:198), may also draw the delegates’ attention to the fact that the interpreter does not know the right term and may undermine the interpreter’s credibility and, therefore, the impact of his speech. This could be why interpreters do not often make use of this strategy in the PAP. In Example 104, the meaning is not disrupted. This is a useful strategy when the speaker is slow. It was observed that this strategy was only used once during slow delivery speed. This shows that it will be more useful in slow speed; however, it should not be used frequently, since it is time-consuming. Truncating According to the Online Oxford Dictionary, truncating refers to the shortening of something (in this case a word) by removing part of it. In the EPIC transcription convention, truncated words are followed by a dash (-). In this study, when the interpreter uses a truncated word, it will be considered as a strategy. The interpreter might use truncation because there is not enough time to process the full word. He or she might also use this strategy as a filler. Truncating, used as filler, will be followed by the full word. In one of the examples, Int.C uses a truncated word ‘pana-’ probably a truncated version of “panafricain”, which he realises he does not have the time to complete. Nonetheless, it needs to be emphasised that this truncated form does not fit in the spot before “parlement”, from a grammatical perspective. This means that truncation may be used to cope with fast speed, when the interpreter does not have enough time to process the full word, or when he uses it as a filler while he awaits for more information (during slow speed), or when the interpreter realises that the word is wrongly positioned. It suffices to note that this strategy that this strategy occurred the most during slow DS (0.07%), followed by fast DS (0.04%), but did not occur during average DS. This frequency confirms the hypothesis that this strategy will likely occur during slow DS, as fillers, while the interpreter awaits for more information; or during fast DS, due to a short memory capacity. It may, however, have
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the highest frequency use during slow DS. This is because the interpreter may easily use it when he or she realises that a word is wrongly position, or because he or she realises that the speaker is slow and he or she may have to wait, but then forgets and continues interpreting without finishing the truncated word. It is noted that 156 strategies were recorded per 4596 words during fast DS (that is approximately 3.39%), 105 strategies were used per 4279 words during average DS (that is approximately 2.45%), and 81strategies were employed per 2810 words during slow DS (that is 2.88%). Fast DS recoded the highest number of strategies used, follow by slow DS and average DS, respectively. It was observed that the number of strategies used is more or less the same for all the delivery speeds, given that 3.35%, 2.45% and 2.91% are pretty close to each other. In other words, there are no significant differences in the total number of strategies employed. It can therefore be concluded that, though speed may be a variable that affects the use of strategies, it does not have a significant influence on strategy. Clearly, other factors may also influence strategy use. Firstly, the present study identified 16 strategies to be investigated. Recapitulation was not identified. The reason could be that, unlike other strategies, it is time-consuming, as it requires the interpreter to repeat what they previously said. It can be argued that this strategy will be used when the speaker is very slow, or when the interpreter feels the TL listeners have failed to understand the point; it used to clarify what is unclear (Jones, 2002:104). A strategy aims at conveying meaning; however, it may be difficult to recapitulate if the SL speaker is fast. This is likely to occur if the SL speaker is slow, or at the end of the SL speaker’s speech. It must be emphasised that three new strategies were identified in this research, namely, improvisation, truncating, and mispronunciation. This brings the total number of strategies used to eighteen. This research shows that the strategies proposed by researchers are actually used by interpreters when confronted with different DS. Thus, this research moves from theory to practice. It also acknowledges previous research (Gile, 1995) that investigated the use of these strategies in interpreting. The identification of new strategies (mispronunciation, improvisation, and truncating) shows that interpreters may sometimes make use of strategies that have not yet been researched. Secondly, though most of the identified strategies are used in all three DS, some of them are more common in specific DSs, as reflected by the frequency of strategy use. The study found that
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most of the strategies were used in all DS, though some strategies were only used in one DS. For example, explaining only occurred in slow DS, possibly because the interpreter has enough time to explain; while changing the order of a segment occurred only in fast DS, because the interpreter’s memory capacity is lower. This supports the notion that speed is one of the variables that influence interpreters’ choice of strategy. Thirdly, this research shows that the frequencies of the strategies used across different DSs are different. One of the reasons for this difference in the frequency of the use of strategies is DS. However, speed may not be the only reason that influences interpreters’ choice of strategies. It could be argued that the type of strategy used depends, to some extent, on the nature of the SL segment and the items it contains, the speech type (intervention versus presentation), the interpreters’ personal speech pace, directionality (interpreting into mother tongue or not), linguistic or cultural background, personal style, and experience, and not mainly on the delivery speed that justifies these different frequencies in the use of strategies. For example, a text that contains numerous names may often lead to a considerable use of reproducing the sound heard; a ST that contains mostly lists and enumerations may lead to the changing of the order of elements; and a ST with long sentences may lead to a greater use of segmentation, regardless of the DS. Lastly, the findings show that interpreters use more strategies during fast DS than slow or average DSs. Gerver (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:55) argues that when information load increases, which could be caused by speed, the interpreter becomes less variable in source text delivery. Li (2010) observes that “if the speed is beyond a certain limit, no interpreter can transmit the message in full, even if he/she is an expert in the subject”. This confirms the findings according to which more strategies will be used when the speaker is fast. Gerver adds that “an interpreter can crowd into the speakers’ pauses, the more time he has to listen to the input without interference from his own output” (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:53). This implies that slow and fast delivery speeds are the variables that can causes interpreting difficulties, and leads to the use of strategies. It must be highlighted that fewer strategies are used during average DS than slow DS. Kirchhoff (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:113) notes that ‘an extremely low presentation rate can also negatively influence the interpreter and make problem solving more difficult than an average rate of presentation”. This suggests that interpreters will face fewer interpreting difficulties
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when confronted with an average DS; therefore, they will resort to less strategy use. It can be concluded that fast and slow delivery speed are variants that affect interpreting. This is reinforced by Pöchhacker’s (2004) observation that slow input as much as fast input can disrupt processing in interpreting, and therefore require the use of strategies. From this analysis, it can be concluded that speed influences interpreters’ choice of strategy. It is also noted that aspects such as speech type may also have influenced these differences in strategy use. In the present research, two speech types are identified, namely, interventions and presentations. Thus, the study seeks to establish whether the use of strategies, under the three delivery speeds, is different in both speech types. That is, can the availability of documents in presentations and their unavailability in interventions influence strategy use when interpreters are confronted with fast, average, and slow DSs? 5.2. Comparison of Intervention Strategies and Presentation Strategies in all
Three DS 5.2.1. Table 26: Presentation of Strategies in both Speech Types (Intervention and Presentation) Strategies Parallel reformulation Self-correction Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech Addition Fillers ‘err and emm’ Explaining or Paraphrasing Omission Instant naturalisation Changing the order of elements in an enumeration Improvisation Substitution Transcoding Segmentation Summarisation Simplification Truncating Mispronunciation Total number of strategies
Intervention 2 (0.19%) 12 (1.1%) 2 (0.19%)
Presentation 38 (0.3%) 74 (0.6%) 13 (0.12%)
Total 40 86 15
0 (0%)
15 (0.14%)
15
2 (0.19%) 10 (0.9%) 0 (0%) 10 (0.9%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
13 (0.12%) 58 (0.5%) 1 (0.009%) 49 (0.45%) 8 (0.07%) 3 (0.02%)
15 68 1 59 8 3
0 (0%) 1 (0.09%) 1 (0.09%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (0.19%) 1 (0.09) 43 (4.2%)
2 (0.01%) 7 (0.06%) 6 (0.05%) 1 (0.009%) 5 (0.04%) 1 (0.009%) 2 (0.01%) 3 (0.02%) 299 (2.8%)
2 8 7 1 5 1 4 4 341
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Total number of words during presentations = 10662 Total number of words during interventions = 1023 5.2.2. Strategies Mostly Used during Interventions
The strategies that are mostly used during interventions are self-correction, replacing a segment with a more general speech segment, addition, fillers, omission, substitution, transcoding, truncating, and mispronunciation. Most of the strategies used during intervention speeches are mainly those used under average and fast DS. They are mostly meaning-based strategies. It can therefore be argued that interpreters will likely focus on producing a more meaning-based text, if they do not focus on the lexis of the documents in front of them. Since they cannot look at the text, they may focus on grasping the meaning. It could be argued that, with the text in front of them, interpreters may not need to selfcorrect and use fillers, since they can easily follow from the document. However, without the document, interpreters may still be able to start interpreting – without getting the meaning – which will lead them to resort to self-corrections and the use fillers, more often. It can also be argued that interpreters replace a segment with a more general term, if they do not know the appropriate equivalent. In this context, the presence of a document may help the interpreter to use the suitable equivalent. It must be noted that the interpreters easily add a segment to the original text during intervention speeches. However, if they had the text, they would notice that they are adding a segment and may refrain from using that strategy. The same applies with omission. Indeed, the presence of a text may reduce the number of omissions, considering that the interpreters can easily notice that they are omitting information by referring to the text. However, some intervention strategies are form-based. These include substitution, transcoding, truncating, and mispronunciation. It can be argued that, during intervention speeches, the absence of a document, to a lesser extent, will lead to the use of form-based strategies. This could be because the presence of a document might sometimes ease understanding. Therefore, it can be concluded that the absence of document, to a greater extent, leads to MB strategies and, to a lesser extent, FB strategies. The reason for this could be the fact that in the absence of a document, interpreters will focus more on interpreting the meaning and may sometimes produce FB
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strategies, because they did not understand the SL segment and do not have the text to help with understanding. 5.2.3. Strategies Mostly Used during Presentations
The strategies that are mostly used during presentations are parallel reformulation, reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech, instant naturalisation, explaining or paraphrasing, summarisation, changing the order of elements in an enumeration, segmentation, improvisation, and simplification. Most of the strategies used during presentation speeches are those mainly used under fast DS. Out of the 9 strategies mostly used during presentation speeches, 7 are predominantly used during fast DS, while only two are strategies used in a slow DS. Therefore, interpreters may not have the time to look at the document in front of them. Also, most strategies used under presentation are formbased strategies. It could be argued that, because the interpreters have the documents in front of them, they are likely to focus on the text or document, instead of focusing on the meaning. This will lead to a lexically-similar text. On the contrary, it can be argued that, when interpreters have the document in front of them, they can easily change the order of elements or use segmentation. The use of these strategies may cause them to leave out some information. However, with the help of the document, they may easily refer back to the text in front of them in case they are unable to list everything. As for summarisation, simplification, and explanation, they are easier to use if the interpreter understands the ST. Therefore, if the interpreter has the text in front of him or her, he or she does not have to translate word for word. Instead, he or she can read the text, understand it, and then explain or summarise it. Parallel reformulation may have been used the most during presentation speeches. This is because interpreters are aware that the TL speakers also have the documents and may easily refer back to them, or because the speakers are fast and interpreters do not have time to refer to the text. This leads to a high frequency use of this strategy. Reproducing the sound heard, instant naturalisation, and improvisation are mostly sound-related strategies. It can therefore be argued that interpreters may have attempted to reduce memory load by not looking at the names and just reproducing the sound which the SL audience may easily understand.
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Therefore, it is concluded that interpreters will make use of both meaning-based and form-based strategies during intervention and presentation speeches. However, interpreters will likely make more use of MB strategies during intervention speeches and FB strategies during presentation speeches. This means that having a document in the booth may be useful or detrimental, depending on the situation. Though, this research shows that documents are less important, because they lead to form-based strategies. When using documents in booths, interpreters should focus more on the meaning and not form. It is important to stress that all these conclusions are based on assumption that the interpreter actually made use of the documents, which is another limitation of this study. Further research could be conducted in the Laboratory where interpreters could be asked to interpret without referring to the available documents. Then, the strategies that interpreters used can be identified and examined (in the form of a questionnaire) to determine why specific strategies were used and investigate if the presence of the document was useful or distracting.
