over the course of psychotherapy (Rickels et al., 1971) and is used most often to provide a summary measure of symptomatology. (Derogatis et al., 1974).
Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0022-0167/98/S3.00
Journal of Counseling Psychology 1998, Vol. 45, No. 3, 235-246
The Differentiation of Self Inventory: Development and Initial Validation Elizabeth A. Skowron and Myrna L. Friedlander University at Albany, State University of New York Despite the importance of Bowen theory (M.Bowen, 1976,1978; M. E. Kerr&Bowen, 1988) in the field of family therapy, there have been relatively few studies to date examining its constructs or propositions. To fill this gap, a self-report instrument, the Differentiation of Self Inventory (DSI) has been developed. The DSI is a multidimensional measure of differentiation that focuses specifically on adults (age 25+), their significant relationships, and current relations with family of origin. Six-hundred and nine adults participated in a series of 3 studies, in which DSI scores—reflecting less emotional reactivity, cutoff, and fusion with others, and a greater ability to take an "I position"—predicted lower chronic anxiety, better psychological adjustment, and greater marital satisfaction. Other results consistent with Bowen theory are discussed, along with the potential contribution of the DSI for testing Bowen theory, as a clinical assessment tool, and as an indicator of psychotherapeutic outcome.
Bowen theory (Bowen, 1976, 1978) is regarded as one of the few comprehensive explanations of psychological development from a systemic and multigenerational perspective (Gurman, 1991; Nichols & Schwartz, 1998). Indeed, Bowen theory provides a foundation for the field of family therapy that renders it distinct from the multitude of theoretical approaches to individual psychotherapy. At present, many of Bowen's (1976, 1978) concepts (e.g., differentiation of self, interlocking triangles, or reactive emotional distancing) pervade the family systems literature. Despite the vast attention Bowen theory has received from clinicians and theorists alike, there have been, to date, few programmatic attempts to test its validity with respect to personality functioning or quality of interpersonal relations or to changes as a result of psychotherapy. To begin filling this notable gap, we developed the Differentiation of Self Inventory, a self-report instrument for adults (ages 25+). In this article, we present psychometric support for the measure, validation studies to date, and implications for theory, research, and practice. Of the various constructs that compose Bowen theory, differentiation of self is the personality variable most critical to mature development and the attainment of psychological
health. Differentiation of self is defined as the degree to which one is able to balance (a) emotional and intellectual functioning and (b) intimacy and autonomy in relationships (Bowen, 1978). On an intrapsychic level, differentiation refers to the ability to distinguish thoughts from feelings and to choose between being guided by one's intellect or one's emotions (Bowen, 1976, 1978). Greater differentiation allows one to experience strong affect or shift to calm, logical reasoning when circumstances dictate. Flexible, adaptable, and better able to cope with stress, more differentiated individuals operate equally well on both emotional and rational levels while maintaining a measure of autonomy within their intimate relationships. In contrast, poorly differentiated persons tend to be more emotionally reactive (Kerr & Bowen, 1988, p. 320), finding it difficult to remain calm in response to the emotionality of others. With intellect and emotions fused, they tend to make decisions on the basis of what "feels right"; in short, they are trapped in an emotional world (Bowen, 1976; Kerr, 1985). On an interpersonal level, differentiation of self refers to the ability to experience intimacy with and independence from others. More differentiated persons are capable of taking an / Position in relationships: maintaining a clearly defined sense of self and thoughtfully adhering to personal convictions when pressured by others to do otherwise (Bowen, 1978, p. 252). Differentiation allows for flexible boundaries that permit emotional intimacy and physical union with another without a fear of merger (Bowen, 1978; Kerr, 1988). When overwhelmed by emotionality in their family relationships, poorly differentiated individuals tend to engage infusion or emotional cutoff (Ken & Bowen, 1988). According to Bowen theory, highly fused individuals remain emotionally "stuck" in the position they occupied in their families of origin, have few firmly held convictions and beliefs, are either dogmatic or compliant, and seek acceptance and approval above all other goals (Bowen, 1976,
