Internat. Jnl. for Educational and Vocational Guidance 1: 197–208, 2001. © 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
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The Implementation and Evaluation of Comprehensive School Guidance Programs in the United States: Progress and Prospects NORMAN C. GYSBERS∗ & RICHARD T. LAPAN Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, University of Missouri, 201 Student Success Center, Columbia, MO 65211, Missouri, U.S.A. (∗ author for correspondence, E-mail:
[email protected]) Received: January 2001; accepted in revised form: April 2001
Abstract. The evolution of guidance in the schools of the United States from a position to a service to a program is described. Then the prevailing structure for guidance, the comprehensive guidance program is presented. This section of the article provides a brief overview of the basic elements of the program. Finally, the article closes with discussion of guidance program evaluation as well as presents the results of several studies that offer evidence of the impact of guidance programs. Résumé: La mise en œuvre et l’évaluation de programmes intégrés d’orientation scolaire aux Etats-Unis: progrès et perspectives. L’évolution est décrit de l’orientation dans les écoles aux Etats-Unis qui de l’exercice d’une profession est devenue un service et finalement un programme. Puis est présentée la structure mise en place pour l’orientation et l’orientation intégrée. Cette section de l’article constitue un bref survol des éléments de base du programme. L’article se conclut sur une discussion de l’évaluation du programme d’orientation en même temps qu’il présente les résultats de plusieurs études qui font la preuve de l’impact des programmes d’orientation. Zusammenfassung: Durchführung und Evaluation einer umfassenden Berufswahlbegleitung in den Schulen der USA: Entwicklungen und Ausblick. Die Entwicklung der Berufswahlbegleitung in den Schulen der USA von einem Entwurf über eine Dienstleistung hin zu einem Programm wird beschrieben. Anschließend wird die vorherrschende Struktur der Berufswahlbegleitung, das umfassende Berufswahlprogramm, vorgestellt. Ein Abschnitt des Artikels liefert einen kurzen Überblick über die grundlegenden Elemente des Programms. Der Artikel schließt mit Überlegungen zur Evaluation solcher Berufswahlbegleitungsprogramme ab und stellt die Ergebnisse einiger Studien dar, die die Wirkung solcher Programme belegen. Resumen: Aplicación y evaluación de programas comprensivos de orientación escolar en los estados unidos. Progreso y perspectiv. En este artículo se pone de manifiesto la evolución de la orientación en las escuelas de Estados Unidos desde un modelo de servicios a uno de programas. Después se presenta la estructura de los programas comprensivos de orientación. En esta sección se da una visión general de los elementos básicos del programa. Por último, se hace una reflexión sobre la evaluación de programas de orientación y se presentan los resultados de diversos estudios sobre el impacto de estos programas.
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School guidance in the United States “is in the period of renewal and revitalization, where theory and practice have evolved from traditional organizational models to the widespread implementation of developmental comprehensive guidance and counseling programs” (Sink & MacDonald, 1998, p. 89). How did guidance in the schools begin and then evolve to where it is today? How is guidance in the schools organised, practised, and evaluated currently and what is its future? In answering these questions we first briefly describe the evolution of guidance in the United States from a position to a service to a comprehensive program. Then we turn our attention to the present and describe the prevailing organisational structure for guidance in the schools, the comprehensive guidance program. Finally, we examine the current status of evaluation, present current evaluation results, and then, describe prospects for future evaluation work.
A position The implementation of guidance in the schools of the United States during the first two decades of the 20th century was accomplished by appointing teachers to the position of vocational counsellor, often with no relief from their teaching duties and with no additional pay (Ginn, 1924). They were given a list of duties to perform in addition to their regular teaching duties. No organisational structure for vocational guidance as it was called then other than a list of duties was provided.