5.2.4. Table 27: Percentages of Strategies per Word Used in both Speech Types
Intervention
Presentation
Delivery Speed
No. of strategies
No. of words
Percentages
No. of strategies
No. of words
Percentages
Fast
31
677
4.5%
125
3919
3.1%
Average
7
193
3.6%
98
4015
2.4%
Slow
5
82
6%
76
2728
2.7%
It is important to note that in order to get the percentages of strategies per word per speech type, the number of strategies was divided by the total number of words for each delivery speed, under each speech type, times 100.
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5.2.5. Findings
Table 25 provides the number of words per intervention and presentation, while Table 26 gives the number of strategies in both speech types. In order to get the percentage of strategies per words, the number of strategies was divided by the number of words times one hundred. Presentations had 299 strategies per 10662 words, which amounted to (299/10662 x 100) 2.8% of strategies used; while interventions recorded 38 strategies per 1023 words, which amounted to (43/1023 x 100) 4.2% of strategies used. 5.2.6. Discussion
Firstly, the total percentages of strategies used in interventions are higher than those of the strategies used in presentations, across all three delivery speeds. Therefore it can be affirmed that interpreters make more use of strategies during interventions. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, during interventions, the interpreter is not aware of what the speaker will say, since he or she does not have copies of the speeches in advance. This is because interventions consist mainly of questions and comments on presentations. Clearly, interventions are different from presentations, in that, interpreters most often have the hard copies of the presentation before hand, which eases the interpreting process. As Gile 1995:184) states “the visual presence of all information, which reduces memory problems and the deleterious effect of acoustic difficulties, as well as probability of failures due to insufficient process capacity [such as speed]”. However Gile (1995:185) adds that though using documents may ease interpreting, speakers sometimes add comments and change segments which may lead to interpreters making use of fillers and omissions. As observed in Table 26, this research confirms the high use of additions and omissions during presentations. This simply means that strategies will also be used in presentation speeches. It can be concluded that, though strategies will be used during presentation speeches, the presence of documents seems to make interpreting easier when confronted with unfavourable delivery conditions. Interpreters will therefore make use of fewer strategies when faced with presentation speeches. These strategies may be more FB due to the presence of documents. In the PAP the researcher observed that not only were the original copies of the presentations provided to interpreters in the interpreting booths, but the translated versions were also given. In the questionnaires that provided background information about the interpreters, one of the
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questions was “Do you have documents with you in the booth?” 8 out of 10 interpreters said they had documents with them in the booth and one said he sometimes has the documents in the booth. The researcher also observed that some interpreters used these documents, while others did not. Also, during the interviewing of the interpreters, 7 out of 10 also said that they sometimes use these documents when interpreting. In accordance with the ethical considerations of this study, these interpreters who actually use these documents in the booths cannot be identified. Nonetheless, more strategies are used during intervention, because interpreters usually face more (potential) problems during speeches. Fewer strategies are used in presentations, because interpreters may have read the original presentation and its translation in advance. Secondly, it is important to note that interpreters usually use the same strategies but with different frequencies. Interpreters use strategies when confronted with different DS, whether or not they have a copy of the speech. It must be noted that a speaker can be fast, or can speak with an average or slow speed during both interventions and presentations. However, the frequency of the use of the various strategies is different. Speed as well as the presence or absence of documentation in the booth justifies this frequency difference. Thirdly, not all strategies were recorded during interventions. For example, reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech, instant naturalisation, segmentation, summarisation, simplification, and explaining or paraphrasing were not recorded during interventions. The first possible reason for this could be the fact that there were fewer intervention speeches in this study. The second reason is that most strategies used under interventions are meaning-based. Indeed, four out of six of the strategies that did not occur during interventions are form-based (Table 32). It can therefore be concluded that, during interventions, interpreters make more use of meaning-based strategies. This is because, when there are no documents in the booths, interpreters focus more on meaning and rely less on the lexis or form of the document in front of them. Finally, this study revealed that strategy use is different across delivery speeds in both speech types (intervention and presentation). The frequency of strategy use differs in all three DSs. This shows that the speech type is a major variable that affects the interpreters’ choice of strategies.
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The above discussion stressed that both speed and the presence or absence of documentation in the booth influence strategy use. However, speed, the presence or absence of documents, and speech type are not the only factors that influence strategy use; interpreters’ styles, experience, and speech pace may also affect strategy use. The next section will determine whether the interpreters use different strategies. That is, are specific strategies only used by given interpreters? Put differently: Is there any link between the interpreter and the strategy?
5.3. Presentation of Strategy Use per Interpreter This section presents strategies under the different interpreters. However, it should be noted that only nine (9) interpreters were used during this analysis. This is because the speech selection was not based on the number of interpreters, but rather on the SL speakers. Speeches were chosen so as to include all three DSs. The nine interpreters concerned just happened to be the ones who interpreted the chosen speeches. 5.3.1. Table 28: Presentation of Strategies per Interpreter Strategies Parallel reformulation Self-correction Replacing a segment with a superordinate term Reproducing the sound heard in the sourcelanguage speech Addition Fillers Explaining or Paraphrasing Omission Instant naturalisation Changing the order of elements in an enumeration Improvisation Substitution Transcoding Segmentation
Female Int. A 6(0.4%)
Male Int. B 2(0.85%)
Male Int. C 16(0.58%)
Male Int. D 0(0%)
Male Int. E 0(0%)
Male Int. G 5(0.15%)
Male Int. F 0(0%)
Female Int. H 3(0.11%)
Male Int. I 8(1%)
Total
12(0.95%) 0 (0)
1(0.1%)
30(1.1%) 5(0.18%)
1(1.21%) 0(0%)
0(0%) 1(1.63%)
21(0.79%) 6(0.19%)
4(1%) 1(0.27%)
6(0.22%) 2(0.07%)
11(1.45%) 0(0%)
86 15
5 (0.39%)
1(0.1%)
1(0.03%)
0(0%)
0(0%)
5(0.15%)
1(0.27%)
1(0.03%)
1(0.13%)
15
0 (0) 9 (0.71%) 0 (0%)
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
6(0.22%) 16(0.58%) 0(0%)
0(0%) 2(2.43%) 0(0%)
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
3(0.09%) 25(0.79%) 1(0.03%)
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
5(0.18%) 7(0.25%) 0(0%)
1(0.13%) 9(1.18%) 0(0%)
15 68 1
10 (0.79%) 0(0%)
3(0.32%)
15(0.55%)
2(2.43%)
1(1.63%)
11(0.34%)
2(0.54%)
11(0.4%)
4(0.52%)
59
1(0.1%)
2 (0.07%)
0(0%)
0(0%)
2(0.06%)
0(0%)
1(0.03%)
2(0.26%)
8
0(0%)
0(0%)
3(0.11%)
0(0%)
0(0%)
0(0%)
0(0%)
0(0%)
0(0%)
3
0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (0.07%) 0 (0%)
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
0(0%) 1(0.03%) 4(0.14%) 1(0.03%)
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
1(0.03%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
0(0%) 1(0.03%) 0(0%) 0(0%)
1(0.13%) 6(0.79%) 2(0.26%) 0(0%)
2 8 7 1
40
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Summarisation Simplification Mispronunciation Truncating Total number of strategies
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 43
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 8
3(0.11%) 0(0%) 3(0.11%) 1(0.03%) 107
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 5
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1(1.63%) 3
2(0.06%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 2(0.06%) 84
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 8
0(0%) 1(0.03%) 1(0.03%) 0(0%) 39
0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 45
5.3.2. Table 29: Percentages of Strategies Used by Interpreters according to the Number of Words Interpreters
No. of strategies
No. of words
Female Int. A Male Int. B Male Int. C Male Int. D Male Int. E Male Int. G Male Int. F Female Int. H Male Int. I
38 8 107 5 2 87 7 37 45
1256 937 2715 82 61 3150 369 2701 758
Percentages of strategies per No. of words 3% 0.8% 3.9% 6% 3.2% 2.7% 1.8% 1.3% 5.9%
5.3.3. Table 30: Delivery Speed and Speech Type of Interpreters Delivery speed Fast Average Slow
Presentation Female Int. A, Male Int. B, Male Int. C Male Int. I, Male Int. G. Female Int. H Male Int. F. Female Int. H, Male Int. G
Intervention Male Int. C, Female Int. A, Male Int. E Male Int. C, Male Int. G Male Int. G
5.3.4. Table 31 Interpreters and Strategy Use Interpreters Female Int. A Male Int. B Male Int. C
Male Int. D Male Int. E Male Int. G Male Int. F Female Int. H Male Int. I
Recorded with highest frequency use Reproducing the sound heard in the sourcelanguage speech None Changing the order of elements in an enumeration, addition, segmentation, summarisation, and mispronunciation. Fillers, and omission Replacing a segment with a superordinate term, and truncating Explaining or paraphrasing None Simplification Parallel reformulation, self-correction, instant naturalisation, transcoding, substitution, and improvisation
Most common strategies used Self-correction, omission, and fillers Parallel reformulation, omission, and selfcorrection Self-correction, fillers, and omission
Self-correction Omission Fillers, self-correction, and omission Self-correction, and omission Omission, fillers, and self-correction, Parallel reformulation, self-correction, fillers, and omission
5 1 4 4 342
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5.3.5. Findings
This section presents strategies under different interpreters and attempts to compare strategy use. Male Int. D recorded the highest number of strategies used. Table 29 shows that he makes use of 6% of strategies. He interpreted a slow intervention speech. As compared to other Ints., he uses Fillers and Omissions the most, compared to the other strategies. Fillers are said to be most common during slow delivery speed, whereas omissions are mostly common in fast DS. However, both strategies are intervention strategies, which explain why he made more use of these strategies, considering that he interprets an intervention speech. Nevertheless, compared to other strategies, he mostly uses fillers, omission, and self-correction. Male Int. I recorded the second highest percentage of strategy use (5.9%). He only interpreted one average presentation speech. As compared to other interpreters, he makes the most use of parallel reformulation, self-correction, instant naturalisation, transcoding, substitution, and improvisation. Though Int. I only interprets an average presentation speech, he mostly makes use of strategies common under a fast DS. The only average DS strategy he uses most is substitution. He also makes use of fillers and omission, as compared to the other strategies. Though he only interprets an average presentation speech, he uses both presentation and intervention strategies for fast and average DSs. Male Int. C recorded the third highest percentage of strategy use (3.9%). According to Table 4, Male Int. C interpreted two fast speeches and one average speech. As compared to other Ints., he records the highest percentage of the use of changing the order of elements
in
an
enumeration,
addition,
segmentation,
summarisation,
and
mispronunciation. It must be noted that, with the exception of ‘addition’ – which is an average DS strategy – all the others strategies are used under fast DS. Therefore, it can be concluded that the DS influenced Int. C’s use of the above-mentioned strategies. He also makes significant use of fillers and omissions, as compared to the other strategies. Two of the speeches he interpreted were interventions, and one was a presentation speech. These strategies are both appropriate for intervention and presentation speeches. This could be the second reason for his use of these strategies. Fast speed and the fact that the other two speeches were interventions could be the reasons for this high strategy use. He mostly
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makes use of self-correction, parallel reformulation, and omission as compared to other strategies. Male Int. E registered the fourth highest percentage of strategy use, though he only interpreted one intervention speech whose speed was fast. This could be the reason for the high occurrence of strategies. He mostly used omission, and replacing a segment with a superordinate term which are both intervention strategies. This can explain why he makes more use of these strategies. Omission is a fast strategy. However, although replacing a segment with a superordinate term is an average DS strategy, it also occurs with the highest frequency in a fast DS. Once again, it transpires that speed and speech type can influence interpreters’ use of certain strategies. Female Int. A ranks fifth in terms of strategy use. She interpreted one fast intervention speech and one fast presentation speech. She mostly uses reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech, as compared to other interpreters. However, she predominantly uses self-correction, omissions, fillers, and parallel-reformulation, when compared to other strategies used. Speed could therefore justify her high use of the abovementioned strategies. She mainly uses self-corrections, and omissions. All these strategies, except for fillers, are common when the DS is DS. This, again, shows that speed is a variable that influences strategy use. These strategies are both intervention and presentation speeches which, yet again, proves that the choice of strategy may depend on the speech type. Male Int. G interpreted more speeches than the other interpreters. He interpreted four speeches, none of which is a fast speech. He interpreted one average and one slow intervention speech, as well as one average and one slow presentation speech. The fact that he did not interpret a fast speech could account for his coming fifth. He is the only interpreter who used explaining or paraphrasing and made the most use of self-correction, fillers, parallel reformulation, and omission. He used two slow DS and two fast DS strategies, and two presentation strategies, since he interpreted two presentation speeches. This again shows that speed and speech type can prompt interpreters to resort to specific strategies.
