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J_ID: PSYP Customer A_ID: PSYP12780 Cadmus Art: PSYP12780 Ed. Ref. No.: PSYP-2015-0232.R2 Date: 25-October-16

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Psychophysiology, 00 (2016), 00–00. Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Printed in the USA. C 2016 Society for Psychophysiological Research Copyright V DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12780

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Effects of implicit theories of ability and stereotype-inconsistent information on handgrip strength in older adults: A regulatory fit perspective

MELANIE EMILE,a,b AINA CHALABAEV,c SERGE S. COLSON,a,b JEROME VAULERIN,a,b CHARLENE FALZON,a,b AND FABIENNE D’ARRIPE-LONGUEVILLEa,b a

Laboratoire Motricite, Humaine, Education, Sport, Sante (LAMHESS EA 6312), Nice Sophia-Antipolis University, Nice, France Laboratoire Motricite, Humaine, Education, Sport, Sante (LAMHESS EA 6312), Toulon University, Toulon La Garde, France SENS, Universite Grenoble Alpes, Saint Martin d’He`res, France

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Abstract

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This study examined whether stereotype-inconsistent information interacts with implicit theories of ability to affect handgrip strength in older adults. Eighty-two retired older adults (13 men and 69 women) from 61 to 89 years old (Mage 5 75.8 years; SD 5 6.9) performed maximum voluntary contractions (MVC) during a handgrip task in a design manipulating implicit theories of ability and stereotype-inconsistent information related to physical decline with aging. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: incremental condition, entity condition, or control group. The results showed that in the incremental condition the stereotype-inconsistent information improved the peak MVC, the average MVC, the peak rate of force development (RFD), and RFD in the initial 50 ms of the MVC. This study therefore demonstrated that individuals with an incremental mindset who are exposed to stereotype-inconsistent information can boost their physical performance. These findings are discussed from the perspective of regulatory fit (i.e., when task framing is congruent with the individual’s goal).

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Descriptors: Elderly, Incremental mindset, Stereotype threat, Rate of force development, Maximum voluntary contraction

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The decrease in physical abilities with age is usually explained as an innate and inevitable decline in physiological functions, resulting notably in sarcopenia (e.g., Cruz-Jentoft et al., 2014). Sarcopenia and the decrease in physical abilities can be simply and rapidly assessed through the measure of handgrip strength (Lauretani et al., 2003). A study by Taekema, Gussekloo, Maier, Westendorp, and de Craen (2010) indicated that handgrip strength predicts functional, psychological, and social health in older populations (and low handgrip strength is therefore considered as an accurate indicator of frailty in older adults (Gale, Martyn, Cooper, & Sayer, 2007). Handgrip strength depends on age, sex, and ethnicity, as well as height, body mass index (BMI), nutritional status, and physical exercise (e.g., Dodds, Kuh, Aihie Sayer, & Cooper, 2013; Norman, Stob€aus, Gonzales, Schulzke, & Pirlich, 2011; Stenholm et al., 2012). In other words, handgrip strength depends

on factors that are nonmodifiable (sociodemographic predictors) or relatively stable (BMI, lifestyle habits). In this article, we adopt a situational perspective and argue that strength performance may partly depend on the social context in which the evaluations take place, particularly the stereotypical context. In line with this perspective, studies have shown an increase in strength performance when older adults were told that they perform better than same-aged individuals (Stephan, Chalabaev, Kotter-Gr€uhn, & Jaconelli, 2013) or when counterstereotypic information was given to women (Chalabaev et al., 2013). These studies suggest that strategies focused on preventing the influence of negative stereotypes (e.g., stereotype threat) may be sufficient to improve physical performance. The goal of this study was therefore to extend this line of research by investigating the conditions in which stereotype-inconsistent information may be efficient. More particularly, we examined how such information interacts with lay theories of ability. Dweck’s (1999) lay theories of ability framework are based on the assumption that an individual’s conception of his or her ability in a task or domain is an important predictor of behavior. Two implicit theories of ability have been identified: people who hold entity beliefs consider ability as stable and immutable, whereas those who hold incremental beliefs perceive ability as amenable to change. According to Dweck’s social-cognitive model (Dweck, 1986; Dweck & Leggett, 1988), how people perceive ability has