A set of services One solution for the lack of structure for the guidance in the schools that emerged in the 1930s and continued in the 1940s and beyond was an organisational structure called pupil personnel work. What was pupil personnel work? According to Myers (1935), “pupil personnel work is a sort of handmaiden of organized education. It is concerned primarily with bringing the pupils of the community into the educational environment of the schools in such condition and under such circumstances as will enable them to obtain the maximum of the desired development” (p. 804). In his article, Myers (1935) listed eight activities he would include in pupil personnel work in schools and the personnel who would be involved including attendance officers, visiting teachers, school nurses, school physicians, as well as vocational counsellors. In his discussion of the activities involved in pupil personnel work and the personnel involved, he stated that
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“Probably no activity in the entire list suffers so much from lack of coordinated program as does guidance and especially the counseling part of it” (p. 807). In the decades of the 1950s and 1960s, guidance in the schools was being provided more and more by full-time personnel. Teacher-counsellors of previous years were being replaced by full-time school counsellors. The concept of pupil personnel work, now called pupil personnel services, continued to be the preferred organisational system. For school counsellors, the term “services” also was used to describe their work. Usually six services of guidance were identified. These six services were orientation, assessment, information, counselling, placement, and follow-up. One result of this organisational system for guidance was to continue to emphasise the position of counsellor, not a program of guidance. As a result, guidance often was seen as ancillary-support service in the eyes of many people.
The comprehensive guidance program Beginning in the 1970s, the concept of guidance as a program began to emerge. During this period the call came to reorient guidance from what had become an ancillary set of services delivered by a person in a position (school counsellor), to a comprehensive, developmental program. The call for reorientation came from diverse sources, including a renewed interest in vocational-career guidance (and its theoretical base, career development), a renewed interest in developmental guidance, concern about the efficacy of the prevailing approach to guidance in the schools, and the concern about accountability and evaluation. The comprehensive guidance program currently being used by many states and school districts in the United States consists of three elements; content, organisational framework, and resources (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000). The content element identifies competencies considered important for students to master as a result of their participation in a comprehensive guidance program. Competencies are usually organised by grade level (kindergarten through grade twelve) or grade level groupings (elementary, middle, and high school). They are often grouped by domains such as career, academic, and personal/social. The first section of the organisational framework contains three structural components (definition, rationale, assumptions). The program definition includes the mission statement of the guidance program and its centrality within a school district’s total educational program. The rationale discusses the importance of guidance as an equal partner in the educational system
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and provides reasons why students need to acquire the competencies that will accrue to them as a result of their involvement in a comprehensive guidance program. Finally, assumptions are the principles that shape and guide the program. They include statements regarding the contributions that school counsellors and guidance programs make to students’ development, the premises that undergird the comprehensiveness and the balanced nature of the program, and the relationship between the guidance program and the other educational programs. The second section of the organisational framework consists of the four program components including guidance curriculum, individual planning, responsive services, and system support. These four program components are the delivery system for all of the guidance and counselling activities provided to students and their parents. The guidance curriculum component contains structured activities kindergarten through grade twelve that provide all students with opportunities to master guidance competencies drawn from the content element of the program. The guidance curriculum typically consists of competencies (organised by domains) and structured activities presented systematically kindergarten through grade twelve. To accomplish the purposes of the individual planning component of the comprehensive guidance program, activities and procedures are provided to assist students in understanding and periodically monitoring their career, academic, and personal/social development. Students learn about their goals, values, abilities, aptitudes, and interests (competencies) so they can continue to progress educationally and occupationally. Individual planning focuses on assisting students, in close collaboration with parents, to develop, analyse, evaluate and carry out their educational, occupational, and personal goals and plans. Problems relating to academic learning, personal identity issues, drugs, and peer and family relationships are increasingly a part of the educational scene. Individual counselling, small group counselling, consultation, and referral are included as ongoing services of the responsive services component of the comprehensive guidance program. The responsive services component organises guidance techniques and methods to respond to individual concerns and needs; it is also supportive of the guidance curriculum and individual planning components. Although school counsellors have special training and possess skills to respond to students’ current needs and concerns, the co-operation and support of parents and the entire faculty are necessary for this component’s successful implementation. The administration and management of a comprehensive guidance program requires an ongoing support system. That is why system support
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is a major program component. Without continuing support, the other three components of the guidance program are ineffective. Research and development activities, school counsellor professional development, staff/community public relations, community outreach, and program management are examples of the many activities school counsellors are involved in to support the comprehensive guidance program as well as the other educational programs in schools. The third element of the comprehensive guidance program is resources. Three kinds are required; personnel resources, financial resources, and political resources. Personnel resources include school counsellors, teachers, administrators, parents, students, community members, and business and labour personnel. While school counsellors are the main providers of guidance activities and are the co-ordinators of the program, the involvement, cooperation, and support of teachers, administrators, parents, and community members is necessary for the program to be successful. In addition, for a guidance program to function effectively, adequate financial support is crucial. This means that there is a budget for the program to provide for materials and equipment. This also means that appropriate facilities are provided by the district to house the personnel of the program. Finally, the mobilisation of political resources is key to a successful guidance program. Full endorsement of the guidance program by school district policy makers as an official “program” or a “framework” of the district is one example of mobilising political resources. Another example is a clear and concise educational policy statement that highlights the integral and central nature of the comprehensive guidance program in the school district (Gysbers et al., 2000).