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Male Int. F, who is ranked seventh, interpreted one slow presentation speech. He mostly makes use of self-corrections, and omissions. This is a contradiction, given that he only interpreted a slow DS speech but employed fast DS strategies which are self-corrections and omissions. Clearly, these are intervention strategies which were used in a presentation speech. Therefore, it could be argued that sometimes factors other than speed and speech type may influence the interpreter’s use of specific strategies. This strategy use could be as a result of the interpreter’s personal style, experience, or others factors. Female Int. H, who is second last, interpreted one average and one slow presentation speech. She mainly used self-correction, fillers, and omissions. However, she is the only interpreter who used simplification which is an average DS strategy. In this context, speed is clearly a less influential variable in the sense that she used two average DS strategies (fillers and simplification) and fast DS strategies, although she did not interpret a fast DS. Furthermore, she only interpreted one presentation speech, but employed both intervention and presentation strategies. Finally, Male Int. B, who came last, interpreted one fast presentation speech. Though Male Int. E and Male Int. B interpreted one fast speech each, the one interpreted an intervention speech and the other a presentation speech. This could be the reason for the difference in their percentages. Male Int. B mostly used self-correction, omission, and parallel reformulation. These are all appropriate, since he only interpreted a fast speech. The fast speech could justify the use of strategies that are common in a fast DS. Two of these strategies occurred during intervention speeches, while the other one came in a presentation speech. Speech type, therefore, has a lesser influence on the choice of strategy for this interpreter. 5.3.6. Discussion
As seen from Table 29, some interpreters make use of specific strategies more than the others. One reason could be the fact that not every interpreter interpreted speeches at all three delivery speeds. Also, not all interpreters interpreted both intervention and presentation speeches. Therefore, in order to obtain more precise data, the research should have ensured that all
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participants interpreted speeches at slow, average, and fast speeds, as well as intervention and presentation speeches. However, this would have been possible only in a laboratory experiment. Firstly, it is noted that male interpreters scored the highest number of strategies. For example, Male Int. D scored the highest, followed by Male Int. I, Male Int. C, Male Int. E, and Female Int. A. This suggests that gender could be another reason for the differences in the use of strategies from one interpreter to the other. However, gender may not have influenced this difference at all; the difference could simply be due to the fact that fewer women were involved in this study. It could also be related to other factors such as speed and speech type. Therefore, the researcher recommends that further research be done to investigate how female and male interpreters use strategies when placed under the same DS. The aim of such an investigation would be to establish if gender is a reason for choosing a particular strategy. Secondly, as discussed above (5.2), speech type and speed could influence the difference in the frequency of use of the strategies, from one interpreter to the other. The discussion above demonstrates that speed and speech type have a great impact on the interpreters’ choices of strategies. However, when we observed Ints. F, H, and B, it transpired that speed and speech type may not have had a great influence on the interpreters’ choice of strategies. This means that other factors should be taken into consideration. According to Gerver (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:54), “variability in an interpreter’s performance may be due to difficulty in simply transmitting speech at faster rates”. Gile (1995:187) adds that “individuals vary not only in terms of their cognitive information, but also in the speed and facility with which they store retrieve, and manipulate elements of information”. Similarly, Kirchhoff (Pöchhacker and Shlesinger, 2002:53) states that “the presentation rate which the interpreter cannot influence has an impact on all operations of the process”. That is, the interpreter’s speech pace may also influence his or her use of strategies. This means that speed and other factors such as cognitive information, interpreter’s speech pace, experience, context, and even gender may influence the difference in the use of strategies. Bartłomiejczyk (2006) states that “it is likely that certain strategies will be unusually frequent among some subjects regardless of direction [and speed], due to such factors as talent, motivation, level of fatigue, cognitive style, and knowledge of the respective languages”. Therefore, the researcher suggests that more research be done. In the latter, interpreters should be
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placed under the same interpreting conditions: context, speech type, number of speeches, length, and speed in order to determine if interpreters will make use of different or the same strategies, when interpreting under the same conditions. Lastly, certain strategies are used by all interpreters, regardless of the speed and speech type. These strategies which are used across interpreters are fillers, omissions, self-corrections, and parallel reformulations. They are the most used strategies across interpreters. It can therefore be argued that, while certain strategies are specific to some interpreters, other strategies will likely be used by all interpreters, regardless of the speed and speech type. This section shows that speed, speech type and even the personal attributes of interpreters can influence the use of strategies in SI. The next section will attempt to categorise these strategies into meaning-based and form-based.
5.4. Meaning-based and Form-based Classification of Strategies This section endeavours to determine whether the strategies used under the three different DSs display a high degree of lexical similarity between source text and target text (form-based), or rather a high degree of lexical dissimilarity between the source text and target text (meaningbased). The researcher will classify the strategies that are more common in fast, average and slow DSs under meaning-based and form-based. This is to enable a comparison of the strategies that are most used and determine under which DS they produce better results. 5.4.1. Table 32: Presentation of Strategies under Meaning-based and Form-based Strategies Meaning-based strategies Replacing a segment with a superordinate term or a more general speech segment Summarising Explaining or Paraphrasing Simplification Segmentation Addition Fillers Self-correction Omission
Form-based strategies Reproducing the sound heard in the sourcelanguage speech: Instant naturalisation Changing the order of elements in an enumeration Substitution Parallel reformulation Transcoding Truncating Mispronunciation Improvisation
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5.4.2. Table 33: Comparison between Meaning and Form-based Strategies In this table, strategies are presented under the DS in which they occurred the most. Meaning-based Strategies
Form-based Strategies
Fast Delivery Speed Segmentation Summarization. Omission Self-correction
Fast Delivery Speed Parallel reformulation Reproducing the sound heard Changing the order of elements Transcoding Instant naturalisation Mispronunciation
Percentage of strategy use: 44.5% Average Delivery Speed Replacing a segment with a more general word Addition Simplification
Percentage of strategy use: 67% Average Delivery Speed Substitution Improvisation
Percentage of strategy use: 33.5% Slow Delivery Speed Explanation Fillers
Percentage of strategy use: 22% Slow Delivery Speed Truncating
Percentage of strategy use: 22%
Percentage of strategy use: 11%
It is important to note that in order to get the percentage of strategies used at fast, average, and slow DSs – under meaning-based – the number of strategies under each DS is divided by the total number of strategies under meaning based; the same is done for form-based strategies. Out of 17 strategies, 3 (changing the order of elements in an enumeration, segmentation, and explaining or paraphrasing) did not occur. Out of 17 strategies, 5 (changing the order of elements in an enumeration, segmentation, improvisation, transcoding, and simplification) did not occur. 44.5% of the strategies used at fast DS are meaning-based, 33.5% of those used at average DS are meaning-based, while 22% of the strategies employed at slow DS are meaning-based. Conversely, 67% of the strategies used at fast DS are form-base strategies, 22% of strategies employed at average DS are form-based, and 11% of strategies used at slow DS are form-based.
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4.4.3.
Discussion
The findings show the occurrence of the total number of strategies used in each DS, under meaning and form based strategies. Firstly, 44.5% of the strategies used in a fast delivery speed fall under meaning-based; while 67% of those used at fast DS fall under form-based. Secondly, 33.5% of strategies employed at average DS fall under meaning-based, and 22% of those used at average DS fall under form-based. Finally, 22% of strategies used at slow DS fall under meaningbased; while 11% of those used at slow DS fall under form-based. In Table 31, the strategies that were classified are those that have with the highest percentage of frequency use under each category. That is, the researcher classifies the strategies according to the highest frequency of use. For instance, if self-correction was mostly used in fast DS, it would be classified under fast DS, and so on. Looking at the total number of strategies in the findings and the classification of strategies under all three DSs, it is noted that (1) fast DS records the highest number of form-based strategies, followed by average DS, and slow DS; (2) most strategies used in fast DS are form-based; and (3) average and slow DS record more meaning-based strategies. These findings only confirm the hypothesis that the faster the speed, the more interpreters will make use of form-based strategies. The reason for this could be that, when the memory is overloaded due to factors such as fast speed, the interpreter may not have time to understand the SL message, which may result in a lexically similar interpretation (Gile, 1995). Li (2010:19) rightfully adds that fast DS overloads the brain, “leaving no room for proper processing of information to produce a coherent translation”, which may lead to a lexically similar interpretation. This shows that most of the strategies used under fast DS fall under form-based; while strategies used under average and slow DS mostly fall under meaning-based. Therefore, it can be concluded that the faster the speed, the more the interpreter will produce a text that displays a high degree of lexical similarity between source text and target text (formbased). Conversely, the slower the DS speed (or at an average DS), the interpreter will produce a text that exhibits a high degree of lexical dissimilarity between the source text and target text (meaning-based).
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Having found that the faster the speed, the more interpreters will use form-based strategies, the researcher recommends that – based on the fact that interpreting is the transfer of meaning not form – interpreters should make more use of meaning-based strategies than form-based ones. This study revealed that meaning-based strategies more often lead to a better interpretation. As such, they should be encouraged. Conversely, most form-based strategies lead to a literal interpretation, and should be discouraged. Out of the 18 strategies, 9 should be discouraged, regardless of the speed. This is due to the fact that they lead to a form-based interpretation. The other 9 should be encouraged, because they lead to a meaning-based interpretation. Summary This section compared the strategies used under the three DS and found that speed influences the interpreters’ choice of strategy. This chapter also added strategy occurrences in order to find the percentage of strategies used at each DS. It was found that PAP interpreters do make use of the strategies proposed in theoretical research and anecdotal reports. This section then compared strategy use across all DSs. From the above analysis, it is evident that most strategies are used across the different delivery speeds, though with different frequencies. Some strategies occur with a higher frequency in a particular DS than others. It was also noted that some strategies are used only for certain delivery speeds; while others are commonly used, regardless of the speed. These strategies include parallel reformulation, self-correction, fillers, and omission. However, it was found that DS has a significant influence on strategy use. It was concluded that speed and speech type influence interpreters’ choice of strategies. The chapter further examined the influence of speech type (intervention and presentation) on strategy use and found that certain strategies are more common during intervention, while others are more common during presentation speeches. This demonstrates that the speech type has an influence on interpreters’ choice of strategies. The comparison of the strategies used across interpreters revealed that each interpreter uses specific strategies which relate to the DS and/or speech types, interpreter’s style, gender, and experience. However, it should be noted that this comparison was limited, because the interpreters were not placed under the same interpreting conditions. Therefore further research could be conducted in the laboratory in such a way that all interpreters engage with the same speech under different delivery speeds, deal with the same speech types, and share the same context of speeches. However, this research aimed at
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investigating whether strategies prescribed in research are actually being used in actual interpreting situations at the PAP (not in a controlled environment). Furthermore, this study classified the various strategies under meaning-based and form-based categories. It found that the faster the speed, the interpreters are more likely to use form-based strategies; and, the slower the speed, interpreters will more likely use meaning-based strategies. Finally, this research recommends that interpreters use more meaning-based strategies than form-based ones, given that interpreting is the transfer of meaning, not form.
