VINE Teleworking: conceptual and implementation problems Dr. V. Cano C. Hatar A. Zapatero
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Teleworking: conceptual and implementation problems
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by Dr. V. Cano and C. Hatar, Queen Margaret College, Edinburgh and A. Zapatero, Comunidad de Madrid
This paper presents research on the managerial reasons for the relatively slow uptake of teleworking. Different definitions for telework are contrasted. It is proposed that an isolationist conception of telework predominates in the early teleworking literature and that this perception, coupled with outdated labour legislation and managerial attitudes towards staff supervision contributed to the relatively slow up-take of telework. New forms of team-based organisation of labour supported by groupware technology are proposed as a progression from isolationist telework into telecooperation.
Introduction Alvin Toffler in his book 'The Third Wave' proposed electronic cottages in which computers and telecommunications equipment would allow people to work from home instead of congregating in set geographical places to work. The transfer of information via networked communication and information technology (CIT) to people sitting comfortably at home instead of caught up in rushhour traffic seems a concept in tune with the Information Society and an information-based economy. Work will go to the people as opposed to people going to work. In any case, the centralised workplace of today is a relatively recent phenomenon as prior to the industrial revolution, most people worked at home or in places adjacent to the home (BT, 1995; Gray, Hodson and Gordon, 1993). Teleworking as a practical proposition first emerged in the United States in consequence of the
oil crisis of the 1970s (Gillespie and Feng, 1996). It was then suggested that electronic communications had the potential to reduce the need for physical travel thus reducing traffic congestion and fuel consumption (Nilles, 1988). The environmental arguments still have relevance twenty years later as the UK White Paper on Transport proposes teleworking as an environmentally friendly solution to work-related commuting and related traffic congestion (Telecommuting 2000, 1998). Predicting the rise of teletrade and electronic commerce, Miles et al (1987) stated that "telework and teleservices" could potentially reduce the need to travel to fulfil everyday life activities. From a corporate standpoint, several reasons were advanced for the introduction of teleworking: increased competitiveness of businesses which would be able to reduce their office maintenance costs with a spatially distributed work-force as there would be no need for expanded office space, and increased flexibility through a possible reduction in employment costs via out-sourcing and short-term contracting (Child, 1987). From an employee's perspective, teleworking could offer a better quality of life, less stress and the possibility of integrating employment with family life practices such as childcare. The final argument was that of technological capability - i.e. the technology for teleworking is there, so why not use it? Historically, surveys to large organizations and multinationals on the possible increase of teleworkers reported very favourable predictions. For example, Hellman (1985) reported forecasts of 15 million teleworkers in the US by 1990. Cane (1983) reported on a survey of 255 UK companies that over two thirds expected to have executives working from home by 1988. Policy makers in the US and the EU have designed policies to favour the spread of teleworking practices and predicted steady increases in teleworking. The Bangemann (1994) report predicted that Europe would have 10 million teleworkers by the year 2000. Similarly, under the auspices of the Clinton administration the Information Infrastructure Task Force (IITF, 1994) published a report that promoted teleworking in the US. The idea that telework would revolutionise the way we work and our everyday life has been around for twenty years, however, despite early futuristic predictions, teleworking has not sky rocketed. Most people keep going to work. The European Commission's (1997) Green Paper on the organisation of work admits that early VINE 109 —27
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teleworking predications have not materialised. Some workers might get company-financed computers for home-use as unpaid overtime, but most organisation of work is still firmly rooted in the workplace (Kling,1996). To the extent that people have the capacity to transmit their work via telecommunication lines and do so, they are "teleworking" but this situation is a far cry from the demise of the conventional workplace (Burch 1991). Teleworking is nonetheless arising in a number of sectors, notably insurance, banking and finance, sales, brokerage, computer related industries, software development, data entry and processing, computer-aided design etc. Within the information industry diverse activities such as publishing, epublishing, web-page development, translating, indexing and abstracting are being done via teleworking. The organisational settings for telework within those industries that have adopted the practice are very varied. Multi-site teleworking occurs when an employee alternates between working on the employer's premises and working elsewhere. Tele-homeworking arises when work is based exclusively at home and is carried out for only one employer. Freelance teleworking differs from the above category in that the worker prepares work for a variety of employers. Mobile teleworking arises when the work is performed "on the road". In this case most work is performed with portable equipment. Finally relocated back-office functions arises when work is performed on employer's remote office sites (Huws, 1997). The different modalities of teleworking detailed above present unique managerial and supervisory challenges to organisations that adopt such practices and to the workers that chose to work from home. Haddon and Silverstone (1994) present a good review of the problems faced by workers when embracing teleworking. The purpose of this paper is to present some of the research on the managerial reasons for the relatively slow up-take of teleworking as an activity despite the attractiveness of the concept.