Evaluation Student outcomes Initial research evaluating relationships between guidance interventions and student development support the positive impact of implementing a comprehensive guidance program. Students have reported that they are meeting with school counsellors more frequently and that these interactions are important and meaningful to them (Hughey et al., 1993). Counsellors are reporting that as implementation of the comprehensive program proceeds they: (a) spend more time with students, parents, and teachers; (b) spend more time in classrooms; (c) promote greater public understanding of the aims and objectives of the program; and (d) spend less time on clerical tasks and fill-in roles (Gysbers et al., 1999). School guidance interventions have been positively linked to academic persistence and achievement, school attend-
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ance, and classroom behaviour (Borders & Drury, 1992). These findings have been replicated across special population groups, e.g., low-achieving students, disruptive students, learning-disabled students, gifted students, and students from divorced families (see Borders & Drury for a review). Two independent meta-analyses have both concluded that the integration of career development(guidance) interventions with academic subjects leads to consistent increases in student academic achievement across the K-12 years (Baker & Taylor, 1998; Evans & Burck, 1992). Lapan et al. (1993) evaluated the impact of an integrated guidance and language arts unit for high school juniors. A clear and positive relationship was found between mastery of comprehensive guidance student competencies and grades for the unit. Students were graded by language arts teachers on grammar and composition skills demonstrated in a term paper written by students. Results were replicated the following year on the next class of high school juniors. Similar results have been found across academic content domains (e.g., mathematics and language arts) and K-12 grade levels (e.g., Lee, 1993; and Gerler, 1992). Because of the strong support from state guidance leadership, several states in the US have been able to undertake state-wide efforts to begin to evaluate outcomes for students related to the more complete implementation of comprehensive guidance programs. For example, in Missouri and Utah research evaluating the effectiveness of state-wide implementation efforts have begun to suggest potential benefits for students. Utilising school accreditation data and hierarchical linear modelling analytic procedures (Bryk & Raudenbusch, 1992), Lapan et al. (1997) examined the impact of more fully implemented comprehensive programs for 22,964 students attending 236 Missouri high schools. Students in schools that had more fully implemented the Missouri Comprehensive Guidance Program (MCGP) reported: (a) earning higher grades; (b) that their education was better preparing them for their future; (c) that their school made more career and college information available to them; and (d) that their school had a more positive school climate. Lapan et al. (2001) used state-wide school accreditation data to examine the impact of more fully implemented programs for 7th graders (22,601 students attending 184 Missouri middle schools). In this study, the extent of implementation of the MCGP was assessed using teacher ratings (4,868 middle school teachers) of the degree to which counsellors in their schools performed the following tasks: (a) spent time in classrooms; (b) assisted students with personal concerns; (c) helped students with educational and career plans; (d) consulted with parents and staff; (e) provided individual and small group counselling; (f) referred students to community resources as needed; and (g) informed the school and community about the counselling
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program. Results indicated that 7th graders attending schools where counsellors were more likely to do these activities reported: (a) feeling safer at school; (b) having better relationships with teachers; (c) feeling that their education was relevant and important to their future; (d) being more satisfied with the quality of education in their school; (e) a better interpersonal climate between students; and (f) earning higher grades. It is important to note that the Educational Psychology literature has consistently found that students’ perceived relationships with teachers is a key predictor of both pro-social behaviour in school and higher academic achievement (e.g., Wentzel, 1999). Strikingly similar results have been found in the state of Utah (Utah State Office in Education, 2000). Since 1988, implementation of the Utah Comprehensive Guidance Program (UCGP) has been one of the major school restructuring efforts in the state of Utah. Over this time, more than 2,000 school counsellors, administrators, and teachers have received intensive inservice training in this model. Currently, nearly every middle, junior high, and high school in