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Chapter 6 Conclusion 6.1. Summary
The present study has argued that an interpreter plays an important role in bridging the communication gap in a multilingual setting. The research focused on simultaneous interpreting performed at the PAP which was chosen as the focus of this study for three reasons: firstly, because no previous research had been conducted in the PAP; secondly, because it was easily accessible to the researcher; and, thirdly and finally, because the PAP offers simultaneous interpreting in English and French, which are the main languages of the researcher. The study is grounded on the premise that interpreters usually face problems related to comprehension, memory, and production; and, in a bid to solve these problems, interpreters resort to certain interpreting strategies. The latter have been investigated by many researchers who provided a list of those commonly used during interpreting. However, this research focused on Daniel Giles’ coping strategies (as theoretical framework), which were selected because his list is comprehensive, and most of his strategies are product-oriented and problem-oriented. Product-oriented strategies are those that can be identified based on the target-text, while processoriented strategies relate to questions posed to interpreters. This research focused on the interpreting transcripts, which constitute the end product. It was noted that strategies are not always used to solve problems, in that, even producing a good translation requires a strategy. However, this study was based on strategies used to solve problems related to the delivery speed. Speed is a variable that could prompt interpreters to use certain strategies. Examples of such variables include both slow and fast input rates/delivery speeds. The researcher focused mainly on identifying strategies used during slow DS, taking into consideration that researchers had not prescribed strategies to be used when confronted with this speed. However, focus was also placed on those used for all three delivery speeds (fast, average, and slow): this is because this research
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further aimed at differentiating the strategies used for all three delivery speeds. The study did not only identify these strategies, but also classified them into meaning-based and form-based. Subsequently, the researcher recommended strategies that are more useful in each delivery speed. The second chapter explained that SI interpreting involves instantaneous interpreting from one language to the other. The interpreter, who is usually in a booth, listens to the original speech and immediately interprets into the target language. An analysis of strategies, in relation to speed in SI, was provided. Authors who have proposed certain strategies to be used when confronted with fast speed were discussed. Some of these strategies were added to Gile’s coping strategies. It was noted that most authors such as Jones, (2002) and Pöchhacker (2004) used a non-empirical method of investigation; whereas a few such as Kohn and Kalina (1996), and Bartlomiejczyk (2006) used an empirical method in their experiments. Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002), and Kalina (Bartlomiejczyk 2006:149-174) are some of the few authors who have analysed strategy use based on authentic data or actual interpreting. This is why this research focused on authentic data, to include what other scholars established using a different method. Seventeen (16) strategies were identified:
Replacing a segment with a superordinate term or a more general speech segment, summarising, omission, addition, fillers, simplification, recapitulation, segmentation, substitution, transcoding, parallel reformulation, reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech, instant naturalisation, explaining or paraphrasing, changing the order of elements in an enumeration and output monitoring, and self-correction.
All strategies were identified, except for recapitulation which was replaced by three newly found strategies, namely, truncating, mispronunciation, and improvisation. These strategies were also discussed in relation to the delivery speed of the speaker. It was found that the delivery speed plays a significant role in the interpreters’ choice of strategies. The researcher also explained meaning-based and form-based strategies and categorised the discussed strategies under each of these two concepts. Meaning-based strategies include:
Replacing a segment with a superordinate term or a more general speech segment,
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Summarising,
Simplification,
Segmentation,
Explaining or paraphrasing,
Changing the order of elements in an enumeration,
Omission,
Repetition,
Addition,
Fillers, and
Self-correction.
Form-based strategies are:
Transcoding,
Parallel reformulation,
Reproducing the sound heard in the source-language speech,
Instant naturalisation, and
Substitution.
Having thus classified these strategies, the chapter provided the method through which this research was conducted. In order to carry out this investigation, authentic data were collected at the PAP in the form of recordings and questionnaires. These latter provided background information on the interpreters. Ten interpreters were interviewed, although only nine SI interpreters’ recordings were used in this research. Recordings consisted of SL speeches as well as their respective interpretations; these were recorded parallel to each other in the control room. The speeches were purposefully chosen according to the DS, gender, directionality (speeches into English and into French), and speech type. The recordings were done over a period of four days. Hence, four speeches were chosen on each day. These recordings were later transcribed, using the EPIC transcription convention. The delivery speed was established according to the number of words per minute. It was noted that speeches in French are usually faster than those in English; therefore, two different rates were
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established. During the analysis, all examples of each strategy were identified in the transcript and anaylsed. Before the analysis, the context of the interpretation was provided. It was indicated that it consisted of welcoming speeches, speeches of solidarity, and those on the role of the Africa diaspora. The data were presented according to the speed, under each speed, according to presentation speeches and intervention speeches, under each interpreter, and under each language combination. This classification facilitated the analysis, given that this research aimed at answering the following five questions:
Does speed influence the interpreters’ choice of strategy?
Does the speech type (intervention and presentation speeches) influence strategy use?
Is there a difference in the use of strategies from one interpreter to the other, and is speed a reason for this difference?
Are strategies used under the three different DS more form-based or meaning-based?
Which strategies are more useful in the three delivery speeds?
During the analysis, all instances of each strategy were recorded. However, only two to three examples of each strategy were provided in the research. Given that each speech differed in terms of the number of words, the researcher established a percentage of strategy use per interpreter, based on the number of words in the SL speech. Under each DS, a table of the frequency of strategy use was provided and was then compared to the other DSs. The analysis was divided into five sections which attempted to answer the five research questions. In the first section, the researcher established that most strategies are used across the different delivery speeds, with different frequencies. Sixteen (16) strategies were identified, except for recapitulation. This could be due to the fact that, unlike other strategies, it is timeconsuming. In addition to corroborating previous research on the use of these strategies in interpreting, this study also identified a new strategy called improvisation, which includes unintelligible words. This strategy is used when interpreters utter words that are not found in both the SL and TL. Though most of the strategies are used in all three DS, some of them are more common in a specific DS, as shown in the table about the frequency of strategy use. This study has shown that strategies are used with different frequencies across DS, and that speed
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may not be the only factor that determines this occurrence. The interpreters’ personal speech pace, their directionality (interpreting into mother-tongue or not), linguistic or cultural background, personal style, experience, and the speech type could account for the difference in the frequency of the use of the various strategies. The findings show that interpreters use more strategies during fast DS than slow or average DS. It was concluded, from the analysis, that speed influences the interpreters’ choice of strategy. It was noted that such aspects as speech type may also have influenced these differences in strategy use. The second section found that the speech type also influences strategy use at all three DS. During interventions, the interpreter is not aware of what the speaker will say, since he or she does not have copies of the speech in advance. This is because these interventions, which vary from one speaker to another, are generally questions and comments on presentations. Conversely, in presentations, interpreters often have hardcopies beforehand, which eases the interpreting process. It must be noted that the percentages of strategies used in interventions are higher than those of strategies employed in presentations, across all three delivery speeds. Therefore, it can be stated that interpreters use more strategies during interventions. However, it was found that interpreters use more meaning-based strategies during interventions and more form-based strategies during presentation.
It was established that interpreters usually use the same strategies for the different speech types, with varying frequencies. Clearly, interpreters use strategies when confronted with different DS, whether or not they have a copy of the speech. This use of strategies therefore takes into account the fact that the speaker can speak at a fast, average, or slow speed during both interventions and presentations. The difference in frequency of use could be influenced by both the speed and the speech type. All strategies were recorded during interventions. It was concluded that interpreters use more mean-based strategies in this context. This study determined that speed and speech type are not the only factors that influence strategy use, which has also been linked to interpreters’ styles, experience, and speech pace. This section confirms that interpreters use different strategies. Male interpreters had the highest number of
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strategies. This suggests that gender may influence the differing use of strategy from one interpreter to the other. However, further research should be conducted to investigate how female and male interpreters use strategies, when placed under the same DS. This will help establish if gender accounts for the choice particular strategies. It was suggested that the speech type or speed could influence the difference in the frequency of the use of strategies from one interpreter to the other. Authors postulate that the many factors that differentiate one individual from the other could also influence strategy use. Thus, it was concluded that other factors such as cognitive information, interpreters’ speech pace, experience, styles, preference, context, and even gender may influence the difference in strategy use. The researcher recommends that more research be done, in which interpreters will be placed under the same interpreting conditions: context, speech type, number of speeches and length, and speed. The objective of such research would be to find out if interpreters would use different or the same strategies when interpreting under the same condition. It was concluded that speed, speech type, and the interpreters’ other attributes may influence their use of strategy in SI. The next section will attempt to categorise the strategies into meaning-based and form-based.
This section shows that most strategies used under fast DS fall under the form-based category, while those used under average and slow DS are mostly meaning-based. This meant that the faster the speed, the more the interpreter will resort to form-based strategies; conversely, the slower the speed (or in an average DS), the more the interpreter will use meaning-based strategies. Since interpreting is the transfer of meaning, FB strategies are therefore less useful than MB ones. Put differently, segmentation, summarisation, omission, and self-correction are more useful during fast DS; reproducing the sound heard, and instant naturalisation are less useful during fast DS; parallel reformulation, transcoding, and improvisation are detrimental during fast DS; repetition, replacing a segment with a more general word, addition, and simplification are more useful during average DS;improvisation and substitution are detrimental during average DS; explanation, and fillers are useful during slow DS; and reproducing the sound heard is less useful during average DS.
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The results suggest that 4 of the 18 strategies should be discouraged, regardless of the speed. This is because they lead to a form-based interpretation. These detrimental strategies are parallel reformulation, transcoding, substitution, and improvisation. It was concluded that, because interpreting is the transfer of meaning and not form, strategies that lead to a meaning-base interpreting were more useful than the others. While some strategies were found to be useful, others were less useful and, sometimes, detrimental. Consequently, they were strongly discouraged, since they result in a TL text void of meaning.
In summary, through the analysis of recordings made at the PAP, this research established that most strategies are used across the different delivery speeds, though with different frequencies; that speech type influences strategy use, when confronted with the three DS; that some interpreters use certain strategies more than others, this could be due to their DS, speech types, and other personal factors; that the faster the speed, the more the interpreters are likely to use form-based strategies; and that the slower the speed, the more interpreters are likely to use meaning-based strategies. Research serves to examine existing and new information. This process may involve some difficulties that may limit the study and provide room for further research. 6.2. New Findings, Limitations and Recommendations This research identified strategies used during slow delivery speed and compared strategies across fast, average and slow DS. Also, during strategy identification, three new strategies were found – improvisation, truncating, and mispronunciation. Mispronunciation: When an interpreter mispronounces a word, in this research, it is considered as an interpreting strategy called mispronunciation. According to Gile (1995:195-196), when the interpreter is faced with overload of memory embedded structures in the SL, or unclear sentences, he may choose to reformulate speech segments earlier than he would normally do. Gile (1995) implies that interpreters will resort to strategy use when confronted with memory overload. In this regard, it can be argued that mispronunciation may be caused by memory overload which limits the interpreter’s capacity to pronounce correctly. It can also be argued that mispronunciation may be caused by the fact that the interpreter is already thinking of the next word, or because he or she is trying to grasp the understanding of the next incoming segment. He or she may also
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mispronounce because they do not know the right pronunciation (conscious step), or he/she may have mispronounced unconsciously. Just as Shleshinger (cited in Tirkkonen-Condit and Jääskeläinen, 2000:7), De Wit (2010), Riccardi (2005), Napier (2004), Rongbing (2012) argue that a strategy could be a conscious or an unconscious step. Therefore, mispronunciation may have been used consciously or unconsciously by interpreters at the PAP. Further research will determine whether interpreters mispronounce consciously or unconsciously. It should however be noted that, this research does not make judgements as to whether this strategy should be encouraged or discouraged, rather it is a descriptive study which identifies certain occurrences or behavioural patterns found in interpreters. Therefore this research has found out that interpreters make use of mispronunciation and does not determine if it is an effective strategy to use. Improvisation: This is a strategy that consists in the interpreter using a sound which is not an actual word in both SL and TL. This sound is not lexically or phonologically close to the SL word. The word to which this sound refers does not exist in both SL and TL dictionaries (Online Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary; Word reference Online Dictionary; Hachette (2003); Le Noveau Petit Robert [n.d.]; Dictionnaire le Robert (1993); Online French Dictionary Larousse). Also, the TL is not lexically close to the SL word. Interpreters may use this strategy in any case where they do not have enough memory capacity to process the right word, or in cases where they do not understand the TT, or they do not know the TT word. In order to save time and continue interpreting, they may decide to produce a sound which is not an actual word. It is important to stress that improvisation only occurred in average DS. This shows that speed may not account for the use of this strategy which leads to a form-based interpreting. Indeed, the interpreter uses an unintelligible word which does not convey meaning. This strategy should be discouraged in all delivery speeds.