This study was supported by a Ph.D. grant from the Provence-Alpes C^ote d’Azur Regional Council. We are grateful to all those who have contributed to this research, notably the executive staff and employees of the Cannes Bel Age Association for older adults and the Regional Center of Biology and Sport Medicine (CRBMS). Address correspondence to: Melanie Emile, Universite Nice SophiaAntipolis, Faculte des Sciences du Sport – Laboratoire Motricite, Humaine, Education, Sport, Sante (EA 6312), 261, boulevard du Mercantour – BP 3259 – 06205 Nice cedex 3, France. E-mail: melanie. [email protected] 1

ID: rajae Time: 21:27 I Path: //chenas03/Cenpro/ApplicationFiles/Journals/Wiley/PSYP/Vol00000/160150/Comp/APPFile/JW-PSYP160150

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important implications for behavioral, cognitive, and affective variables. Studies in sports psychology conducted with children and young adults have consistently reported that an entity mindset is associated with maladaptive templates like decreased performance (Ommundsen, 2001) and decreased intrinsic motivation (Biddle, Wang, Chatzisarantis, & Spray, 2003), increased anxiety (Ommundsen, 2001), and ability attributions for failure (Spray, Wang, Biddle, & Chatzisarantis, & Warburton, 2006), whereas an incremental mindset is related to positive outcomes like increased performance (e.g., Da Fonseca et al., 2008; Sarrazin et al., 1996) and greater intrinsic motivation (e.g., Cury, Elliot, Da Fonseca, & Moller, 2006; Wang & Biddle, 2003). Indeed, an incremental view of ability is associated with the belief of effort efficacy and cognitive self-regulation, and has been found to foster a task or learning goal orientation in which individuals focus on improvement, learning, and developing new skills (Dweck, 1999; Ommundsen, Roberts, Lemyre, & Miller, 2005). Past studies have revealed that incremental beliefs may act as a buffer against the effects of negative stereotypes on cognitive performance (e.g., Aronson, Fried, & Good, 2002; Good, Aronson, & Inzlicht, 2003). In the present study, we examined how incremental versus entity beliefs interact with information that nullifies negative stereotypes to affect handgrip strength. We predicted that nullifying stereotypes during test performance would be more efficient among incremental theorists than entity theorists. This prediction was based on the concept of regulatory fit, which occurs when task framing is congruent with the goal or mindset of the individual (Higgins, 2000). In this situation, people engage more and perform better because their goal matches the demands and opportunities of the context. In the motor domain, girls were shown to perform better and to be less extrinsically motivated when asked to focus on avoiding mistakes, because this task framing matched their stereotype-induced avoidance motivation (Chalabaev, Dematte, Sarrazin, & Fontayne, 2014). Regulatory fit effects were also observed with regard to lay theories of ability (Sue-Chan, Wood, & Latham, 2012), with the authors showing that participants encouraged to focus on avoiding mistakes performed better when they held entity beliefs rather than incremental beliefs. This task framing matched the entity theorists’ motivation to avoid failure in order to demonstrate competence, but not the incremental theorists’ motivation to improve in order to attain a positive outcome (Van-Dijk & Kluger, 2004). Although the regulatory fit account has mainly been examined in younger adults, recent studies by Barber and colleagues have also supported the regulatory focus account of stereotype threat in older adults’ memory performance (Barber & Mather, 2013; Barber, Mather, & Gatz, 2015). Based on these results, we assumed that the performance deficits typically associated with stereotype threat would be reduced under regulatory fit, and we further predicted that information that nullifies the stereotype of an inevitable physical decline with aging would generate regulatory fit among incremental theorists but not entity theorists. Such information would be likely to match the sensitivity to progress and improvement that characterizes incremental beliefs, but not the belief that abilities are innate, which implies an inevitable decline with physiological aging. Previously, a study by Emile, Chalabaev, Stephan, Corrion, and d’Arripe-Longueville (2013) showed that an incremental mindset was associated with the positive belief that physical activity is beneficial for older adults’ health, whereas an entity mindset was associated with the negative belief that physical activity is risky. We examined these hypotheses in the context of older adults’ performance on a handgrip task. Several studies have indicated that