Utah has participated in this school reform initiative. With strong support from the Governor of Utah, the State Board of Education, and the Utah Parent-Teacher Organisation, the Utah State Legislature has provided funding for this initiative since 1993. In a very different geographic and demographic state, while conducting independent evaluation studies that used very different instruments and measurement methods, and having adapted and adjusted the comprehensive program concept to their state’s unique circumstances, evaluation results have corroborated and extended the findings from Missouri. Implementation of the UCGP has led to substantive changes in counsellor practice within schools and positive outcomes for students (Nelson & Gardner, 1998). School counsellors are now providing more career planning and advisement services to students. Counsellors, who have more fully implemented the UCGP, are more likely to elicit parent involvement in guidance program activities. These school counsellors are more likely to develop and carry out a guidance curriculum. Students, who attended Utah schools where these changes were more fully occurring, were found to: (a) be taking more advanced mathematics and science courses; (b) be taking more technical classes; and (c) have higher ACT scores in nearly every area of the test (Gardner et al., 1999). These students were more satisfied with the education they were receiving and thought that their guidance services were more effective than students in schools where the model had been less fully implemented. Additional studies found that the level of implementation of the UCGP was strongly related to pupil per counsellor ratio in each school (e.g., Kimball et al., 1995). These
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studies recommended that to attain the kind of student outcomes described above a ratio of 400 students per counsellor was needed. Concerns While initial evaluation results have been encouraging, concerns are being raised in relation to both the quality of program implementation efforts that are underway and the overall status of the research base supporting these changes. For example, Sink and MacDonald (1998) found that by 1997 nearly half of all the states in the US had abandoned a traditional school counselling model and were attempting to adopt a comprehensive program framework similar to that proposed by Gysbers and Henderson (2000). Unfortunately, implementation efforts to date across the United States have been markedly varied and problematic (MacDonald & Sink, 1999). These new programs have been criticised for a number of shortcomings including: (a) not adequately addressing ethnic and multi-cultural issues; (b) not integrating developmental theory into the guidance curriculum; and (c) for not striking a balance between prevention and remediation (MacDonald & Sink, 1999; and Paisley & DeAngelis, 1995). In addition, critical policy directives have not kept pace with these changes. For example, state school board associations’ policies for school counselling still overwhelmingly reflect the outmoded position orientation of the 1960s (Gysbers et al., 2000). The absence of a definitive empirical foundation to support program effectiveness limits the ability of state leaders and school counsellors to bring about systemic change. While the initial studies cited above are suggestive of positive outcomes for students, reviews of this research point to a “dearth of outcome studies” (p. 422) (Whiston & Sexton, 1998). For example, only 50 studies were published between 1988 and 1995 on school counselling outcome research (Whiston & Sexton, 1998). The authors argued that while many of these studies were individually strong, the breadth and scope of this work point out the need for a more programmatic approach to comprehensive guidance evaluation research. Most of this work has investigated the impact of responsive services (e.g., individual and group counselling interventions) as opposed to individual planning, guidance curriculum, or systems support (Whiston & Sexton, 1998). Future directions for program planning and evaluation research One central theme that connects earlier work to the present has been a longterm commitment to define the essential roles and duties of the school counsellor around activities that can be shown to bring about desired outcomes for students (Lapan & Kosciulek, 2001). Comprehensive guidance programs