Truncating: According to the Online Oxford Dictionaries, truncating refers to shortening something (in this case a word) by cutting off its beginning or end. In the EPIC transcription convention, truncated words are followed by -. In this study, when the interpreter uses a truncated word, it is regarded as another strategy called truncating. The interpreter might use truncation because there is not enough time to process the full word, but he or she might also use this strategy as a filler. Truncating as filler is followed by the full word. In one of the examples, Int. C uses a
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truncated word ‘pana-’ probably a truncated version of “panafricain”, because he or she does not have the time to complete this word which is inappropriate in the spot before “parlement”, even from a grammatical point of view. This means that truncation may be used to cope with fast speed, that is when the interpreter does not have enough time to process the full word, or when he or she uses it as a filler while waiting for more information (during slow speed), or when the interpreter realises that the word is wrongly positioned. These strategies may exist under different names, although the researcher did not notice their use in previous research. It is also noted that just as existing strategies, these three strategies could be automatic (unconscious) or non-automatic (conscious) strategies. Further research could determine if these strategies are use consciously or unconsciously. It must also be noted that the use of these strategies was limited in this research. This is why the researcher recommends further research to identify and investigate the use of this strategies. The comparison of strategies used between interpreters was also limited, because the interpreters were not placed under the same interpreting conditions (such as DS, speech type, and others). For example, not all interpreters’ interpret fast DS speeches or intervention speeches. Therefore, further experimental research could be done in a laboratory ensure that all interpreters are under the same conditions and interpret the same speeches at different delivery speeds and the same speech types, and have the same speech context. The number of participants was limited to eight, and the study only focused on one language combination. This might have excluded some of the strategies based on language-combination or are language-direction-specific. Thus, more research with more participants, in different settings (other organisations), and with different language combinations will indicate whether the findings of this research are universally true for all language combinations, or whether they are specific to the English-French language combination. Most authors have discussed how using documents in booths could be useful. However, a comparison with instances in which no documents are used in the booth may shed more light on the importance of this strategy. Therefore, this research recommends that further research, focusing on differentiating between interpreting that involves the use of documents and that which excludes the use of documents, be conducted. This research may be done in other organisations within South Africa, to establish if the findings of this study are universally true.
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In conclusion, unlike previous research which identified strategies used during fast DS, this research did not only identify strategies used during a fast DS at a live conference but also identified strategies used during a slow DS and an average DS. This research aimed to identify strategies used at these three different delivery speeds by interpreters during a live conference interpreting at the PAP, to find out if there is a difference in strategy use at each DS. It further examined whether these strategies (under each DS) produce a more lexically similar text (formbased), or a more lexically-dissimilar text (meaning-based). This study found that speed is an important variable that affects the interpreters ‘choice of strategy. It also established that speech type and the interpreters’ personality and style might also influence strategy use. It found that speed has an influence on the type of text produced. The study revealed that strategies under fast DS are more likely to produce a lexically-similar text, while grouped under average and slow DS are more likely to produce a lexically-dissimilar text. The study concluded that there is a relationship between speed, speech type, the interpreter and the type of text produced (FB and MB).Notwithstanding its limitations, this research has attempted to contribute to the body of knowledge on the use of strategies in SI.
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APPENDICES Addendum A: Source Text Speeches Speaker
Gender
Nationality
Rate
Speech Type Intervention
1
Female
Namibia
Average
2 3 4
Male Male Male
Mali Poland Chad
Average Average Average
5
Female
Zimbabwe
fast
Intervention Presentation Presentation Intervention
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Male
Uganda Chad Representative of the African Diaspora Project Director for Africa Chad South Soudan Chad Congo
fast fast fast fast slow slow slow slow
Intervention Intervention Presentation presentation Intervention Presentation Presentation Presentation
Addendum B: Transcripts used Source Text Segments SL: I want to thank the CAFE and note the members for the work well done however I have about three comments I will like to concur with the report and even previous speakers//
Target Text Segments TL: Je souhaites remercier la CAFE et les membres pour leur excellent travail réalisé cependant j’ai trois observations à émettre// (I want to thank the CAFE and the members for their excellent work however I have three comments to make)
SL: About the auditory report I feel a bit uncomfortable that the PAP has continued to register and even in the report recognised that we are failing to adhere to financial procedures particularly of the donors//
TL: Et dans le sciage de ce que mon précéder notamment de ce qui concerne le rapport dédit je suis mal à l’aise que le pana- /panafricain/ que le le le parlement connait donc le rapport que nous échouons à nous avons échoué à adhérer aux procédures financiérs notamment des donateurs// (And in the sciage of what my predecessor in particular that which concerns the said report I am uncomfortable that the pana- /panafrican/ that the the the parliament therefore knows the report that we are failing we have failed to adhere to the financial procedures particularly of the donors)
SL: About the auditory report I feel a bit uncomfortable that the PAP has continued to register and even in the report recognised that we are failing to adhere to financial procedures particularly of the donors//
TL: Et dans le sciage de ce que mon précéder notamment de ce qui concerne le rapport dédit je suis mal à l’aise que le pana- /panafricain/ que le le le parlement connait donc le rapport que nous échouons à nous avons échoué à adhérer aux procédures financiérs notamment des donateurs// (And in the sciage of what my predecessor in particular that which concerns the said report I am uncomfortable that the pana- /panafrican/ that the the the parliament therefore knows the report that we are failing we have failed to adhere to the financial procedures particularly of the donors)
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SL: About the auditory report I feel a bit uncomfortable that the PAP has continued to register and even in the report recognised that we are failing to adhere to financial procedures particularly of the donors//
SL: We go out and we are booked in hotels when you get there the hotel is not there and you have to pay your own money which you were not informed in time//
TL: Et dans le sciage de ce que mon précéder notamment de ce qui concerne le rapport dédit je suis mal ὰ l’aise que le pana- que le le le parlement connait donc le rapport que nous échouons ὰ nous avons échoué à adhérer aux procédures financiérs notamment des donateurs// (And in the sciage of what my predecessor in particular that which concerns the said report I am uncomfortable that the pana/panafrican/ that the the the parliament therefore knows the report that we are failing we have failed to adhere to the financial procedures particularly of the donors TL: Err nous allons de err nous nous réservons des chambres dans des hôtels et quand on arrive les réservations ne sont pas lὰ parfois nous devons verser des dépôts avant err avant même// (Err we will of err we we will reserve rooms in hotels and when we arrive the reservations are not there sometimes we have to provide deposits before err even before)
SL: Because it is really uncomfortable and cannot take on its work because we are not able to tap on the biggest donor source which will be accessible to us.
TL: Il est bien dommage que le parlement ne puisse pas s’inquiéter de sa mission # ne satisfaisons pas un certain nombre de…// (It is rather unfortunate that the Pan-African parliament cannot worry about its mission # not satisfy a number of…)
SL: This one puts us in a very shaky position because PAP is the apex body of Africa//
TL: Ceci nous met dans de situations de grande vu- vulllvulnérabilité en tant que /organisative/ organisation en Afrique// (This one puts us in a very vu- vulll- vulnerable position as an organisation in Africa//
SL: The realisation that there is a place they call home Africa which colonisers called the Dark Continent and yet which continent they fought so much to retain control of//
TL: Le constat qu’il y a ce que l’on appelle chez nous l’Afrique que les colonisateurs appellent le continent noir et pourtant ce continent noir errr ce continent ils luttent pour en garder le contrôle// (The realisation that there is that which they call home Africa which the colonisers call the Dark Continent and yet this dark continent errr this continent they fight to retain control of)
SL: Madam President the story of Africa is a sad one especially now when we are in control as rulers and the determiners of our people’s fate//
TL: Madame err err le sort de l’Afrique est triste surtout maintenant que nous sommes nous avons le pouvoir en main et que nous déterminons le sort de nos populations// (Madam errr err the fate of Africa is a sad one especially now that we are we have power in hands and that we determine the fate of our people)
SL: The interesting thing is that the diasporians have rose above the situation and are able to speak out and be heard//
SL: The interesting thing is that the diasporians have rose above the situation and are able to speak out and be heard//
SL: The interesting thing is that the diasporians have rose above the situation and are able to speak out and be heard//
TL: Donc que err ceux de la diaspora ont un rôle à jouer au-dessus de la situation au-delà de la situation// (That is people of the diaspora have a role to play above the situation beyond the situation) TL: Donc que err ceux de la diaspora ont un rôle à jouer au-dessus de la situation au-delà de la situation// (That is people of the diaspora have a role to play above the situation beyond the situation)
TL: Donc que err ceux de la diaspora ont un rôle à jouer au-dessus de la situation au-delà de la situation// (That is
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people of the diaspora have a role to play above the situation beyond the situation) SL: If you may be aware in some countries like mine you don’t talk of democracy without first identifying who is around you//
TL: Dans les pays comme le mien on ne parle pas de démocratie sans faire sans d’abord faire attention ὰ qui est autour de vous// (In countries like mine you don’t talk of democracy without paying without first paying attention to who is around you)
SL: African leaders are playing brotherhood game hence injustices are noticeable and sustained in many African nations all in the name of pan-africanism//
TL: Nos frères souffrent de l’injustice et une injustice soutenue dans de nombreuses nations africaines au nom du panafricanisme// (Our brothers suffer from injustice and this injustice is supported by many African nations in the name of pan-africanism)
SL: Le bureau a fait de son mieux pour améliorer le fonctionnement de notre transition// (The bureau did its best to improve the functioning of our transition)
TL: The Parlia- Parliament has done its best to improve this process to make it conducive to transformation//
SL: Le rapport est clair concis et une fois encore je remercie l’honorable président Idriss Ndele pour son courage et sa ténacité durant son mandate…// (The report is clear and concise and once again I thank the honourable president Idriss Ndele for hiscourage and tenacity during his tenure//
TL: And I thank the outgoing president for the courage he has displayed during his tenure//
SL: Merci Monsieur le Président // (Thank you Mr. President)
TL: Thank you//
SL: Patrice Lumumba Robert Sobukwe Stephen Bantibekwoh and Winnie Mandela amongst the voice that said mayibuye Africa let Africa return//
TL: Patrice Lumumba Sibukwe Sibiko et Winnie Mandela parmi les voix qui ont dit mayibuye Africa laissons l’Afrique venir ὰ elle-même//
SL: In this regard we join the lights of honourable Chen Chimutengwede MP of Zimbabwe who writes eloquently about this need for Africa’s second liberation//
TL: Et ὰ cet égard nous nous joignons au Président Tengwende parlementaire du Zimbabwe qui a écrit sur le besoin par l’Afrique d’être libérée une deuxième fois//
SL: And most importantly we reflect on the honourable Marcus Gavin
TL: Et plus important encore nous réfléchissons sur ce qu’a dit Mark Gavi
SL: The problem of the twentieth century honourable members is the problem of colour line the question as to how far our differences of race which show themselves shivering the colour of the skin and texture of the hair are going to be made//
TL: Le problème qui se pose c’est le problème d’économiser comment est ce que les différences de races qui se voient à travers les couleurs de la peau et des yeux// (The problem that exists is the problem of saving money how the racial differences that are seen accross the colour of the skin and eyes).