Telework definitions or who is a teleworker? Conceptual problems in the definitions of telework as well as organizational difficulties and problems in the supervision of teleworkers are often cited as main reasons for the moderate take-off of
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teleworking. Stroetman (1997) mentions that teleworking has been an "evolving concept" from its original definition of electronic homework undertaken remotely from a central office. The concept now encompasses work done or transmitted via off-site centres such as telecottages or satellite centres, work done by mobile workers and work done by self-employed professional individuals who maintain customer contact through email. 'Teleworking' therefore covers a broad spectrum of activities and can be used to describe any job that uses telecommunications outside the normal office situation to transfer work-related information back to the workplace. The following definitions proposed by Huws et al (1990a) and BT (1995) are illustrative of the evolution of the teleworking concept: "Work the location of which is independent of the employer or contractor and can be changed according to the wishes of the individual teleworker and/or the organisation for which he or she is working. It is work which relies primarily, or to a large extent on the use of electronic equipment, the results of which work are communicated to the employer or contractor." (Huws et al, 1990). "Teleworking is a flexible way of working which covers a wide range of work activities, all of which entail working remotely from an employer, or traditional workplace, for a significant proportion of time. Teleworking may be either on a full-time or part-time basis. The work often involves using telecommunications to keep remote employer and employee in contact with each other."(BT,1995). As yet no attempt has been made to impose a single definition of 'telework' (AT&T, 1996) and it is unlikely that a standardised definition will be adopted since teleworking encompasses several dimensions i.e. the geographic dimension, the IT usage dimension and the organisational form of work dimension (Stroetman, 1997). It might be precisely the multi-dimensionality of the teleworking concept that has hindered attempts at quantification of the penetration of teleworking in diverse European and American scenarios. In other words, it is difficult to compare teleworking surveys across different countries and sectors because it is not clear what precisely is being
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Teleworking: conceptual and implementation problems
measured. For example, Huws (1991) presents diverse images of the "typical" teleworker as ranging from full time home-based female clerks alternating work with parenting duties to design engineers operating from an electronic cottage. In the same vein, Forseback (1995) reviewing the situation in Sweden presents a diagram in which freelance workers, full-time civil servants and selfemployed all qualify for the title of teleworker. In other words, the definition of a teleworker is so broad that a part time insurance sales-person on the road is as likely to be counted as a teleworker as a full time self-employed design engineer. Huws (1990b) contends that flexible forms of working are very difficult to quantify because standard industrial categories used for example in employment census, classify workers according to the industrial activity of their employer rather than the actual activities that workers do in relation to the production of products or services. Different classificatory approaches have risen trying to identify common activity-related parameters for jobs suitable for teleworking. Traditionally telework has been restricted to discrete, non-interactive activities (Teleprompt,1998) which involve a large amount of individual work, with clearly defined tasks, objectives and measurable levels of outputs and deliverables. Stanworth and Stanworth (1991) mention that self-contained jobs are more suited for teleworking than jobs that involve high visibility and large amounts of face-to face interaction such as managerial positions. However, AT&T (1999) reports that as a result of a deliberate teleworking policy within the company 55% (36,000) of their US based managers telework and 23% of them do so within a totally virtual environment. Taking a different perspective, BT(1992) introduced the level of information handling of a task as
a primary criterion for determination of suitability for teleworking as shown in Table 1 below. This classificatory approach differs from the one presented by Stanworth and Stanworth (1991) as it moves away from jobs with predominantly selfcontained tasks, to jobs where the level of information handling and processing is the determinant criterion. Gray, Hodson and Gordon (1993) and Newbould (1996) advocate the following characteristics for transferring a job into a teleworking activity: •
level of 'knowledge work;'
•
minimal face-to-face contact and/or manual handling of materials;
•
defined output;
•
defined milestones;
•
adequate telecommunication infrastructure.