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have been conceptualised as results-based systems that construct the essential work of the school counsellor around critical outcomes to be achieved by all students (e.g., American School Counselor Association, 1997; Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Herr & Cramer, 1972; Johnson & Johnson, 1982). For example, Rothney (1958) evaluated the impact for students of receiving counselling services over the five-year period following their graduation from high school. Across four different schools, he compared a random sample of students who received counselling services while in high school, to a control group of students who had not received such services. Rothney (1958) found that students who received counselling services while in high school: (a) had slightly higher high school academic records; (b) were more satisfied with their high school experiences; (c) were more consistent with their vocational choices and remained longer in their chosen areas after high school; (d) made more progress in their chosen areas of employment; (e) were more likely to enter post-secondary education and then graduate; (f) were more satisfied with their post-secondary education; (g) reported greater satisfaction with their lives five years out of high school; (h) participated in more self-improvement activities in the five years following high school graduation; and (i) expressed more positive attitudes about the counselling they received while in high school. When considering the conclusions that could be drawn from his study, Rothney (1958) suggested that: When so many small and a few large differences in the directions hypothesized by guidance workers can be obtained under representative high school counseling conditions, it seems likely that greater differences would appear if counseling were done under more ideal circumstances. Such circumstances would seem to require more acceptance of counseling as a regular part of secondary school experience, more enthusiastic support from parents and school personnel, and better techniques of evaluation (pp. 482–483). These insights are still very pertinent today. They reflect the current state of evaluation research in the United States and help to frame critical challenges for our field. Recently, Lapan (2001) has argued that the continued growth of the profession requires school counsellors to be actively and consistently engaged in reflective program planning and evaluation practices. To move forward, comprehensive programs must be creatively adapted to strengthen results for students and school environments. Lapan (2001) suggested that school counsellors need to consistently ask and re-conceptualise answers to fundamental questions such as:
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1. How can the essential work of the school counsellor (i.e., counsellor roles, duties, functions, and interventions) be improved to be of greater benefit for all students? 2. How can school counsellors’ time on varying tasks be redistributed to improve benefits for all students? 3. How can each comprehensive program be more effectively tailored to better meet the needs of each local school? 4. How can the comprehensive program become central to the mission of each school? 5. How can school counsellors establish better partnerships between school personnel, parents, and business and community leaders? 6. How can school counsellors better advocate for effective programs with local, state, and national policymakers? To continually improve on the strategies used to answer these questions, Lapan (2001) argued counsellors in a results-based system would consistently engage in two interlocking program planning and evaluation processes. First, program planning activities would identify those critical aspects of human development that the program can directly influence (i.e., the student competencies that constitute the content of the comprehensive program). In addition, counsellors would identify those critical characteristics of effective school environments to which the guidance and counselling program makes a significant and uniquely positive contribution (e.g., the school climate). School counsellors would then hypothesise that their comprehensive program positively impacts student development both directly and indirectly (i.e., by shaping the influential contexts within which students learn and develop). Counsellors would then identify the specific program elements, counsellor roles, time on task, and resources needed to reach these valued outcomes. Second, evaluation activities would assess the extent to which these outcomes are subsequently attained. Counsellors would evaluate both the extent and ways in which the comprehensive program facilitates gains for students and school environments. This understanding could then be infused into the subsequent program planning cycle. In this manner, data would be systematically gathered to assess results promoted by different counselling intervention strategies for different types of learners. School counsellors would be continually immersed in the search for more effective ways to realise outcomes valued by students, parents, school personnel, and the local community. With experience and time, a knowledge structure is developed that enhances counsellors’ understanding of how to tailor their program to best meet the unique needs of their local school district. School counsellors would use this elaborated knowledge structure to improve program quality, effectiveness, and fit within their local school, and then advocate for their program.