SL: Hereafter the basis of the ninth over half the world has the right of sharing in their utmost ability the opportunities and privileges of modern civilisation//
TL: Comment on va faire ces différences comment est ce que on va avoir le droit d’arriver ὰ la stabilité et de partager les opportunités de la sous civilisation// (How are we going to make the differences how are we going to have the right to achieve stability and to share the opportunities of under civilisation)
SL: Patrice Lumumba Robert Sobukwe Stephen Bantibekwoh and Winnie Mandela amongst the voice that said that mayibuye Africa let Africa return//
TL: Patrice Lumumba Patrice Sibukwe Sibiko et Winnie Mandela parmi les voix qui ont dit mayibuye Africa laissons l’Afrique venir ὰ elle-même//
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SL: Kwame Nkramah the founding president of Ghana Africa’s first independent state reminded us in nineteen sixty-one divided we are weak united Africa will become one of the greatest forces for good in the world//
TL: Kwame Nkrumah err Président fondateur rappelé en mille neuf cent soixante-un nous sommes divisés et nous sommes faibles mais unis nous constituons la plus grande force pour le bien du monde// (Kwame Nkramah the founding president reminded us in nineteen sixty-one we are divided and we are weak but united we constitute the greatest force for the good of the world)
SL: And so in seeking to attain the unattainable to reach the unreachable we may unfortunately have to on the way touch the untouchables to step on the toes of those who are unmoved by this movement and to bulldoze those who are impediments resisting this change that we must take//
TL: Donc en cherchant à attendre ceux qui ne peuvent pas être atteints nous pouvons toucher ὰ ceux qui est intouchables il faut que nous puissions suivre ceux qui résistent à ces changements// (So in seeking to attain those who are unattainable we may touch those who are untouchable we need to be able to follow those who resist these changes)
SL: We have to be cautioned because they are coming yet again for us//
TL: Donc nous devons être prudents parce qu’ils sont cruels// (We have to be cautious TL: L’Afrique nous apprend qu’aucune nation qu’aucun peuple n’a pu être libéré par la croidice…//
SL: Africa teaches us no race no people no nation has ever been freed to cowardice…// SL: The honourable president of PAP the vice president our distinguish guess ladies and gentlemen it gives me great pleasure to present before you this paper which talks about the African diaspora education and culture//
TL: Honorable président du PAP err donc que le vice président nos invités nos chèrs invités honorable mesdames et messieurs mais c’est un grand plaisir moi de vous présenter devant vous de présenter ce papier qui (...) parle de la diaspora africaine de l’éducation et de la culture// (The honourable president of PAP err that is the vice president our guests our dear guests ladies and gentlemen but it is a great pleasure to present you before you to present this paper which (...) talks about the African diaspora education and culture)
SL: From this we then understand the term African diaspora to refer to the dispersal of Africa outside the African continent or the scattering of the homogenous African people throughout the world//
TL: A partir de la nous comprenons que la diaspora africaine réfère au mot despera en tant que qui se trouve errr les personnes qui se trouvent en dehors du continent africain ὰ travers le monde éparpillées ὰ travers le monde// (From this we understand that the African diaspora refers to the word despera such as who are err people who are outside the African continent all over the world scattered throughout the world)
SL: The African Union defines the African diaspora as I quote consisting of people from African origin living outside the continent irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union I close quote//
TL: Lllll’union africaine définit llll la diaspora africaine comme étant err consiste des personnes d’origine africaine qui vivent en dehors du continent africain quelque soit leur nationalité et citoyenneté et qui souhaitent contribuer au développement du continent africain et la construction de l’union africaine également voilà fin de cotation// (The African Union defines the African diaspora as err consists of people of African origin who live outside the African continent whatever their nationality and citizenship and who wish to contribute to the development of the African continent and also the construction of the African Union here end of cotation)
SL: Two the first plantation age this was the period between sixteen hundred and eighteen hundred which were the two centuries which were dominated by the slave trade corners with the Dutch the English and the French//
TL: Plusieurs plantations se fut le période du dix-huitième siècle et et durant les deux siècles qui ont été dominés par le trafic des personnes par les français et les anglais//(Many plantations it was the period of the eighteen century and and during the two centuries that were
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dominated by the trade of people by the French and English) SL: Black leaders developed a pan-African racial identity and with it launched some of the earliest efforts to build modern nations//
SL: The word diaspora originates from the Latin word diaspeirein, which means disperse//
TL: Et là les chefs africains ont développé une identité panafricaine lorsqu’elle la perdu des lorsque- et…// (And the African leaders developed a Pan-African identity when it lost its when and…)
TL: Le mot diaspora vient du mot latin disperine qui veut dire disperse//
SL: The struggle for the second liberation of Africa shall even be longer it is clear that our liberation will not be realised just because we are no longer caught up in other peoples’ war//
TL: La deuxième libération de l’Afrique ne devrait pas se faire attendre elle ne peut pas se réaliser simplement parce que nous sommes pris entre deux guères// (The second liberation of Africa should not be awaited it can’t berealised just because we are caught between two wars)
SL: Reasons for the African aiaspora the two reasons for the existence of the African diaspora are forced dispersion and dispersion by choice//
TL: Les raisons pour la diaspora africaine maintenant le l’existence de la diaspora africaine a forcé …err a donc que on immigré maintenant par par choix// (the reasons for the African diaspora now the existence of the African diaspora is forced ...err that is have migrated by by choice)
SL: In fact some scholars e.g. James Walt two thousand and ten claim that Africa ambitious go overseas in that most err of Africa’s most talented go to the US and Europe to further their education and pursue careers//
TL: Et donc que des personnes disent que les ambitions de l’Afrique qui partent à l’étranger et errr les personnes les plus éduquées partent aux État Unis et en Europe pour poursuivre les carrières// (And that these people claim that the ambitions of Africa who go abroad and errr the most educated people go to the United States and to Europe pursue their careers)
SL: Perhaps we need to give more attention to this than we have done in the past and do our research properly to ensure that we maximise their assistance to our continent//
TL: Peut-être que nous aurons besoin de nous concentrer sur ce volet lὰ beaucoup plus que dans le passé et faire et pour s’assurer que nous maximisons les ressources// (Perhaps we need to give more attention to this more than in the past and make sure that we maximise resources)
SL: However no diaspora communities have been chased to this period// SL:I am not here so much to list Africa’s problems because we are Africans we know our problems but I am here to identify the solutions to some of the problems we face as Africans in the world//
SL: According to Manim two thousand and nine the African labourers who were relatively shipped when obtained as captives were preferred because they were available capable of enduring difficult conditions and and capable to survive diseases better than the other populations//
TL: Toutefois notre notre diaspora a étée donc que transportée dans de dans// (However our diaspora was then transported in inside) TL: Je ne suis pas ici err pour err pour parler des problèmes de l’Afrique parce que nous les connaissons je suis lὰ pour parler des défis et des problems aux quels on fait face// (I am not here to err to talk about Africa’s problems because we know our problems but I am here to talk about some of the problems we face) TL: D’après donc que l’article la main d’œuvre africaine qui a étée peu couteuse et ont été capturés et donc que peuvent souffrir et peuvent souffrir er peuvent survivre aux maladies comparé aux autres communautés//( According that is the article the African labourers that were cheaper and were captured and that is can suffer and can suffer and er can survive diseases compared to othercommunities) TL: Le développement de cette de l’économie du monde de nouveau monde a crée une communauté très
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SL: The development of the economy of the new world at this time rested largely on this enslaved labour force of their valour strength and fertility// SL: During the slave trade many of these people had no or very little formal education and a number had certain skills that they needed and used in their African communities in order to survive//
SL: Men were strong men and had a rich culture and traditions that they had practiced in their communities and environment for many years//
SL: The black families developed new traditions on the African continent and in the diaspora as economic and political conditions changed while rejecting racial hierarchy//
SL : In addition to the great strike made in education and the skills required in working there African diaspora community turns local expressive cultures into more cosmopolitan culture and output in taking advantage of newly formed audiences// SL: The slave trade therefore provided a cheap supply of captives who were necessary for the Europeans´ profitary//
SL: The operation that these workers experienced fostered individual and group resistance and larger social movements//
fertile//(The development of the economy of the world of the new world created a very fertile community)
TL: Durant le trafic de personnes et de l’esclavage et et beaucoup de personnes ont des capacités qu’ils peuvent utiliser dans leurs communautés africaines pour survivre// (During the trade of people and slave trade and and many people have skills they can use in theirAfrican communities to survive)
TL: Err des ils sont une tradition riche et ils ont des contactes avec leurs communautés d’origine// (Err the they have a rich tradition and they have contacts with theircommunities of origin) TL: Et ils ont loué des nouvelles traditions avec l’Afrique l’Afrique avec les avec le changement des conditions politiques// (And they rented new traditions withAfrica Africawith the with the change of the political conditions) TL: Et ont avec les grands efforts fait dans l’éducation la diaspora africaine a exprimé la à travers une dimension cosmopolitaine en err // (And we with great efforts done in education the African diaspora expressed there through cosmopolitan dimensionsin in errr)
TL: Ceci a donné donc une fourniture de personnes de captives// (This provided a supply of people of captive) TL: Donc ils participent dans les mouvements d’africains// (That is that is they participate in African movements)
SL: According to Manim two thousand and nine...