The diversity of definitions make it difficult to determine the 'standard' types of activities that are suited for telework, thus making planning for a corporate policy on telework a possibly contentious issue for workers and executives alike. A policy for telework should a) determine the activities that are suitable for telework, b) set criteria for a selection of potential teleworkers, c) provide an CIT infrastructure supportive of teleworking activities, equipment maintenance and data security, d) determine contractual employment practices and possibly trade-union interaction. Horner and Day (1995) present a good historical review of trade union policies in the US and Europe vis a vis teleworking and state that trade unions in the 80's resisted the inroads of CIT on the grounds of redundancy of unskilled labour and
Does the job involve handling, processing or creation of information, rather than the production of a physical product? Does the job have minimal physical requirement? Is the output of the job well defined? Can the work be broken up into defined milestones? Can the majority of the teleworkers communication be carried out over the phone?
YES
NO
YES YES
NO NO
YES
NO
YES
NO
Table 1 - Questionnaire to determine the suitability of a job for teleworking (BT, 1992)
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general exploitation through partial outsourcing of work, however, they report that after a decade of contestatory approaches, trade-unions have now a more flexible in their attitude towards corporate implementation of teleworking practices and in fact have negotiated the use of corporate CIT to communicate with union members. The FIET web-site at http://www.fiet.org/Notes/Com/ 4ea.htm provides links to affiliated trade unions throughout the world that have negotiated collective agreements on telework. The diversity of definitions of teleworking compounded with differences in methodological approaches taken by commercial and governmentsponsored national surveys on the extent of teleworking also affects the assessments of the number of teleworkers per economic sector. This view is reflected in the European Commission (1998) status report of European Telework where it is stated that"... different ways of collecting telework statistics are being followed in different countries making direct comparisons extremely difficult." Nonetheless, based on estimates of PC use in the home to access corporate data, IDC (1997) has estimated that there are 1,024,000 European corporate telecommuters, whilst Nilles (1998) expanding the definition of corporate telecommuter and summarizing various other surveys estimates the number of teleworkers in Europe to be in the order of 2.5 million. In both estimates the UK, The Netherlands, France, Italy and Germany show increasing adoption of teleworking practices in their workforce.
Managerial Issues: the management of communication The management of a spatially distributed workforce within a virtual office environment seems to pose unique managerial and organisational challenges. From a middle management perspective the issues range from supervisory practices for a flexible workforce, to management of communication, motivation and productivity of spatially distributed individuals teleworking as a team. Traditionally, the criteria for determining if a job is suitable for teleworking has been minimum face to face contact (Kraut, 1989). Olsen (1991) has even suggested that teleworking is well suited for introverts! Telework -related activities are therefore perceived as isolated discrete packages 30—VINE 109
transmitted via telecommunication lines and performed with minimum face-to-face interaction. 'Back-office work' defined by Nelson (1986) as corporate internal services that require little faceto-face contact are therefore deemed to be well suited for teleworking since functions such as accounting services, payroll, billing, word processing all have a history of outsourcing, have been subjected to strong automation, and can be performed remotely with little face to face contact (Cressey and Scott, 1992). Similarly, highly creative professional tasks are also deemed to be suited for teleworking as long as they can be performed almost exclusively on an individual basis. This perspective presents a vision of isolated teleworking. However, even the simplest of jobs is enmeshed in a complex web of social, technical and market related activities ((Burchell et al 1994). Face to face interaction is crucial for effective management and control to take place, regardless of the location of the work-force. If one conceives of work as a social activity, face to face communication is essential both for the manager to manage and for the subordinate to understand and to integrate his or her work with the work of others in the workplace (Gabarro, 1990). Management's reliance on physical proximity for face-to-face contact as a form of staff-management is evident in the results of a survey performed by the National Computing Centre (1992) amongst 25000 large and medium sized organisations in the UK. The survey showed that managers are sceptical when confronted with the possibility of managing, motivating and supervising staff at a distance. A shift in attitudes from "eyeball management" based on physical proximity to output management coupled with appropriate use of CIT might help to diminish this attitudinal barrier to teleworking. For example, BT (1994b) reported a teleworking experiment in Inverness where the use of videophones was rated by the teleworking team as the most important support facility provided by BT during the teleworking experiment. Significantly, the use of this facility was initiated an average of 5 times a day by the supervisor of the teleworking team. Similarly, Lipnack and Stamps (1997) report an experiment in Sun Microsystems in which a group of people within the '70 Sun Teams' experiment completed its 7 month's work without ever holding a physical face-to-face meeting. In this case the group used email as its main communication tool.
