European Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 1450-2267 Vol.26 No.3 (2011), pp. 429-438 © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2011 http://www.europeanjournalofsocialsciences.com
The Development of Constructivist Learning Environments Model Enhancing Cognitive Flexibility for Higher Education Kwanjai Deejring Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Technology, Faulty of Education Khon Kaen University, Thailand E-mail:
[email protected] Sumalee Chaijaroen Assoc.Prof. Department of Educational Technology, Faulty of Education Khon Kaen University, Thailand E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract The purpose of this research is to design and develop the constructivist learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility for higher education. The target group consists of 5 experts, 6 lecturers teaching in computer education and 20 second year students studying in Computer Education field in Faculty of Science and technology at Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University. The developmental research phase I (Richey and Klein, 2007): model development is employed in this study. Several methods used in this phase are as follows. 1) Examining and analyzing the principles and theories. 2) Exploring the instructional context concerning about instructional design and learning environments. 3) Synthesizing a framework of the constructivist web-based learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility. 4) Designing and developing the constructivist web-based learning environments based on the mentioned framework. 5) Evaluating the efficiency of the constructivist web-based learning environments model. The results are revealed as follows. Firstly, the constructivist web-based learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility for higher education learning consists of 8 components that are: (1) Problem base (2) Resources (3) Related cases (4) Scaffoldings (5) Cognitive flexibility enhancing room (6) Expert clinic (7) Chat room and web board for collaborative learning and (8) Cognitive tools. Secondly, the efficiency of this model evaluated by expert review shows that the model is appropriate to 3 aspects: content, design and media.
Keywords: Instructional design, Constructivism, Cognitive flexibility, Authentic learning, Cognitive process, Collaborative learning
1. Introduction We now live in an increasingly diverse, globalized, and complex media-saturated society. Our students are facing multiple problems in workplace. We are charged with preparing our students for life in the world. One theory that can guide the design of instruction is cognitive flexibility theory. This theory suggests that it is not a problem when the information being presented is well-structured and simple. Often, however, as the difficulty of the material increases so does the ill-structuredness. When the knowledge domain to be taught is complex and ill-structured data, the use of traditional linear 429
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) instruction may be ineffective (Spiro and Jehng, 1990; Spiro, Feltovich et al., 1992). Cognitive Flexibility Theory is one of the design theories derived from the constructivist theory of learning and instruction that attempts to remedy the problems associated with advanced knowledge acquisition, i.e. learning beyond the initial stage of a subject area. It is the advanced stages of knowledge acquisition that students have more difficulties in acquiring and transferring knowledge due to its complexity and irregularity. According to constructivist learning theory, a variety of experiences and multiple perspectives should be provided to learners in order to develop their personal cognitive structures (Chaijaroen, 2005). Today, the field of instructional design is a paradigm shift. Several educators advocate the learner-centered approach in education, currently, focused on construction of knowledge which is favored in educational settings rather than the transmission of knowledge (Chaijaroen, Khanjak et al., 2008). This is consistent with the National Education Act 1999 and Amendment Act (No. 2) 2002 which states that the education will be based on the principle that all learners are capable of learning and developing themselves and the students are considered as the most important. The learning process must focus on skills of thinking process to face the situation and to apply knowledge used to prevent and solve problems. The thirst for knowledge and the continuing education and technology in pursuit of knowledge at your own pace continue throughout life. Moreover, pursuing an ongoing technology for education in the pursuit of self continues throughout life (Council, 2002). Thus we have to prepare the students for intellectual flexibility to solve the problem to the situation. According to the context, it is a responsive and consistent with this policy. Learning environments that helps students develop the characteristics that meet or exceed the learning and constructing knowledge by themselves are consistent with the constructivist theory and the cognitive flexibility theory, the theory of intellectual flexibility. Knowledge representation generated by students learning are mental representation that is similar to the mental models which has information about the mission to resolve the problem quickly. Students have the opportunity to interact with friends and teachers to discuss and reflect on the experience gained from learning. The exchange of knowledge helps the students learning. Encouraging the students builds their knowledge and the concept (Driscoll, 2000). Learning environments based on constructivism can construct knowledge more than lecturing. Straightforwardly, according to the cognitive flexibility theory, linear instruction in the form of tutorials, lectures, and many other formats will fail to accomplish important educational objectives in part because of oversimplification of the material presented. This oversimplification results in the inability to transfer knowledge across to new and varied domains (Spiro, Feltovich et al., 1992). The cognitive flexibility theory based on constructivism states the above. The characteristics of media and media symbol system to meet construction of knowledge by themselves and the use of the media on a network have the features of a hyperlink, hypertext and hypermedia. Thus the media symbol system is influencing in students’ cognitive process while they are learning (Kozma, 1991; Chaijaroen, 2005). The