TL: D’après le rapport…(According to the report)
SL: In fact some scholars e.g. James Walt two thousand and ten claim that
TL: Et donc des personnes disent que… (And so people claim that…)
SL: Their work range from building colonial cities in the Americas to constructing railways in our continents from harvesting sugar and grass to extracting silver gold diamonds coal and petroleum from operating hand loans to handling textile mails from hosting sales and tunneling subways and bomb shelters and from blacksmithing and assembling automobiles to computer programming//
TL: Donc que ils ils ont participé à la construction des chemins de fer et dans les plantations de sucre et dans et dans le secteur du pétrole et du diamant ils ont participé dans les usines de textile et donc qu’ils ont construit les les métros et dans la construction d’automobile et participé également dans err l’industrie d’ ordinateur// (That is they participated in the railway construction and in sugar plantations and in the petroleum sector and of diamonds they participated in textile industries and they built metros and in the construction of automobiles and also participated in err computer industries)
SL: …investors who improved transportation medicine agriculture manufacturing techniques as well as developed
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new techniques in the arts and communication I close quote//
TL: …des personnes qui ont amélioré qui la médicine le transport l’agriculture les techniques de err manufacture et les communications le transport// (people who improved medicine transportation agriculture manufacturing techniques and communications and transport)
SL: …this through the permanent committee on education culture tourism and human resources//
TL: …à travers le communauté comité du tourisme et d’éducation et de ressources humaines// (…through the community committee of tourism and education and human resources)
SL: The African diaspora was thus the historic movement of the Africans and their descendants to other places throughout the world predominantly to the Americas and also to Europe the Middle East and other places around the globe//
TL: La diaspora africaine a été le mouvement africain et ce sont les descendants de d’africains qui sont dispersés à travers le monde prédonement err dans les Amériques et également en Europe, au Moyen Orient et dans autres coin du monde entier//(The African diaspora was thus the historic movement of the Africans and their descendants to other places throughout the world prédonement to the Americas and also to Europe the Middle East and other places around the globe)
SL: You outgoing president you have proven it because you have demonstrated to use your skill from medical scientist to social science//
TL: Vous entant que président sortant vous l’avez prouvez car vous avez prouvé err que vous pouviez utiliser vos compétences et savoir médical au profit de notre organisation// (You as outgoing president you have proven it because you have proved that you can use your skill and medical knowledge to the advantage of our organisation)
SL: You are a strategist and tactician//
TL: Vous êtes un stratège et un tacticien err prouver// (You are a strategist and tactician err proved)
SL: Henceforth I will like also to join Honourable Chief Tom Bia that the only way we can honour you is to pass a motion to declare you an honourable member of PAP//
TL: Je souhaite également joindre ma voix ὰ celle de l’honorable Bia qui ὰ la seul façon de nos honorer et vous de passer une motion déclarant membre honorifique du père- du PAP// (I will also like to join my voice to that of Honourable Bia that the only way to honour us and you is to pass a motion declaring honourable member of the father of the PAP)
SL: May God bless you thank you
TL: Que Dieu vous bénisse (May God bless you)
SL: Et parler particulièrement d’un programme qui existe dans mon pays qui est le programme top ten qui permet err aux universitaires de la diaspora de venir donner les cours ὰ l’université// (And talk specifically of the programme that exists in my country which is the top ten programme which enables err university lecturers from the diaspora to come and give lectures at the university)
TL: And more specifically I wish to refer to the programme that applies in my country that programme enables university lecturers from the diaspora to come and give lectures at university//
SL: Et compt tenu donc du manque de professeurs dans nos pays et surtout dans des spécialisations très pointues celὰ a donné des très bon résultats// (And due to the lack of lecturers in our countries and more especially in specific specialised fields which produced very good results)
TL: And to train lecturers in our countries and in various sophisticated areas and that has provided very good results//
SL: It is an honour for me to present this goodwill message on behalf of Europe//
TL: C’est pour moi un honneur de participer de vous transmettre ce message au nom de Europe// (It is an
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honour for me to participate to transmit this message on behalf of Europe) SL : Now…I am not speaking as a European MP but as an African whose health, whose heart goes out and longs to see positive changes across the continent//
TL: Je ne parle pas entant que européen comme un membre parlement européen mais comme africain qui a eu ces une une d’échanges positifs par rapport au continent// (I am not speaking as a European as a member of the Europeen Parliament but as an African who has had positive exchanges in relation to the continent)
SL: Europe and Africa has had a long and sometimes turbulent relation//
TL: L’Europe et l’Afrique ont eu une longue histoire une relation très longue// (Europe and Africa have had a long history a very long relation).
SL: This also calls for strategic changes in policies and practices//
TL: Donc avec les plans les vraa les changes stratégiques ainsi que les les les les changements (That is with the plans the vraa the strategic changes also the the the the changes)
SL: Africa is still struggling with the same problems it had forty years ago//
TL: Donc la l’Afrique a eu les mêmes problèmes qu’avait qu’avait la Chine il y a trente ans// (So Africa has had the same problems that that China had thirty years ago TL: Et aujourd’hui la Chine et et trente et de prêter l’argent au monde (Today China and and thirty and is lending money to the world)
SL: Today China is lending money to the world
SL: What policies and systems and systems changes do we need in order to push the continent into its rightful place in the world//
SL: Asking the right and strategic questions and answering them honestly is the entering point to a greater Africa//
TL: Quel est la politique et les systèmes les systèmes les systèmes sont entrain de de changer nous devons pousser le continent qui doit être qui doit avoir des changements dans le monde// (What is the policy and the systems the systems the systems are changing we need to push the continent which has to have changes in the world) TL: Est-ce qu’ils doivent c’est une question stratégique et nous nous ne pouvons la répondre si nous voulons la répondre nous devons faire en sorte que l’Afrique devient plus grande// (Do they have to it is a strategic question and we we cannot answer it if we want to answer it we need to make sure Africa becomes greater)
SL: Africa is a continent that is blessed with abundance of resources both human and natural//
TL: L’Afrique est un continent qui est prassé avec une abondance de ressources et avec des des ressources humaines et natural// (Africa is a continent that is prassé with abundant resources and with with human and natural ressources).
SL: The time for alms begging should be over the time for constantly looking for financial help from the outside should be over
TL: Donc le temps est devant nous devant le temps de prendre des des armes et maintenant dépassé nous devons penser penser ὰ autre chose que porter des armes// (That is the time is in front of us in front of the time to take the the arms and now gone we need to think think of another thing than carrying arms)
SL: Mesdames messieurs comme il est de tradition à chaque session générale de notre illustre institution le bureau a ainsi l’honneur de vous donner un rapport des activités du parlement// (Ladies gentlemen as it is the tradition of every general session of this prominent
TL : Ladies and gentlemen members of the Pan-African Parliament…er as it is the tradition of every oral session by illustre institution the Bureau has syndra honour to present to you an activity report of the parliament//
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institution the Bureau therefore has the honour to give you a report of the activities of the parliament// SL: En application à la décision quatre-cent cinquante-neuf quatorze la de la conférence qui a demandé au parlement panafricain d’amender son règlement intérieur afin de se conformer aux institutions aux instruments juridiques de l’union africaine// (In application of the decision four hundred and fifty nine fourteen of the assembly that requested the Pan-African Parliament to amend its rules of procedure in order to conform to the legal institutions and instruments of the African Union)
TL: In application of its decision DOC is CCL stroke four five nine of the conference of the assembly requested the Pan-African Parliament to amend its rules of procedure in order to conform the legal instruments of the African Union//
SL: Le secrétaire général a été instruit de prendre toutes les dispositions y relatives un avocat a été recruté pour assister et conseiller le parlement panafricain en cette affaire// Une plainte a été déposée contre le gestionnaire principal du compte ainsi qu’une autre plainte a été déposée contre banque où a été hébergé les comptes du fond fiduciaire// (The secretary general was instructed to take all necessary measures a lawyer was recruited to assist and advise the Pan-African Parliament// A complaint was submitted against the senior manager of the account as well another complaint was submitted against the bank that was keeping accounts of the trust fund//)
TL: The clerk was instructed to take all the measures on the issue a lawyer was recruited to assist and advise the parliament in that case//To date we are still waiting for the plenary results of his investigations//A complaint has been submitted to the manager of the fund and the complaint was also submitted to the bank that was holding the funds of the trust fund//
SL:Cette période représente toute la mandature de la deuxième législature que j’ai eu insigne honneur de présider avec les quatre vice-présidents// (This period represents the entire tenure of the second parliament that I had the singular honour to preside over with the four vicepresidents)
TL: This report this period represents the entire tenure of the second parliament that I had the singular honour to preside over with four parliaments//
SL: …avec l’élection du nouveau président et de son bureau le lundi vingt-huit mai deux-mille douze// (…with the election of the new president and his bureau on Monday twenty eight May thousand and twleve)
TL: …with the election of the new president and his/her bureau on mundi on Monday twenty eight May twenty twelve//
SL: Les permanences des membres du bureau// (The permanent duty period of the members of the bureau)
TL: Em the permanent err due to the period of the err due to the period of bureau members//
SL: Nous aurons également le renouvellement du bureau de tous les organes panafricains au cours de la même semaine// (We shall also renew the bureau of all the organs of the Pan-African Parliament during the same week)
TL: We shall also renew the bureau of all the organs of the Pan-African Parliament during the same period//
SL: Le développement intérieur a été révisé conformément ὰ la demande du Conseil lors de la cinquième session ordinaire tenue en octobre deux-mille onze…// (The internal development was revised as requested by the council and amended during the fifth ordinary session held in October twenty eleven…)
TL : The rules of procedure were revised and amended during the fifth ordinary session held in October twenty eleven…//
SL: Face au respect et ὰ l’application de notre règlement intérieur j’ai l’insigne honneur de vous présenter ce matin un rapport bilan du bureau sortant pour toute la période de la deuxième législature// (With regards to respect and the implementation of our rules of procedure I have the remarquable honour to present to you this morning a
TL: While respecting the implementation of our rules of procedure I sintera- honour to present to you this morning er a report of the outgoing bureau for the entire period of the second parliament//
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report balance sheet of the outgoing bureau for the entire period of the second parliament// SL: Cette approche participative de la consultation régionale// (This participative approach for of regional consultation)
TL: This participarel approach for of regional consultation//
SL: Le premier ministre de la République Fédéral d’Éthiopie son Excellence Meles Zenawi et lundi dernier son Excellence Idriss Déby président de la République du Chad qui s’est engagé à nous apporter son soutien pour l’adoption du nouveau protocole// (The prime minister of the Republic of Ethiopia his Excellency Meles Zenawi and on Monday his Excellency Idriss Déby the president of the Republic of Chad who decided to provide support for the adoption of the new protocol)
TL: The prime minister of the Republic of Ethiopia his Excellency Meles Zenawiet his Excellency IdrissDéby from Chad who also expressed his support for the adoption of the new protocol//
SL: Si bien sûr l’élection de membres de l’exécutif de la commission ne prend pas ensemble du temps de ce sommet// (If of course the election of the members of the executive of the committee will not take the entire time of this summit)
TL: Of course the election of the members of the executive of the committee errs…will not take the entire time of the summit//
SL: La conférence a estimé que certaines dispositions notamment les articles cinq et dix du protocole… (The assembly estimated that certain provisions in particular that of rule five and ten…)
TL: The assembly felt that certain provisions of rules five and twelve of the protocol…
SL: Les femmes parlementaires contre les pratiquants génocide en particulier les mutilations des génitales féminines le six et cinq octobre deux-mille neuf// (Parliament women against genocide practices in particular female genital mutilation on the fifth and sixth of October two thousand and nine)
TL: Parliament women against traditional and harmful practices in particular female genital mutilation circumcision on the fifth and sixth of October two thousand and nine//
SL: Merci beaucoup Monsieur le président (thank you very much Mr. President/Chair)
TL: Thank you Chair
SL: Je voudrais savoir err par rapport aux deux présentations err comment est-ce que nous pouvons utiliser de façon efficace les capacités intellectuelles universitaires de la diaspora pour les contributions aux renfoncements des institutions universitaires en Afrique// (I would like to know err regarding the two presentations err how we can effectively use the university intellectual skills of the diaspora tocontribute to the the enhancement of university institutions in Africa)
TL : Now in respect of the two statements here I want to know how we can use the intellectual skills the university skills in the diaspora… to contribute to the enhancement of university education in Africa//
SL: Que fait pour au moins canaliser toute cette capacité de formation pour les pays africain// (What can be done at least be to channel all those training skills for African countries)