handgrip strength predicts functional and cognitive health among older adults (Raji et al., 2005; Taekema et al., 2010), notably frailty (Gale et al., 2007). Therefore, investigating whether performance on this test is affected by the social context in which the evaluations take place has considerable implications with regard to health practices.

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Method

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Participants

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Members of seniors sports clubs in the southeast of France were directly contacted or were contacted through newsletters and email. Individuals were eligible to participate if they met the following criteria: (a) 60 years or older, (b) physically active, (c) medical certificate allowing the practice of adapted physical activities, and (d) independent living in the community. The exclusion criteria comprised any bone, muscle, or tendon trauma of the upper limbs (e.g., from shoulder to fingers). From a total of 98 older adults assessed for eligibility, 16 individuals were excluded because of health problems (i.e., osteoarthritis, carpal tunnel pain, shoulder or wrist tendonitis). The final sample was composed of 82 individuals (i.e., 13 men and 69 women) from 61 to 89 years old (Mage 5 75.8 years; SD 5 6.9) who met the criteria. Among them, 41.8% had not completed high school, and 58.2% had. All participants were informed of the study purpose and risks and gave informed written consent prior to enrollment. The protocol was institutionally approved and conformed to the Declaration of Helsinki.

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Procedure

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The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups following a randomization procedure by computerized random numbers: (1) the entity condition (N 5 32), (2) the incremental condition (N 5 30), or (3) the control condition (N 5 20). They were invited into a private room and informed that the study purpose was to investigate muscle strength production during a handgrip task and that their performance would be measured twice. Based on a meta-analysis showing that stereotype threat effects are stronger when implicitly activated in older adults (Lamont, Swift, & Abrams, 2015), it was assumed that the handgrip task would implicitly induce age-stereotype threat. The experimenter, who was blind to the hypotheses and the group allocation, asked them to read a document providing handgrip task instructions. The participants were then familiarized with the equipment and performed submaximal and maximal contractions with sufficient rest between each contraction until they were accustomed to the task. Following this, they read the implicit theories of ability instructions, which differed according to the experimental group. Reading the instructions took fewer than 10 s. The participants in the incremental condition read that their strength was malleable and could be improved by training (i.e., incremental mindset), whereas those in the entity condition read that their strength was innate, fixed in time, and could not be improved even if they trained hard (i.e., entity mindset). Participants in both groups were told that this information was based on scientific evidence. After these instructions, all participants performed the first handgrip trial. Before performing the second trial, the experimenter provided stereotype-inconsistent information to the experimental groups by informing them that the test was free of age-related biases and that adults of all ages performed similarly. At the end of the handgrip tests, participants of the experimental groups were asked to complete several

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manipulation-check questionnaires. We assessed their beliefs about the malleability of physical ability (i.e., entity theory of ability vs. incremental theory of ability). In the control condition, no message related to their strength or stereotype-inconsistent information was given between the first and the second trials. Last, the participants were debriefed verbally and asked about the purpose of the study as a suspiciousness check (e.g., “What did you think this study was about?”).