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The overarching structure of a results-based comprehensive program provides a coherent framework within which the roles, functions, and duties of the school counsellor adapt and evolve. Building on Rothney’s insights, we would argue that school counsellors who engage in these self-reflective program planning and evaluation practices are more likely to: (a) increase the effect sizes and efficacy of their interventions; (b) make guidance a central part of each school; (c) elicit greater support and involvement from parents, teachers, administrators, and school board members; and (d) employ better methods of program evaluation. In this way, what we understand to be the essential work of the school counsellor is in a continual process of renewal and transformation to better realise results for all students. The professional practice of school counselling is neither stagnant nor fixed to less effective ways of assisting students. Based on the best available evidence, school counsellors flexibly change their practice to shape more effective learner environments for all students.
Concluding remarks When guidance in schools is conceptualised and implemented as a program, it places guidance conceptually and structurally in the centre of education. It becomes an integral and transformative program, not a marginal and supplemental activity. While the research evidence so far supports this contention, it is clear we are only at the very beginning and much more must be done to implement and evaluate school guidance programs in the United States.
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Gysbers, N. C., & Henderson, P. (2000). Developing and managing your school guidance program (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Gysbers, N. C., Lapan, R. T., & Blair, M. (1999). Closing in on statewide implementation of a comprehensive guidance program model. Professional School Counseling, 2(5), 357–366. Gysbers, N. C., Lapan, R. T., & Jones, B. (2000). School board policies for guidance and counseling: a call to action. Professional School Counseling, 3, 349–355. Herr, E. L., & Cramer, S. H. (1972). Vocational guidance and career development in schools: toward a systems approach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Hughey, K. F., Lapan, R. T., & Gysbers, N. C. (1993). Evaluating a high school guidancelanguage arts career unit: a qualitative approach. The School Counselor, 41, 96–101. Johnson, C. D., & Johnson, S. K. (1982). Competency based training of career development specialists or “let’s get off the calf path.” Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 32, 327–335. Kimball, J. C., Gardner, J. L., & Ellison, R. L. (1995). The student educational and occupational plan and comprehensive guidance in Utah schools. Salt Lake City, UT: Institute for Behavioral Research in Creativity. Lapan, R. T. (2001). Results-based comprehensive guidance and counseling programs: a framework for planning and evaluation. Professional School Counseling, 4, 289–299. Lapan, R. T., & Kosciulek, J. F. (2001). Toward a community career system program evaluation framework. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 3–15. Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., Hughey, K., & Arni, T. J. (1993). Evaluating a guidance and language arts unit for high school juniors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 71, 444–452. Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., & Sun, Y. (1997). The impact of more fully implemented guidance programs on the school experiences of high school students: a statewide evaluation study. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 292–302. Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., & Petroski, G. (2001). Helping seventh graders be safe and successful: a statewide study of the impact of comprehensive guidance programs. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 320–330. Lee, R. S. (1993). Effects of classroom guidance on student achievement. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 27, 163–171. MacDonald, G., & Sink, C. A. (1999). A qualitative developmental analysis of comprehensive guidance programmes in schools in the United States. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 27, 415–430. Meyers, G. E. (1935). Coordinated guidance: some suggestions for a program of pupil personnel work. Occupations, 13, 804–807. Nelson, D. E., & Gardner, J. L. (1998). An evaluation of the comprehensive guidance program in Utah schools. Salt Lake City, UT: Institute for Behavioral Research in Creativity. Paisley, P. O., & Deangelis, S. (1995). Developmental principles: a framework for school counseling programs. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 30, 85–93. Rothney, J. W. M. (1958). Guidance practices and results. New York: Harper & Brothers. Sink, C. A., & MacDonald, G. (1998). The status of comprehensive guidance and counseling in the United States. Professional School counseling, 2, 88–94. Utah State Office of Education (2000). 1989–1999: a decade of progress and change in the delivery of comprehensive guidance programs Grades 7–12. Salt Lake City, Utah. Wentzel, K. R. (1999). Social-motivational processes and interpersonal relationships: implications for understanding motivation at school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 76–97. Whiston, S. C., & Sexton, T. L. (1998). A review of school counseling outcome research: implications for practice. Journal of Counseling and Development, 76, 412–426.