Teleworking: conceptual and implementation problems
Whilst adherence to 'eyeball management' based on physical proximity might be attributed to conservatism, inertia, old-fashioned attitudes towards staff management and possibly unawareness of the latest advances and possibilities that CIT offers to facilitate real-time interaction (as shown by some of the experiences detailed above), the face-to-face factor is a recurring element mentioned for lack of adoption of teleworking practices in corporations.
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Organisational Issues: bureaucracy versus team-base From an organisational perspective the organisation of work based on the elimination of time and space restrictions puts into question hierarchical organisational structures. The European Telework Online web-site available at http://www.eto.org specifically mentions that teleworking is not suited to organizations where the management approach is "bureaucratic and strongly hierarchical". Bureaucratic organizations tend to create a unit to solve a problem, the problem turns into a department and multiple departments arise, making the organisation too heavy to respond to challenges within a global marketplace (Lipnack and Stamps, 1994). Rockart and Short (1991) placed great emphasis on the need for managers to focus on horizontal work group arrangements to facilitate cooperation and information sharing as a deliberate strategy for competitiveness. Moreover, increased use of CIT provides the means for coordination and control and therefore impacts on the areas of responsibility of middle managers. Predictably, this sector might feel threatened by the inevitable increased use of CIT within a teleworking environment (Fulks and de Sanctis, 1995). Middle management resistance to teleworking might also arise from lack of techniques for assessing work performance and productivity in a virtual environment. Telecommunication companies have been eager to produce a panoply of teleworking guides aimed at middle management since raised awareness of 'how to plan for telework' might reduce resistance and result in increased telecommunication traffic. For examples consult the AT&T web-site at http://att.com/ehs/ telework/policyex.html;Pacific Bell at http:// www.pacbell.com/products/business/general/ telecommuting/tcguide/tc-3.html and finally BT, (1994a).
Supervision of work in the networked distributed environment should be done on the basis of job performance, not on the basis of status, work location and time spent at the office (Becker, 1997). Inherent in the concept of teleworking is a notion of trust. The teleworker must be capable of self-motivation to the degree of independent work to mutually agreed deadlines. The interpretation and understanding of the nature of individual work-tasks and their inter-relationship with the work of others is vital for self motivation and effective teamwork. The European Commission (1998) in their status report on European Telework, advocate a responsible workforce where the individual takes the responsibility for working independently but co-operatively in physical and networked contexts. They identify a number of essential skills for successful teleworkers such as professional competencies, knowledge of IT, common sense, organisational and work-management skills, planning, knowledge of human relationships and team working skills. The emphasis of "human relations and team working skills" is a progression from isolated telework to telecooperation.