subject of 410201 System analysis and design will concentrate on designing the context diagram and data flow diagram. Therefore students have to study theory and practice to analyze and design several different systems that exist in the real world. Student centered learning in complex subjects requires the application of a sophisticated theory of cognition to support course design. Supporting cognitive flexibility requires a flexible the learning environments. Information must be presented in a variety of ways, as well as for a variety of different purposes. Flexible instructional methods help students learn the contours and complexity of the material that they are studying, and it helps them work with that content from several different perspectives (Spiro, Feltovich et al., 1992). In addition, in the computer education field, students will confront with multiple problems in analyzing and designing information systems while they practice professional experience at workplace; thus students should be encouraged to prepare themselves. Intellectual flexibility helps students to solve problems and apply a case study to solve the similar problem. Reasons mentioned above, the researcher realized the need to study and develop constructivist learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility, based on the theoretical framework and 430
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) various researches. The model encourages students to construct knowledge and enhance cognitive flexibility transferred to other problem situations. This will be useful for effective learning as well as the professional in the Computer education field. Thus, the purpose of this research is to design and develop the Constructivist Learning Environments Model Enhancing Cognitive Flexibility.
2. Scope of the Research 2.1. Target Group The target group used in Phase 1: model development consists of samples as follows: (1) 5 experts to evaluate content, media and assessment (2) 6 lecturers from Computer Education Department (3) 20 students of computer education field who study in System Analysis and Design subject at Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University. 2.2. Scope of Content In particular, the content used in this study is a part of the subject of 410201 System analysis and design. The topics of the content are context diagram and data flow diagram. 2.3. Research Variable Research variable studied in this work is Constructivist Learning Environments Model Enhancing Cognitive Flexibility based on Instructional Design theory.
3. Methodology The developmental research phase I (Richey and Klein, 2007): model development is used as research methodology consisting of the followings. 3.1. Instrument of Research The instrument of the research is as follows. 1. The opinionaire of instructional context in the course of 410201 System analysis and design is used to survey opinion of the lecturers and students about learning context used open-ended questions. The issue is related to education that promotes knowledge construction and cognitive flexibility to solve problems. 2. The document analysis record form consists of 3 aspects that are the constructivist theory, the cognitive flexibility theory and media theory. These aspects create the theoretical framework and designing framework to design and develop the Constructivist Learning Environments Model Enhancing Cognitive Flexibility. 3. The participant characteristic survey form includes the features of the following participants: designer, developer, lecturers and students which are based on development process of Richey and Klein (2007). 4. The effectiveness evaluation of learning environments’ Model, which is created by using the framework comprised of the principle of assessment in web-base learning (Khan and Vega, 1997), Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro and Jehng, 1990) and the principle of evaluation in learning environments using open-ended questions consisted of 3 major issues that are content, media on web and learning environments model and evaluation. 5. The performance evaluation of learning environments’ model, which enhances students’ cognitive flexibility for the experts in the terms of content, design, learning environments and evaluation. 6. The evaluation of cognitive flexibility using open-ended questions. 431
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) 7. The achievement tests are used for the students who learn in System analysis and design subject. 3.2. Data Collection The study was conducted to collect data as the following details. 1. Opinion survey in the context of learning about the condition of teaching and learning context. 2. The review of literatures and the analysis of document derived from opinion. 3. The synthesis of literatures and opinions to create a conceptual design. 4. The data collected by using a questionnaire for the following people: designer, developer, lecturers and students based on the development process of Richey and Klein (2007). 5. The data derived from the performance evaluation of the model enhancing students’ cognitive flexibility. 6. The data derived from the measurement of cognitive flexibility using open-ended questions. 7. The review of students’ opinion related to education to promote knowledge construction and cognitive flexibility to solve problems in the system analysis and design. 8. The achievement tests for students learning in System analysis and design subject. 3.3. Data Analysis The data is analyzed as follows. 1. Acquisition of the theoretical framework by using data analysis to describe and summarize analytical interpretation derived from information about principles, various theories related to the research and document analysis. 2. Acquisition of the contextual conditions on learning and teaching of students by using descriptive analytical and summary interpretation. The data was derived from the opinionaire about education. 3. Designing framework acquisition by using data analysis to describe and summarize analytical interpretation from the data recorded in the document synthesis record form. 4. Expert assessments about the model design of learning environments on the network using data analysis by summarizing interpretation based on information from the learning environments assessment. The expert assessments include learning content, media and design. 5. Characteristics of participants in the model design and development including: designer, developer, lecturer and students analyzed by summarizing interpretation.