Elizabeth A. Skowron and Myrna L. Friedlander, Department of Counseling Psychology, University at Albany, State University of New York. Portions of this research, based on a doctoral dissertation by Elizabeth A. Skowron under the direction of Myrna L, Friedlander, were presented at the 100th and 103rd Annual Conventions of the American Psychological Association. We gratefully acknowledge the valuable comments and suggestions of Richard F. Haase, Michael P. Nichols, Robert Noone, Collie Connelly, Barbara White, and Douglas Rait. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth A. Skowron, who is now at the Department of Educational Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201-0413. Electronic mail may be sent to eskowron® soe.uwm.edu. 235
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1978). Emotional cutoff is personified by the reactive emotional distancer, who appears aloof and isolated from others, tends to deny the importance of family, often boasts of his or her emancipation from parents, and displays an exaggerated facade of independence (Nichols & Schwartz, 1998). Whereas the fused person tends to experience separation as overwhelming, the emotionally cutoff person finds intimacy profoundly threatening. Yet both individuals are poorly differentiated, basing self-esteem largely on the approval of others and generally conforming to those around them. Theoretically, one's level of differentiation has a number of important consequences for an individual. Foremost, Bowen (1978) proposed that less differentiated individuals experience greater chronic anxiety: "The average level of chronic anxiety of a person and of a . . . family parallels the basic level of differentiation of that individual and family [and] the lower the level of basic differentiation, the higher the average level of chronic anxiety" (Ken" & Bowen, 1988, p. 115). According to Bowen (1976, 1978; Kerr & Bowen, 1988), less differentiated individuals also become dysfunctional under stress more easily and thus suffer more psychological and physical symptoms (e.g., anxiety, somatization, depression, alcoholism, and psychoticism). Conversely, highly differentiated individuals are thought to demonstrate better psychological adjustment. Some evidence has emerged in support of these notions. Greene, Hamilton, and Rolling (1986) discovered that inpatient and outpatient participants, regardless of diagnosis, reported significantly lower levels of differentiation than did those in a nonclinical control group. Likewise, adults who report less fusion in their significant relationships have been shown to experience fewer self-reported health problems (Bray, Harvey, & Williamson, 1987). More highly differentiated individuals are also expected to remain in satisfying contact with their families of origin, establish more satisfying marriages, and be effective problem solvers (Bowen, 1976, 1978). At present, only indirect support exists for the theoretical link between differentiation and marital satisfaction. Jacobson and his colleagues (Jacobson, Follette, & McDonald, 1982; Jacobson, Waldron, & Moore, 1980) found that behavioral reactivity, defined as the tendency for spouses to react at the affective level to some immediate stimulus from the partner, was associated with marital distress. Couples who reported greater marital satisfaction showed less emotional reactivity in their exchanges, whereas interactions of distressed couples were characterized by heightened emotional reactivity to immediate positive and negative events in their relationships (Jacobson, Follette, & McDonald, 1982; Jacobson, Waldron, & Moore, 1980). Harvey, Curry, and Bray (1991) observed that greater fusion and less intimacy with one's parents predicted deficits in intimacy and greater emotional reactivity with one's spouse. Concern has been expressed about the paucity of empirical research on the basic principles or constructs in Bowen theory (Gurman, 1978,1991). If Bowen theory is to continue to contribute significantly to the field, empirical means are needed to test (and potentially modify) its basic assump-
tions. Thus, we undertook development of the Differentiation of Self Inventory (DSI) to create a self-report instrument for adults, age 25+, capable of (a) testing theoretical assumptions, (b) assessing individual differences in adult functioning, and (c) evaluating psychotherapeutic outcomes from a systemic perspective. By defining adulthood with a lower limit of 25 years of age, we sought to ensure that the samples obtained consisted of those individuals who, from a family life cycle perspective (Carter & McGoldrick, 1988), could be considered adults (i.e., postcollege or working, living apart from the parental home, and largely financially independent). To adequately measure differentiation, we included both the intrapsychic and interpersonal components, that is, the thinking-feeling and separateness-togetherness dimensions. Historically, transgenerational theorists (e.g., BoszormenyiNagy & Ulrich, 1981; Framo, 1992) have described individual and family functioning solely in terms of interpersonal and intergenerational family processes. Self-report instruments developed within this tradition include Kear's (1978) Differentiation of Self Scale, the Emotional Cutoff Scale (McCollum, 1991), the Family-of-Origin Scale (Hovestadt, Anderson, Piercy, Cochran, & Fine, 1985), and the Personal Authority in the Family System Questionnaire (Bray, Williamson, & Malone, 1984). Although each represents an important contribution to the field, none attempts to operationalize the range of interpersonal components of differentiation (i.e., fusion to emotional cutoff), and none focuses on the intrapsychic aspects of differentiation (see Bowen, 1978; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). For example, Kear's (1978) Differentiation of Self Scale consists of three factors: Separation of Thinking and Feeling, Emotional Maturity, and Emotional Autonomy; yet items reflect only interpersonal components of differentiation and ignore quality of relations with spouse or partner. The Differentiation of Self Scale suffers also from significant methodological limitations. For instance, a factor analysis used to create its subscales was conducted on 72 initial items using only 50 participants (see Nunnally, 1978). McCollum's (1986, 1991) Emotional Cutoff Scale is an excellent measure of the degree to which respondents manage their emotional attachment to each parent through cutoff. Yet its limited focus on relations with parents ignores the presence of emotional cutoff in current significant relationships as well as other aspects of differentiation. To respond to the Family of Origin Scale (Hovestadt et al., 1985), adults provide retrospective perceptions of their family of origin relations, whereas adolescents are asked to give their current perceptions of relations with family (e.g., Niedermeier, Handal, Brown, Searight, & Manley, 1992). The retrospective ratings emphasize the past and ignore the respondent's current relations with family members. And although the Personal Authority in the Family System Questionnaire (Bray et al., 1984) includes items about current relationships, it neglects the concept of emotional cutoff as well as the intrapsychic aspects of Bowen's (1976, 1978) concept of differentiation. There also exist several self-report measures of separationindividuation based on object relations theory (e.g., Hoff-
DIFFERENTIATION OF SELF
man, 1984; Levine, Green, & Millon, 1986; Olver, Aries, & Batgos, 1990). These separation-individuation measures were designed for use with late adolescents rather than adults, and none contain items that deal with marital relations or that reflect problems in achieving a balance between intimacy and autonomy. The concept of differentiation, as defined by Bowen (1976, 1978), is often misinterpreted in the family therapy literature and equated with individuation or autonomy. Although similar in some respects, separation-individuation is not equivalent to differentiation of self. Individuation, from an object relations perspective (e.g., Bios, 1975; Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975), involves the achievement of independence and a unique sense of identity. Differentiation of self is the capacity to maintain autonomous thinking and achieve a clear, coherent sense of self in the context of emotional relationships with important others. To create the DSI, a series of studies was undertaken based on three different samples. The purpose of these studies was to develop and validate the DSI using a construct approach to test construction (e.g., Jackson, 1970; Jackson & Messick, 1958; Loevinger, 1957; NunnalLy, 1978). Jackson's recommendations for personality scale development were used to construct items that would adequately reflect the domain (i.e., differentiation of self), be clear and unambiguous, be relatively free of social desirability bias and other content biases, have high discriminatory power, and, as a set, sufficiently represent the underlying construct of differentiation (Jackson, 1970). Study 1 The purpose of this study was to create the DSI. First, definitions, descriptions, and examples from Bowen (1976, 1978; Anonymous, 1972) and his successors (Kerr, 1985; Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Nichols, 1984; Nichols & Schwartz, 1998; Papero, 1990) were used to generate a pool of items that exemplify differentiation of self. Items (N = 96) generated by our research team reflected the ability to distinguish and balance (a) thinking and feeling and (b) the capacity for intimacy with and autonomy from others in current important relationships as well as with parents and siblings. Differentiation was operationalized in a multidimensional fashion, given that Bowen (1976, 1978) described many components of differentiation in his writings. Further, Gurman (1978) argued that differentiation, like any complex psychological construct, is inherently multidimensional. We used a principal-components analysis to identify the DSFs dimensionality and determine final item selection. Theoretical relations between differentiation and chronic anxiety were tested to assess the initial construct validity of the DSI (i.e., Bowen's proposition that poorly differentiated individuals also experience more chronic anxiety).
Method Participants. Participants were adults (A^ =313) living in New York, Ohio, and California, including (a) randomly selected faculty and staff at a large state university, (b) parents of children on
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a suburban athletic team, (c) graduate students in counseling psychology, clinical psychology, and social work, and (d) available friends and acquaintances of research team members. Completed questionnaires were returned by 213 women and 98 men (2 gender unspecified), 75% of whom were married, 49% with children. On average, participants were 36.8 years of age (SD = 9.69, range = 25-65). In terms of ethnicity, 5.1% of the sample were African American, 4.5% Asian American, 2.2% Latino-Latina, 1.9% Native American, 82.7% White, and 3.2% other. Instruments. Participants completed the 96-item DSI described above. The Trait version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) is a wellestablished 20-item self-report measure of relatively stable individual differences in anxiety proneness. Internal consistency estimates for the STATT-T have ranged from .86 to .92, and a test-retest reliability correlation over a 3-month interval was reported to be .75. In contrast to large changes in STAI-State scores produced by stress conditions, STAI-T scores of chronic anxiety remain stable and unaffected by experimentally induced stresses (Spielberger et al., 1970). Procedure. We contacted participants by form letter and asked them to take part in a research project that focused on adults' interpersonal relationships and their relationships with their families of origin. Questionnaire packets consisted of the DSI, a demographic sheet, and the STAI-T. Each packet included a cover letter stating the purpose of the study and explaining the voluntary and anonymous nature of the research. Postage-paid envelopes were provided.
Results and Discussion Subscales were developed on the basis of the responses of 313 adults. A principal-components analysis was conducted using an orthogonal rotation. We used a principal-components analysis because we were interested in identifying a few coherent dimensions that best reflected the various aspects of the differentiation. Bowen's theory has many constructs that are not mutually exclusive but that relate to differentiation of self. To have created subscales based solely on our own biases as to the relative importance of these theoretical constructs seemed less rigorous (cf. Jackson, 1970) than allowing the respondents' ratings to help determine the salient dimensions of the measure. Thus, although we created an initial pool of 96 items representative of the substantive domain of differentiation, the final basis of item selection was empirical. Four factors were identified with eigenvalues greater than 3.0, ranging from 11.43 to 3.34. Results of Cattail's scree plot of the factor variances showed a substantial break after four factors; these four factors accounted for 26.2% of the variance. To interpret the factors and construct scales, we considered only those items loading at least .40 on a single factor (n = 43). The following factors were identified: Factor 1, with 12 items, was defined as Emotional Reactivity; Factor 2, with 10 items, was defined as taking an I Position; Factor 3, with 13 items, was defined as Reactive Distancing; and Factor 4, with 9 items, was defined as Fusion With Parents, (A table listing items and their factor loadings is available from Elizabeth A. Skowron.) We conducted subsequent analyses, using the four subscale scores and a total DSI score. Scores were reversed on the items constituting Emotional Reactivity, Reactive
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Distancing, and Fusion With Parents subscales to signify less differentiation; thus, higher scores on each subscale reflected greater levels of differentiation. To compute the DSI full scale, all 44 items were summed so that higher scores reflected greater differentiation of self. Internal consistency estimates using Cronbach's alpha suggested high reliabilities for the DSI total scale and each of the four subscales: DSI = .88; Emotional Reactivity = .83; Reactive Distancing = .80; Fusion With Parents = .82; and I Position = .80. Subscale correlations with the DSI full scale were moderate to high: .59 (Fusion With Parents), .65 (I Position), .75 (Reactive Distancing), and .80 (Emotional Reactivity). Correlations among the four subscales were small to moderate: .37 (Emotional Reactivity and I Position), .45 (Emotional Reactivity and Reactive Distancing), .31 (Emotional Reactivity and Fusion With Parents), .34 (I Position and Reactive Distancing), .17 (I Position and Fusion With Parents), and .18 (Reactive Distancing and Fusion With Parents). In support of the DSI's construct validity, level