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Measures

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Handgrip strength. The MicroFET 4 dynamometer (Hoggan Health Industries, West Jordan, UT) configured for wireless operation with a USB receiver connected to a computer was used to measure handgrip strength (in Newtons). In accordance with the standardized position recommended by the American Society of Hand Therapists (Fess & Moran, 1981), participants were seated with their dominant shoulder adducted and neutrally rotated, the elbow flexed at 908, and the forearm and wrist in neutral position. Hand dominance was determined by asking each participant if she/ he was right- or left-handed. Participants first performed familiarization trials with the instruction to “squeeze as hard and as fast as possible” to maximum force. We used a 3-s maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) for testing, since it is sufficient to obtain a maximum force value without exposing the participant to adverse effects like the increased blood pressure or heart rate associated with prolonged isometric muscle contraction. One MVC trial was performed before and after the stereotype-inconsistent information with the experimenter providing verbal encouragement to reach maximal exertions (Jung & Hallbeck, 2004). From these trials, the highest instantaneous force (peak MVC), the averaged maximal voluntary contraction (aMVC; the 500-ms average force produced over the peak MVC), and the rates of force development (RFD; the ability to develop force rapidly) were computed. The RFD values (N.s21) were calculated as the slope of the force-time curve over the time intervals of 0–50 and 0–100 ms relative to the onset of contraction (Aagaard, Simonsen, Andersen, Magnusson, & Dyhre-Poulsen, 2002). Also, peak RFD was computed as the highest slope value that occurred over the initial 200 ms of the force-time curve. Relative RFD values normalized with respect to peak MVC (expressed as %MVC.s21) were calculated for the different time intervals (RFD 50 N, RFD 100 N and peak RFD N). The normalized RFD provided information on the participant’s capacity to rapidly develop force, thus eliminating the influence of maximal force production.

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Implicit theories of ability. Entity and incremental theories of ability were measured using the Conceptions of the Nature of Athletic Ability Questionnaire (Sarrazin et al., 1996). Given that we were interested in older adults’ beliefs about physical activity, we replaced the term sport by physical activity (Moreno, GonzalezCutre, Sicilia, & Spray, 2010; Ommundsen, 2003). We also adapted the questionnaire to muscle strength. The tool included six items: three items measured beliefs related to the stability of physical abilities, corresponding to the adoption of an entity theory (e.g., “Muscle strength in physical activities changes little even if much effort is made”), and three items measured beliefs related to the improvement of physical abilities, corresponding to the adoption of an incremental theory (e.g., “We have to train hard to build muscle strength in physical activities”). Participants answered on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). Each subscale presented good reliability (aincremental theory 5 .78, aentity theory 5 .81).

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3 Stereotype-inconsistent information. We used one item (“Muscle strength does not depend on age”) to evaluate how much participants endorsed the stereotype-inconsistent information related to age and muscle strength. Participants answered on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree). The item was coded such that higher scores indicated greater ease of endorsement.

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Data Analysis

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The significance of the Condition 3 Time interaction across all the handgrip measures was evaluated via a 3 3 2 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Significant effects were followed up with univariate analyses and appropriate post hoc comparisons. For each dependent variable, a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was tested with group (i.e., entity theory vs. incremental theory vs. control group) as the between-participants factor and time (i.e., prestereotype-inconsistent manipulation vs. poststereotypeinconsistent manipulation vs. no stereotype-inconsistent manipulation) as the within-participant factor. Fischer LSD (least significant difference) post hoc tests were performed to analyze the experimental conditions, for each measurement time. The significance level was set at 5%. For the manipulation check, Student’s t tests were used to compare the means of the measured mindsets in the mean comparisons of the incremental and entity groups.