4. Results The results of this study, the developmental research phase I, to design and develop the constructivist web-based learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility are as follows. 4.1. Synthesis of Theoretical Framework The basic theoretical framework consists of importance five major theories as follows. (1) The basic psychology of learning, including constructivist theory and cognitive theory. (2) Pedagogy focusing on learning environments designed along constructivist theory and cognitive flexibility theory. (3) The fundamental in media symbol system. (4) Web-based learning technology. (5) The contextual principles such as graduate desirable features, guidelines for teaching, and the essence of the analysis and design courses.
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European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) 4.2. The Study of Context The study of context found the ccondition of Computer education program as follows. The learning experience of students will emphasize on lectures which the students will write down the contents. The lecturers show slides of presentation with content. Students are divided into small groups to present reports in front of the class. The students' experience in the computer had to learn with various software programs including Microsoft office and search on the Internet. However, using various social networking applications is not at all in learning. Furthermore, the students have no experience of problem-based learning and the students have no experience in the constructivist learning environments, with the tasks of learning to support the students to solve problems. It also found that students are not learning experience with activities that promote cognitive flexibility. 4.3. The Synthesis of the Design Models’ Concept The synthesis of theory, philosophy, pedagogy, psychology of learning, cognitive flexibility theory, media symbol system and technology lead to fundamental for design this models as the following. 1. The cognitive conflict, to activate cognitive structure, including the situation in problem analysis and design of various systems based on the basic framework of Jonassen (Jonassen, 2004) and cognitive flexibility theory of Spiro & Jehng (1990), help to design and present problems in the real world context. These encourage students to solve problems and prepare themselves when they encounter various problems at workplaces, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Framework designed to activate cognitive structure Real world problems
The cognitive conflict
Contextualize problems
Problems
Authentic problems
2. The supporting cognitive equilibrium consists of the components as follows. (1) Resources are based on the design principles for multimedia presentations (Mayer, 2005) by organizing information. Information processing of the students uses animation, visual and audio to get more effectiveness than lecture does. (2) For collaboration, students are divided into small groups to solve the problem, based on concept of Honebein (Honebein, 1998) and Palloff (Palloff and Pratt, 2005) to allow students to interact with each other and provide the opportunity to articulate for multiple perspectives as well as discuss with teachers and experts. These can avoid misunderstanding or misconception as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: Framework designed for supporting cognitive equilibrium
Supporting cognitive equilibrium
Accommodation
Assimilation
Resource
Cognitive tools
3. Enhancing cognitive flexibility is based on the concept of Spiro (Spiro, Feltovich et al., 1991) that promotes students’ cognitive flexibility consisting of the followings. (1) The students will use prior knowledge by retrieving or recalling prior knowledge. This process is called the 433
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) knowledge selection. (2) The students will decompose the knowledge in terms of schemas and case studies. This process is called the knowledge deconstruction. (3) The students will link and combine the sub knowledge to apply or transfer to new situations. Sometimes they need to change the combination of knowledge again before applying the new combination of knowledge to new situations. This process is called the adapted knowledge reconstruction, as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3: Framework designed to enhancing cognitive flexibility Knowledge selection Cognitive Flexibility Room
Enhancing cognitive flexibility
Knowledge deconstruction Authentic task
Adapted knowledge reconstruction
4. To promote and assist the students who are under the zone of proximal development based on Social constructivist theory of Vygotsky (1978), the components of supporting knowledge construction and cognitive flexibility are as follows. (1) Related cases. (2) Scaffolding consisting of Metacognitive Scaffolding, Strategic Scaffolding, Conceptual Scaffolding and Procedural Scaffolding. (3) Coaching. (4) System Analyst Community, as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4: Framework designed for supporting construct knowledge and cognitive flexibility Conceptual Scaffolding
Supporting in construct knowledge and cognitive flexibility
Procedural Scaffolding
Supporting cognitive Collaborative learning Multiple perspectives
Strategic Scaffolding Metacognitive Scaffolding
Chat Room Face-to-face Community
Effectiveness in practice
Coaching
4.4. The Instructional Design and Development of the Constructivist Web-Based Learning Environments Model Enhancing Cognitive Flexibility The instructional design and development of the constructivist learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility comprises of Problem Situations, Related Cases, Scaffoldings, Resources, Room 434
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) for Enhancing Cognitive flexibility, Cognitive tools, System Analyst Community and Coaching as shown in Figures 5-12. Figure 5: Problem Situations
Figure 6: Related Cases
Figure 7: Scaffoldings
a) Metacognitive Scaffolding
b) Strategic Scaffolding
c) Conceptual Scaffolding
d) Procedural Scaffolding
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European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) Figure 8: Resource
Figure 9: Room for Enhancing Cognitive flexibility
Figure 10: Cognitive Tools
Figure 11: System Analyst Community
Figure 12: Coaching (Lecturers and Experts)
4.5. The Efficiency of the Constructivist Web-Based Learning Environments Model Examining the quality of the model through the various experts found the following issues. (1) The content is accurate and appropriate to the level of learning among students. In addition, the content looks interesting, up to date and timely today. As well as the content is subject to extensively study. The content is to clarify the concept of system analysis and design and students’ construction of knowledge. Language used in the content can communicate directly with the concept in learning. 436
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 26, Number 3 (2011) Moreover, the language is compact, hierarchical, easy to understand and suitable for the method or principle and theory used in the model of instructional design which is based on constructivism. The information in resources is extensive knowledge to solve problems that are relevant to situations. The content is presented in the interesting patterns, for example, the letters are highlighted in color, ordered to enhance the students’information processing so that the students can recognize them easier and contribute to better learning. (2) The media on network comes with navigation (Navigator) to help the students find information easily. The navigation structures are easy to access information, stable and user-friendly to use. (3) The design of learning environments is exactly consistent with the principles and theories used as fundamental for design. Overall, the model is appropriate to enhance the learners’ cognitive flexibility.
5. Summary and Concluding Remarks The constructivist web-based learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility for higher education consists of 8 components that are (1) Problem Situations, (2) Related Cases, (3) Scaffoldings, (4) Resources, (5) Room for Enhancing Cognitive flexibility, (6) System Analyst Community (7) Cognitive tools and (8) Coaching. This is consistent with (Wattanachai, Zamart et al., 2005; Kanjug, 2009; Zamart, 2009). The result of this study is the design of elements in the learning environments that enhances cognitive flexibility of students. There is a theoretical basis, as following. (1) The basic psychology of learning, including constructivist theory and cognitive theory. (2) Pedagogy focusing on learning environments designed according to constructivist theory and cognitive flexibility theory. (3) The media symbol system. (4) Web-based learning technology. (5) The contextual principles such as graduate desirable features, guidelines for teaching, and the essence of the analysis and design courses. The experts who evaluate this model found that the content of the model is accurate, right up to date timely. Design and media can encourage students to construct knowledge and enhance cognitive flexibility. This is because the design has been designed based on a theoretical basis (Instructional Design theory). This theory is lead to the practice. To construct the knowledge based on constructivist theory, a problem situation will be used to activate students to be disequilibrium in concept. This will encourage students to solve problem leading to equilibrium in the concept. The room for enhancing cognitive flexibility will allow students to select knowledge, deconstruct knowledge and reconstruct adapted knowledge. This causes the students apply the adapted knowledge to new situations. The new finding in this research is that the learning environments can enhance students' cognitive flexibility.
6. Acknowledgement This work was supported by the Higher Education Research Promotion and National Research University Project of Thailand, Office of the Higher Education Commission, through the Cluster of Research to Enhance the Quality of Basic Education.
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