of differentiation, as measured by the DSI, correlated highly with a measure of chronic anxiety. DSI full-scale scores significantly predicted Trait Anxiety, measured by the STAI-T (r = .64, p < .0001). Correlations between Trait Anxiety and the four subscales ranged from .16 (p < .01, Fusion With Parents) to .51 (I Position), .55 (Reactive Distancing), and .58 (Emotional Reactivity), all remaining ps < .0001. Study 2 The purpose of Study 2 was to revise the theoretical focus and item content of the original DSI because of the considerable amount of variance left unaccounted for in the previous factor analysis. In this study, the DSI subscales underwent conceptual revisions, and its psychometric properties were strengthened on the basis of item analyses and a critical examination of social desirability bias. Once again, a construct approach to personality scale construction (e.g., Cronbach & Meehl, 1955; Jackson, 1970; Jackson & Messick, 1958; Loevinger, 1957; Nunnally, 1978) was used. The factor structure of the original DSI was retained in the present revision. First, the four or five items with the highest item-total correlations within each subscale were identified. The content of these items guided our decisions about retaining or modifying each subscale name or definition. The Emotional Reactivity and I Position subscales appeared to best represent the constructs as in the literature and thus underwent only modest revisions. Because the Reactive Distancing and Fusion With Parents subscales had emerged as conceptually weaker, we refined their conceptualizations and renamed them Emotional Cutoff and Fusion With Others, respectively. Revisiting definitions and descriptions of differentiation based on Bowen theory (Anonymous, 1972; Bowen, 1976, 1978; Kerr & Bowen, 1988), we generated a pool of 78 items, which was submitted along with subscale definitions to two experts on Bowen theory, who suggested the revision of some items and subscale definitions. Next, on the basis of the responses of a second adult sample, item analyses were
conducted to minimize social desirability bias and select the best items for each subscale. Descriptive statistics were computed, along with internal consistency reliabilities.
Method Participants, Adults (n = 169, 111 women and 58 men), age 25+, who were employed at a large northeastern state agency, took part in the research. Participants averaged 42.34 years of age (SD = 8.59). The majority were married (70.2%; M - 15.04 years), 13.7% were single, 6.3% were unmarried and living with a partner, and 9.5% were separated or divorced. In terms of ethnicity, 90.4% were White, 5.4% African American, 0.6% Asian American, 0.6% Latino-Latina, 0.6% Native American, and 2.4% other. Approximately 15% of participants were currentLy in therapy; 45% had sought therapy in the past. Instruments. The DSI used in Study 2 contained 78 items constituting four subscales: Emotional Reactivity, I Position, Emotional Cutoff, and Fusion With Others. To rate each item, respondents used a 6-point Likert-type scale, ranging from not at all true of me (1) to very true of me (6). Crowne and Marlowe's (1964) Social Desirability Scale (SDS), a 33-item true-false self-report measure, was used to estimate the tendency to describe oneself in favorable terms. Internal consistency reliability has been estimated at .88, with test-retest correlations at .88 and .89 (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960,1964; Robinson & Shaver, 1973). Procedure. Adults, age 25+, who were employed at a large northeastern state agency, took part in the research. Clustersampling procedures were used to randomly select 2 departments from a large northeastern state agency, out of 32 total from which to solicit participants. Three hundred potential participants were contacted by interagency mail. Each packet included a cover letter explaining the voluntary and anonymous nature of the research, the two counterbalanced questionnaires, and a demographic sheet. The study was described as "focusing on adults' interpersonal relationships, relationships with family members, and (their) general attitudes." Participants returned completed packets by mail in sealed envelopes. One hundred sixty-nine participants returned completed questionnaires, for a 56% return rate.
Results Item analyses. Statistical analyses were performed at the item level to discern the DSI's inherent factor and to ensure that each subscale was homogeneous and distinct from the other three subscales (Campbell & Fiske, 1959; Jackson, 1970). All items met a priori criteria for response distribution (i.e., items with skewness and kurtosis values between —1.5 and 1.5 and SDs >: 1 were retained). Thirtyfive items were eliminated due to low item-scale correlations (i.e., items with item-subscale correlations