From Telework to Tele-Cooperate In as much as work constitutes an activity performed by individuals interacting within groups or teams, socialisation becomes essential for teamwork spirit, teamwork motivation and effective performance. Team-based socialisation processes can be achieved with a spatially distributed workforce through an CIT support infrastructure that extends beyond than the mere provision of telephones, modems and computers into networked tools that facilitate social interaction and lead to tele-cooperation. Tele-cooperation occurs when groups of spatiallydistant people interconnect on a work related common task, within a specific time frame, to share ideas, information, exchange documents, coauthor documents etc. and are supported in their workgroup activities by computer-supported cooperative work tools. Generically these tools are known as groupware. Groupware tools came of age with the availability of local and wide area networks on desktop computers, facilitating the move from working alone to working together within a network distributed environment. There are several groupware applications on the market like Lotus Notes, GroupSystemsV, Collabra and many VINE 109 — 31
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others. It is outside of the scope of this paper to review these applications but the Central Computing Telecommunications Agency web-site available at http://www.ccta.gov.uk presents a jargon-free software review. Similarly Davenport and McKim (1995) review organisational research on groupware applications. The Usability First web-site available at http://www.usabilityfirst.com has extensive resource links on groupware applications and case studies. This issue of Vine contains two articles on information service specific applications of groupware. Groupware is subdivided into a) applications that allow members of the team to work together in real time or at different times and, b) applications that allow members of a team to work together in the same place or at a distance. They encompass email distribution lists or newsgroups, web pages that can be turned into electronic "whiteboards" to facilitate co-authoring texts or graphics, group scheduling via diaries and work-flow processing systems which structure and co-ordinate the activities of the group by requiring processes to be executed correctly and within certain time limits. Groupware tools facilitate the management of communication and staff supervision through the provision of communal team-work space for gathering, creating, presenting and viewing information. They offer a technological solution to the communication and supervisory problems of isolated teleworking. Conventional management of teams emphasises the importance of physical proximity of members to develop team spirit, share goals and objectives, remain motivated and integrate activities (Tampoe, 1993). Physical proximity can be emulated via groupware thereby reducing communication management problems and supervisory problems. However technological "solutions" are rarely solutions in their own right; computers, i.e. hardware and software, are just tools (Flores, 1997) which can help overcome communication problems but their use will not create instant cooperative teams. Skyrme (1995) aptly mentions that, "you can't just install a product like Lotus Notes and hope it changes the way you work". It is the role of gifted managers and team leaders to create effective co-operative teams. Tampoe (1993) describes the managerial role of distributed teams in terms of team dynamics, namely, succesful leadership of distributed teams involves management of five processes: orientation (members get acquainted), internal problem solving 32 — VINE 109
(balancing personality and needs), growth and productivity (getting comfortable with the group, trusting the members and becoming productive) evaluation and control (checking for problems or deviation from agreed procedures schedules etc.) maturity and dysfunction (achieving goals and dissolution). He suggests that these processes can be managed through effective communication skills and "pre-determined bonding events". Groupware can facilitate these activities.
Conclusions The purpose of this paper was to present some of the research on the reasons for the relatively slow up-take of teleworking from a managerial perspective. The lack of clear definitions on the concept of teleworking has made the planning of a corporate policy for teleworking a sensitive issue in terms of employment legislation and has implications for trade-union and management relations. Early definitions of teleworking portrayed the activity as isolationist and difficult to supervise and manage and this impacted badly on middle management attitudes towards telework in general. This early perception of teleworking is now being replaced with a team-related approach to teleworking where a distributed workforce is bound together in teams through the use of an CIT infrastructure that facilitates groupware. This allows for a transformation of the isolated teleworker into a member of a tele-cooperative team. Tele-cooperative teams are a new organisation of work and their development constitutes an important strategic decision for corporations as they strive to reduce infrastructure costs, maximize flexibility in employment practice and in general face the challenges of globalisation.
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Teleprompt.(1998). Available at: http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/telep/telework/ttrfolder/ tittfolder/tete.htm Contact details Dr. V. Cano and C. Hatar, Queen Margaret College, Edinburgh, EH 12 8TS, Scotland, UK A. Zapatero, Comunidad de Madrid, Conserjeria del Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain