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Results

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ANOVAs revealed that participants in the incremental theory group had significantly higher incremental mindsets (M 5 6.34; SD 5 1.28) than those assigned to the entity theory group (M 5 2.20; SD 5 0.97, p < .001) and the control group (M 5 5.00; SD 5 2.08, p < .001), F(1,82) 5 48.10, p < .001, g2 5 .54, while participants in the entity theory group had higher entity mindsets (M 5 5.90; SD 5 1.06) than those in the incremental theory group (M 5 2.60; SD 5 1.27, p < .001) and the control group (M 5 3.62; SD 5 2.24, p < .001), F(1,82) 5 43.34, p < .001, g2 5 .53. Mean scores for endorsement of the stereotype-inconsistent information were significantly different between participants in the control group (M 5 5.13; SD 5 1.01) and those in the incremental theory group (M 5 6.35; SD 5 1.13, p < .001) and the entity theory group (M 5 6.26; SD 5 1.06, p < .001), F(1,82) 5 14.32, p < .001, g2 5 .26. These results show that the manipulations were successful in changing the participants’ mindsets. They also indicate that under normal baseline conditions the participants had on average moderate incremental and entity beliefs and that they endorsed stereotype-inconsistent information.

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Handgrip Strength

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Means and standard deviations of strength measures in the three groups are presented in Table 1. We performed an ANOVA to compare the scores at T1. We found no significant differences for the peak MVC, average MVC, peak RFD, peak RFD N, RFD 50 ms, RFD 50 N, RFD 100 ms, and RFD 100 N between the experimental groups. To test for omnibus effects across the dependent variables, a 3 (Group) 3 2 (Time) MANOVA was computed and revealed a significant Condition 3 Time interaction, Wilks’ k 5 .51, F(9,18) 5 3.16, p < .001, g2 5 .28. Follow-up univariate analyses were thus conducted for each of the eight handgrip variables.

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4 Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations Before (T1) and After (T2) Induction of Stereotype-Inconsistent Information Entity beliefs Strength parameters Peak MVC (N) Peak RFD (N.s21) Peak RFDN (%MVC.s21) RFD 50 (N.s21) RFD 50N (%MVC.s21) RFD 100 (N.s21) RFD 100N (%MVC.s21) aMVC (N)

Incremental beliefs

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201.1 6 90.7 1193.5 6 636.3 594.3 6 325.9 752.1 6 571.4 381.4 6 257.0 798.9 6 515.2 392.3 6 205.8 198.0 6 80.1

207.3 6 88.51 1196.5 6 715.1 536.2 6 208.7 722.6 6 625.4 340.6 6 244.6 812.2 6 605.4 359.5 6 207.4 201.2 6 72.2

213.1 6 94.0 1116.7 6 800.9 495.8 6 193.8 758.0 6 579.1 342.5 6 208.3 817.3 6 603.8 361.8 6 174.4 214.6 6 113.4

231.6 6 92.7 1361.9 6 787.8 576.4 6 184.1 1040.5 6 704.1 437.6 6 221.3 997.4 6 650.2 414.2 6 174.9 233.5 6 113.8

164.41 6 29.2 952.8 6 552.3 585.7 6 308.8 498.0 6 407.1 236.8 6 202.4 487.1 6 481.1 207.4 6 145.2 158.4 6 28.5

154.0 6 25.3 777.4 6 614.8 507.5 6 349.8 590.1 6 389.8 263.1 6 190.0 441.2 6 303.3 224.0 6 144.2 148.8 6 32.2

Note. The values at T1 were not significantly different between the experimental conditions. N 5 Newton; N.s21 5 Newtons per second; %MVC.s21 5 percentage of MVC per second.

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found, F(1,79) 5 4.55, p < .05, g2 5 .10. The peak RFD score significantly improved in the incremental theory group from pre- to poststereotype manipulation (p < .01). No significant effect was found in the entity theory or the control group.

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Rate of force development 50 (RFD 50). A significant Group (entity vs. incremental vs. control) 3 Time (prestereotype manipulation vs. poststereotype manipulation vs. no stereotypeinconsistent manipulation) interaction effect on RFD 50 was also found, F(1,79) 5 3.26, p < .05, g2 5 .08. The RFD 50 score significantly improved in the incremental theory group from pre- to poststereotype manipulation (p < .01). No significant effect was found in the entity theory or the control group (see Figure 2). No significant Group 3 Stereotype manipulation interaction effects were found for peak RFD N, F(1,79) 5 2.08, p 5 .13, g2 5 .05; RFD 50 N, F(1,79) 5 2.84, p 5 .10, g2 5 .06; RFD 100, F(1,79) 5 1.22, p 5 .30, g2 5 .03; or RFD 100 N, F(1,79) 5 1.40, p 5 .25, g2 5 .03.

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Discussion

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Peak rate of force development (peak RFD). A significant Group (entity vs. incremental vs. control) 3 Time (prestereotype manipulation vs. poststereotype manipulation vs. no stereotypeinconsistent manipulation) interaction effect on peak RFD was also

In this research, we found evidence that nullifying the stereotypes related to physical decline with aging improved muscle strength and may have moderated the effects of implicit theories of ability in older adults. We had originally assumed that the mindset

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Figure 1. Average maximal voluntary contraction by implicit theory of ability from pre- (T1) to post- (T2) stereotype manipulation. Error bars represent standards deviations. aMVC 5 average maximal voluntary contraction; N.s21 5 Newtons per second. ** p < .01: significant difference in the incremental theory group from pre- to poststereotype manipulation.

Figure 2. Rate of force development in the first 50 ms by implicit theory of ability conditions from pre- (T1) to post- (T2) stereotype manipulation. Error bars represent standards deviations. N.s21 5 Newtons per second. ** p < .01: significant difference in the incremental theory group from pre- to poststereotype manipulation.

Peak MVC. A significant Group (entity vs. incremental vs. control) 3 Time (prestereotype manipulation vs. poststereotype manipulation vs. no stereotype-inconsistent manipulation) interaction effect on muscle strength was found, F(1,79) 5 9.33, p < .001, g2 5 .19. More particularly, whereas the peak MVC score significantly improved in the incremental theory group from pre- to poststereotype manipulation (p < .01), it significantly decreased in the control group between the two handgrip trials (p < .05). In the entity theory, no significant interaction effect was found. Average MVC. A significant Group (entity vs. incremental vs. control) 3 Time (prestereotype manipulation vs. poststereotype manipulation vs. no stereotype-inconsistent manipulation) interaction effect on muscle strength was found, F(1,79) 5 10.6, p < .001, g2 5 .21. More particularly, whereas the average MVC score significantly improved in the incremental theory group from pre- to poststereotype manipulation (p < .001), it significantly decreased in the control group from pre- to poststereotype manipulation (p < .05). In the entity theory group, no significant interaction effect was found (see Figure 1).


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imposed by stereotype-inconsistent information would be strong enough to overwhelm an individual’s own implicit beliefs of ability, and the findings were partly consistent with our hypotheses. Older adults assigned to the incremental mindset condition obtained higher scores for some of the components of muscle strength production (i.e., peak MVC, average MVC) and for their ability to rapidly develop force (i.e., peak RFD, RFD 50) after exposure to the stereotype-inconsistent information, whereas those in the entity mindset condition and in the control group were not significantly influenced by this information. These results corroborate the hypothesis that information nullifying the stereotype of an inevitable physical decline with aging generates regulatory fit among incremental theorists but not entity theorists. One explanation is that stereotype-inconsistent information is congruent with the sensitivity to progress and improvement that characterizes incremental beliefs, but not with the belief that abilities are innate and therefore decline with physiological aging. In line with this idea, Emile et al. (2013) found that an incremental mindset was associated with the positive belief that physical activity is beneficial for older adults’ health, whereas an entity mindset was associated with the negative belief that physical activity is risky for older adults’ health. These results also extend recent findings supporting the regulatory fit account of stereotype threat in older adults’ memory performance to the domain of motor performance (Barber & Mather, 2013; Barber et al., 2015). Another interesting set of results was that nullifying stereotypes among incremental mindset holders did not have the same influence on all the strength measures. We found that providing stereotypeinconsistent information improved both the ability to produce maximal force (i.e., peak MVC, average MVC) and the ability to develop force rapidly (peak RFD, RFD 50) of the participants. However, no effect on RFD 100 or normalized RFD scores was observed (i.e., peak RFD N, RFD 50 N, RFD 100 N). The increase in peak MVC and average MVC in the incremental mindset participants might be explained by the increased motivation that would result from regulatory fit. This idea is consistent with the research showing that feedback framed to the regulatory focus is likely to increase motivation (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Jarzebowski, Palermo, & van de Berg, 2012; Motyka et al., 2014). This interpretation also agrees with previous work showing that motivation resulting from verbal encouragement leads to maximal voluntary contraction increase (Jung & Hallbeck, 2004; McNair, Depledge, Brettkelly, & Stanley, 1996). A complementary explanation is that an incremental theory of ability combined with stereotype-inconsistent information unconsciously improves neural drive to the muscles (Andersen & Aagaard, 2006; Van Cutsem, Duchateau, & Hainaut, 1998). Chalabaev et al. (2013) reported that stereotype threat inhibited RFD by influencing the preparatory processes associated with the upcoming motor task. In the present study, it can thus be speculated that the enhanced RFD 50 scores of the incremental mindset participants after stereotypeinconsistent information is ascribable to a neural adaptation. It has indeed been observed that the early phase of voluntary RFD (< 50 ms) depends predominantly on neural factors, whereas the late phase (> 50 ms) relies more on contractile muscle properties (Andersen & Aagaard, 2006; Folland, Buckthorpe, & Hannah, 2014). This

speculation is further reinforced by the lack of significant change in RFD 100, as it is unlikely that changes within the muscle could have occurred during the short duration of the experiment. Therefore, the increased peak RFD score (e.g., 0–200 ms) is mainly due to the higher early-phase RFD score. Given that no effects were observed for the normalized RFD scores, we cannot fully assert that the increase in peak RFD and RFD 50 were not influenced by the enhanced maximal force production. But within the methodology used in the present investigation, we can suggest that providing stereotype-inconsistent information to active older adults has the potential to improve handgrip muscle strength through neural adaptations. Further research is nevertheless needed to provide evidence of the neural mechanisms underlying the increased muscle strength and RFD scores observed here. Some limitations of the current research need to be considered and open promising research avenues. First, our sample was mainly composed of older women, who may have had gender stereotypes in addition to aging stereotypes (e.g., Pinquart & S€orensen, 2001). Future research could thus replicate this study with a more genderbalanced sample to better control for this confounding effect and examine the potential gender differences. Second, the study was designed to test the effectiveness of stereotype-inconsistent information depending on lay theories of ability. Future studies could examine whether lay beliefs also interact with stereotype threat. Our study revealed that stereotype-inconsistent information combined with incremental theory was successful, but it was unsuccessful combined with entity theory. Why did entity theory resist the stereotypeinconsistent information? An intervention study with an explicit stereotype threat could be designed to examine the relationship between entity theory and stereotype threat. Third, our design did not allow us to determine whether the incremental group’s performance gain was due to the incremental belief or to the stereotypeinconsistent information. Indeed, mentioning that strength could be improved with training may have been sufficient to increase performance. Future research should examine this question by, for example, adding a second control group to manipulate theories of ability without manipulating stereotype-inconsistent information. Last, this study measured the effects of variables on muscle strength at a point in time. It would be interesting to examine these effects over time through a longitudinal experimental study using several messages of age-related stereotype-inconsistent information delivered repeatedly. In summary, from the perspective of public health promotion of exercise for the elderly, the results of this study are encouraging because they suggest that individuals with an incremental mindset who are exposed to stereotype-inconsistent information can boost their physical performance, providing support to the regulatory fit perspective. We are not aware of other studies that have specifically considered the role of stereotype-inconsistent information in modulating the effects of implicit theories of ability on muscle strength. Messages that promote an incremental mindset and stereotypeinconsistent information should perhaps be emphasized. This study thus paves the way for future research aiming at a better understanding of implicit theories of ability and stereotype-inconsistent information as sources of greater physical activity in older adults.

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