TL: Now how do we channel those skills and to provide training for or in the African countries//
SL: Cognizant of the objectives of the Pan-African Parliament to promote peace security and stability with a view to contribute to a more prosperous future of the peoples of Africa//
TL : Connaissant les objectifs du parlement panafricain qui visent ὰ promouvoir l’appelle ὰ la sécurité afin de contribuer ὰ un avenir plus prospère pour les peuples d’Afrique// (Cognizant of the objectives of the Pan-African Parliament which aims to promote security with a view to contribute to a more prosperous future of the peoples of Africa)
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SL: …I quote notwithstanding the provisions of rule sixty a member may with the leave of the presiding officer give oral notice of the motion during seating//
TL: …je lis nonobstant les dispositions de l’article soixante-un un membre peut donner err motion err présentation oral d’une motion nonobstant de l’article soixante// (I read notwithstanding the provisions of rule sixty-one a member may give a err motion err oral presentation of motion notwithstanding rule sixty)
SL: Noting with deep concern the recent increase in the conflict between Sudan and South Sudan and particularly conscious of the deterioration in the relationship between the two sister countries//
TL: Ayant pris ayant noté avec préoccupation le la hausse ces derniers temps du conflit et les observations du conflit entre le Soudan et le Soudan du Sud notamment la détérioration de la situation dans les relations entre les deux pays frères// (Having taking noting with deep concern the recent increased in the conflict observations of conflicts between Sudan and South Sudan and particularly conscious of the deteriorating in the relationship between the two sister countries)
SL: As one of the essential provisions of the comprehensive peace agreement of two thousand and five some of which were not implemented//
TL: En tant que une des principales dispositions de l’accord général doté de deux-mille cinq certaines dispositions du de errr donc certaines dispositions n’ont pas été appliquées// (As one of the essential provisions of the general agreement of two thousand and five some provisions of the errr that is certain provisions were not implemented)
SL: Further recalling the address by the honourable Daniel Awed court first deputy speaker of the national legislative assembly of the republic of South Sudan
TL: Rappelant également l’intervention du Professeur Daniel Oté premier président de l’assemblée législative nationale de la République du Sud Soudan (Further recalling the intervention by Professor Daniel Oté first president of the national legislative assembly of the republic of South Sudan)
SL:Honorables membres distingués invités les chefs d’états et de gouvernements de l’union ont exprimé à travers de multiples rencontres de porter haut le flambeau des idéaux du panafriicc-…du panafricanisme chères au père fondateur de l’unité africaine// (Honourable members distinguished guests heads of states and governments of the Union expressed through various meetings to hold high the main ideals of pan-afriicc-…pan-africanisme which are dear to the founding fathers of the organization of African unity)
TL: Honourable guests the Head of States and governments of the union have express through various meetings err …looking at the various ideas of panafricanisme which are dear to the founding fathers of the organization of African unity//
SL: Au-delà de l’intégration des états ces idéaux n’ont de sens que dans la poursuite d’un sentiment de solidarité entre les populations africaines…// (Above the integration of the states its ideals make sense only in the pursuit of a feeling of solidarity amongst the African populations)
TL: In addition to the integration of the states its ideals are faced on they are f…are based on the facts that we peruse the feeling of solidarity amongst the African populations
SL: L’Afrique fait face de nos jours à beaucoup de défis guerres SIDA sècheresse famine mal gouvernance etc. // (Africa is facing nowadays many challenges wars HIV AIDS, famine poor governance etc. //
TL: Africa is facing nowadays many challenges which include wars, HIV AIDS, poor governance etc. //
SL: …qui aura lieu dans quelques jours le vingt-cinq mai prochain ici même en Afrique du Sud// (…which will take place in a few days on the 25 of May here in South Africa//
TL: which will take place in June in errrr errrrr South Africa//
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SL: C’est ὰ juste titre que nous apprécions cette marque d’estime et d’attention manifestée ὰ l’égard de l’assemblée nationale mondataire- mandataire du people congolais//(It is right that we appreciate this mark of esteem and attention to the National Assembly mondataire- mandate of the Congolese people)
TL: It’s rightly it’s rightly that we should err express our satisfaction err with the mandate that we have received as the people of Congo//
SL: Aussi a-t’elle inscrit la vocation africaine parmi les principes directeurs de sa politique étrangère// (Shealsoinscribed the African vocation amongst the main directors of itsforeignpolicy)
TL: And we will like to be in line with the vocation of Africa in line with each foreign policy err principles founder//
SL: À ce sujet nous exhortons le parlement panafricain à naitre à être au antipode de l’union africaine pour ne pas sombrer dans ce que l’organisation de l’unité africaine avait finalement institutionnalisé les accolades entre les chefs d’états membres pendant le sommet pour se perdre dans les amitiés privées avec les chefs d’états des pays du nord et oublier totalement de traiter les multiples problèmes qui minent notre chère Afrique// (As concerns this we urge the Pan-African Parliament to be born to be on the opposite side of the African Union in order not to sink in what the Organisaton of the African Union had finally institutionalised the accolades between the member heads of states during the summit to get lost in private friendships with head of states of the north and totally forgets to look for solutions to the various problems face by our dear Africa).
TL: So with on that we would like to urge the Pan-African Parliament to continue to accompany the Sud African Union so that they we move forward with what has been institutionalized by the OUA that’s the accolade between the heads of states members of err this great continent so that we together with the different head of states can be able to move forward without forgetting the treaties which were signed and which move our continent together//
SL: Notre souhait le plus ardent est de voir le parlement panafricain très doté des pouvoirs législatifs de contribuer a l’harmonisation des normes sur le plan continentale dans plusieurs domains vitaux tel que la santé l’éducation l’environnementetc// (Our strongest wish is to see the PanAfrican Parliament having legislative powers in order to contribute to the harmonization of the norms at the continental level in various vital domains such as health education environment etc)
TL : Our wish our strongest wish is to is to see the PanAfrican Parliament having legislative powers in order to contribute to the harmonization of the standards at the continental level in different vital domains such as health education environment and so on and so forth//
SL: Pays signataires du protocole relatif au parlement panafricain la République Démocratique du Congo entend parachever le processus de l’adhésion par la ratification du protocole du qui devrait intervenir auprès après les débats parlementaires au cours de cette année//
TL : As a signatory to the protocol rating to the PanAfrican Parliament the DRC emm err will like to endorse the adhe- adhesion process by ratifying protocol which wou- should be used after the parliamentary debate during this year//
SL: Honorable président du parlement panafricain honorable membres du bureau distingués honorables députés mesdames mesdemoiselles et messieurs//
TL: Honourable President of the PAP honourable members of the Bureau dista- distinguish parliamentarians ladies and gentlemen//
SL: Au lendemain de mille neuf cent soixante date de l’accession de la RDC à sa souveraineté nationale et internationale le Ghana la Guinée et le Maroc ont exprimés leurs solidarités ὰ l’égard de mon pays durant les troubles dans lesquels le pays sombrais// (Following the year of nineteen sixty when the DRC attained its national and international sovereignity Ghana Guinea and Morocco expressed their solidarity towards my country during the trouble that the country was undergoing)
TL: For instance err following the year of nineteen sixty when DRC became a sovereign national country Ghana Guinea and Morocco expressed their solidarity towards their country during the trouble that the country was undergoing//
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SL: Ainsi les parlements Congolais pourront s’impliquer dans le rayonnement de l’organe legislatif panafricain// (In this way the Congolese parliament will be able to be involved in the outreach of the Pan-African legislative organ)
TL: The Congolese parliament will like to be involved in the work of the Pan-African Parliament//
SL: Au nom du président de RDC son excellence Joseph Kabila Kabange et au nom du président de l’assemblée national de la République Démocratique du Congo honorable Aubin Minaku nous aimeront profiter de cette tribune pour remercier les peuples frères et amis de l’Afrique qui ont accompagné le peuples congolais dans l’accomplissement de son devoir électoral// (And on the behalf of the president of the of DRC his Excellency Joseph Kabila Kabange and on the behalf of the president of the national assembly of the Republic of Democratic Republic of Congo honourable Aubin Minaku we would like to take this opportunity to thank the our brothers and friends in Africa who supported the Congolese people in the accomplishment of this electoral task)
TL: And on the behalf of the president of the Republic of Democratic Republic of Congo his Excellency the president of DRC Joseph Kabila Kabange and on the behalf of the president of the err national assembly of the DRC honourableAubinMinaku we would like to take this opportunity to thank err the our brothers in Africa who supported supported the Congolese people in the accomplishment of this electro task//
SL: C’est le cas du peuple d’Afrique du Sud d’Angola et de la RDC grâce ὰ leur appuis logistique la commission électorale nationale indépendante s’est réunie en cigle a pu relever les défis d’organiser les élections transparentes libres et démocratiques dans un pays aux dimensions sous continentale//
TL: Err The case with the the case in point is South Africa Angolo- and the Republic of Congo thanks to their logistic support the electro the national electro-commission err was able to overcome the challenges of organizing transparent and democratic elections in this err vast country//
SL: La CEMI a entrepris une auto-évaluation de ces actions avec l’aide des partenaires bilatéraux et multilatéraux avant de finaliser le processus électorale par l’organisation des élections provinciales et locales//
TL : Err we undertook a self evaluation of these actions with the support of biolateral- partners and multrateralpartners before finalizing the electro process err through the organisaton of the local and provincial elections//
SL: Puis plusieurs batailles qui ont tenté de balkaniser la RDC ont motivé les parlements des pays africains à autoriser leurs armées les armées de leur pays respectifs pour voler au secours de la RDC// (Duringseveralwarsthatbalkanised the DRC motivated parliamentsof African countries to authorise theirarmies the armies of their respective countries to come and help the DRC)
TL : Then there were different wars that were aimed at destabilizing and dividing the country motivated African parliaments to authorize their armies the armies of their respective countries to come and help the Democratic Republic of Congo//
SL:Plus récemment une guerre d’agression par des voisins de la RDC allait sans doute faire réécrire toutel’histoire et faire redresser la géographie de l’Afriqu emais heureusement la lucidité de pays de plusieurs pays d’Afrique en général et celle de quelques membres de la SADC en particulier a sauvé les pays de la dérive// (Just recently an aggression war by the neighbours of the DRC was going to influence the entire history and reverse the geography of Africa but fortunately the strength of countries of many African countries in general and that of some members of SADC in particular came in to prevent the country from being drifted//
TL: Just recently there was an aggression war by the neighbours of the Democratic Republic of Congo err play the role of trying to reverse the geography of Africa but fortunately err the strength of African countries in general and that of some members of SADC in particular came in to solve the country//
SL: C’est pourquoi son excellence Joseph Kabila Kabange est passé respectivement de l’unification et de la
TL: That is why his Excellency gils- Kabila Kabange err ensured that the unification and participation of the DRC
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pacification de l’ ère de Congo ὰ parti de deux mille un ὰ la consolidation de la paix et au lancement du programme de la res- reconstruction de cinq chantiers pour prôner en deux mille onze la stabilisation de la paix et la révolution de la modernité// (That is why his Excellency Joseph Kabila Kabange moved from the unification and participation of the era of the DRC from two thousand and one to peace building and the launching of the resreconstruction programme of five construction sites in two thousand and eleven to ensure that there is stability of peace and that revolution of modernity)
from two thousand and one towards the towards peace building and towards the launching of the reconstruction programme to ensure that there is stability and peace and that we move towards err modernity//
SL: Ces visions n’ont été réalisables elle ne pourrait être encore que grâce ὰ la preuve vivante et ὰ la chaleureuse solidarité des pays africains// (These visions were not achievable and will only be achievable due to the living proof and warm solidarity of African countries)
TL: This vision is not easy to achieve err unless there is solidarity from other African countries//
Addendum C: Background Information of Interpreters from Questionnaires Ten French and English Interpreters were present during the data collection, however, only nine of them were involved in the study. Backgrou nd Informati on Gender Age Language A Language B Other Languages
Int. 1
Int. 2
Int. 3
Int. 4
Int. 5
Int. 6
Int. 7
Int. 8
Int. 9
Int.10
Female 50 French
Female 60+ English
Female 51 English
Male 47 French
Male 63 French
Male 56 French
Male 48 French
Female 44 French
Male 65 French
Male 50+ French
English
French
French
English
English
English
English
English
English
English
Mauritia n Creole
Spanish, Portugue se and German
Arabic, Spanish and Italian
Arabic and Italian
Russian
None
None
Spanish and Wolof
Arabic
Experienc e
10years +
Greek, Italian, Spanish and Afrikaan s Hundred s of days
20years +
3000day s
30years
25years
22 years
Yes No
Yes No
Yes No
Yes Yes
No No
Yes No
10years and 15 days a month Yes No
41years
Training First time working for PAP Staff within PAP or Freelancer Makes use of documents
19years and 100days per year No No
Yes No
Yes
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Freelanc er
Yes
Yes
Yes
Sometim es
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
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in the booth
Addendum D: The Pan-African Parliament Consent Form
181
Addendum E: Pictures
Plenary Session June, 2012
182
Parliamentarians at the session, 2012:
183
The Control Room, 2012:
184
Members of the Bureau, 2012:
185
Interpreting Booths, 2012:
