education projects. KEYWORDS politics; culture; curriculum; government; civil society; ... What do you view as the three most important (cultural, economic, and political) purposes of education in ...... Mayor, Chancay District. Pe-JA. Hugo Dıaz.
Development, 2010, 53(4), (551–561) r 2010 Society for International Development 1011-6370/10 www.sidint.org/development/
Local/Global Encounters
Multiple Voices on Education for Development
MARK GINSBURG AND MARY JOY PIGOZZI
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ABSTRACT Mark Ginsburg and Mary Joy Pigozzi have brought together the reflections of 24 colleagues, who are involved in and concerned about education’s role in development in a range of countries around the world: Ethiopia, Republic of Korea, Macedonia, Pakistan, Peru, and Southern Sudan. As indicated in Appendix, the contributors include: six national government officials, three local/ regional government official, two international organization staff, three NGO leaders, one teacher organization officer, one parent/ school board member, and eight staff serving on international education projects.
Introduction
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KEYWORDS politics; culture; curriculum; government; civil society; management; decentralization
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In putting together this article each contributor was invited to address the following questions:
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1. What do you view as the three most important (cultural, economic, and political) purposes of education in the country in which you live and work? How, if at all, are these purposes different than you would list for other ‘developed’ or developing countries with which you are familiar? 2. To what extent do you believe that these purposes are being effectively achieved in the country you live and work? Please provide specific examples and indicate the evidence on which you base your conclusions? 3. What do you think are the three main factors why the most important purposes are or are not being achieved effectively in the country in which you live and work? Please mention the purposes that are not being effectively achieved, describe the factors that are hampering their achievement, and explain why this is the case. In addressing the issues here you may wish to give attention to the following dimensions: a. financial resources b. availability of information and communication technologies c. teacher capacity (knowledge, skills, commitment) d. school manager capacity (knowledge, skills, commitment) e. higher level administrative capacity (knowledge, skills, commitment) Development (2010) 53(4), 551–561. doi:10.1057/dev.2010.78
Development 53(4): Local/Global Encounters
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live and work, contributors to this article provided similar views, though with some important and interesting differences.We summarize their views below, organized in terms of three dimensions of development, economic, political, and cultural ^ the order reflects the frequency of comments. All contributors mentioned one or more purposes of education related to economic development, many listed at least one political purpose, and fewer noted one or more cultural purposes, although cultural and political purposes sometimes overlapped. Perhaps somewhat surprising, contributors indicated that these purposes were applicable to ‘developing’ as well as ‘developed’ societies, though explaining that between as well as within such groups of countries there may be differences in emphasis or specification of the nature of the purpose.
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Economic purposes Contributors mentioned three, potentially interrelated ways in which education should play a role in relation to the economy. In all three ways, this is to be accomplished by developing the relevant knowledge, skill, and attitudes of children, youth, and adults through various formal education institutions and non-formal education programmes. The first economic purpose is mainly focused on individuals, while the second and third address the societal level. Nine contributors stated that education should serve as a preparation for securing employment, as reflected in the quotes below:
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f. governance and management structure (e.g., distribution of decision-making authority; effectiveness in planning and implementation) g. policies (e.g., curriculum, student assessment, personnel career structures) h. systems for monitoring and evaluation and utilizing data for decision-making i. political will of government officials j. level of support and involvement of parents, community, civil society k. roles played by bilateral and multilateral organizations l. vision 4. What do you believe are the three actions that need to be taken (and by whom) in order to enhance this country’s effectiveness in achieving the most important purposes of education? Please mention the purposes that would more effectively be achieved, describe the nature of the proposed actions, and explain why you believe the actions would enhance the achievement of these purposes. 5. How optimistic or pessimistic are you that these actions will be undertaken within the next five years in the country in which you live and work? Please identify the relevant purposes as well as actions and explain why you are optimistic or pessimistic that these actions will be undertaken in an effective manner.
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In presenting highlights from contributors’ answers to these questions, we discuss the purposes of education (based on answers to question #1), reasons for achieving or not achieving the purposes (based on answers to questions #2 and #3), and suggestions for what should and can be done (based on answers to questions #4 and #5). When quoting a contributor, we identify the individual by an ID, an acronym that includes the country in which the individual works and the individual’s initials (see Appendix).
Purposes of education With respect to the three most important pur552 poses of education in the country in which they
Providing skills and competencies needed for professional life y [and] independent economic competencies y. (K-KHK) Equipping young people with the knowledge and skills needed on the job market. Besides specialized knowledge, the school has to develop students’ skills that will help them find and keep a job, such as self knowledge, assertiveness, responsibility, etc. (M-MC) Education y is a tool for self-discovery and preparing oneself for a vocation. y The expectation [is] that an educated population will have more opportunity to access employment. (SS-GA)1
Ginsburg and Pigozzi: Multiple Voices on Education for Development prepared to live in a democratic and multiethnic society. (M-VPB)
Economically, the purpose of education is largely focused on poverty reduction y [in] increasingly open and ‘capitalist’economic system. (E-EG)
Education should prepare a person to be a better citizen or to be a useful member of the society. (Pa-NMA)
The economic [purpose] is to contribute to y the fight against poverty. (Pe-LMJ)2
Two of this group of contributors also highlighted education’s purpose in preparing individuals for global citizenship: ‘The political purposes of education include y participation and responsibilities as global citizen’ (K-KHK) and ‘Active participation y in the global integration processes y which will allow optimal resolution of issues related to political and economic integration y [and] international cooperation’ (M-ZV). Additionally, nine contributors focused on education’s purpose in encouraging inter-group tolerance and harmony, either within a given country or between/among countries. For instance:
The most important purposes of education y are to enable future generations to contribute in the development of the country, y enhancing the living standards of people. (Pa-PP)
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Education [should] respond to the specific necessities of development of the distinct peoples of the country y incorporating ancestors’ y knowledge y in dialogue with modern technology. (Pe-LP)
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The economic purpose of education is to develop human resources and labor productivity, through new knowledge and technology acquisition, promising Korea’s sustained economic prosperity y [and] economic growth. (K-YKL)
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Fourteen contributors focused on education’s role in promoting economic growth or development of the society,3 as illustrated below:
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Four contributors highlighted the purpose of reducing or eliminating poverty. For instance:
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Political purposes
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Economically, Southern Sudan is one of the most underdeveloped countries on earth, and has no entrepreneur middle class, which is needed to kick-state better economic development y Such a y strata will not be created [without] y education. (SS-NR)
We categorized contributors’ lists of political purposes of education into four interrelated categories. To begin with, nine contributors referenced the role that education should play in developing citizens of the nation-state, as illustrated by these quotes4: Education cultivates people to learn abilities for correct political judgments y and the necessary qualities of a democratic citizen y to acquire knowledge and abilities about politics to participate in the political process. (K-JYP) [Another] purpose of education is to enable the development of responsible and participative citizens,
Education plays y a critical role y in empowering children and adults to actively participate in societal transformation y transmitting positive values, attitudes and behaviors of living together in harmony, tolerance, [and] collaboration [among diverse ethnic groups]. (E-GW) Education should assist in developing multicultural and tolerant individuals, who are able to effectively communicate in the global society. (M-SV) A purpose of education is to preserve and affirm different cultures in strict harmony y [It should] contribute to constructing a local, regional, and national identity, facilitating social cohesion, intercultural understanding, and respect for diversity and human rights. (Pe-ES) Southern Sudan is so isolated and ethnically divided that education is needed to open it up and allow southerners to live together in peace. (SS-NR)
Finally, four contributors gave explicit attention to strengthening the system of democracy, whether or not they mentioned developing citizens, as illustrated by the following comments: In the context of the country’s transitioning to democracy, one of the main purposes of y education is to introduce students to concepts like 553
Development 53(4): Local/Global Encounters
In some of the contributors’ comments presented above under economic and political purposes they referred to cultural learning or cultural change as a prerequisite. Here we focus on their ideas about the cultural purposes of education that are not directly related to development of the economy or polity. Five contributors ^ from Korea, Pakistan, and Peru ^ mentioned transmitting values, as reflected below:
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Education y can be approached from two broad perspectives. One is the creative aspect which enables students to coordinate cognitive abilities and sensibilities. The other is the role of passing on traditional values. (K-YKL)
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Cultural purposes
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The political purpose of education involves strengthening democracy, [promoting] quality citizenship participation, and securing the peace process in the country. (Pe-HD)
listed as part of the third question (see above).6 One might expect that since their focus was on relatively poorly resourced systems (with the exception of Korea), most contributions would mention financial resources as a critical factor. However, this was the case for only five contributors ^ one each from Ethiopia, Korea, Macedonia, Pakistan, and Southern Sudan. In fact the largest proportion of contributors ^ two-thirds or 16 of 24 ^ identified some aspects of the governance and management structure (e.g., distribution of decision-making authority; effectiveness in planning and implementation, collecting and utilizing data to inform decisions) in explaining why the education system had not fully achieved its economic, political, or cultural purposes. Of these, nine contributors mentioned problems of continuing centralization or insufficient progress in decentralization of the education system. For example, although describing education’s contribution to the ‘remarkable economic development y transforming one of the poorest national economies into a world economic power’, a Korean contributor observed that ‘this education system is not free of shortcomings y First, the governance system and management structure has been too highly centralized y Second, policy implementation, including curriculum development, seems to lack locality [and] the empowerment of the frontline actors’ (K-YHC). Other comments on the issues of (de)centralization include:
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democracy, leadership, human rights, responsibilities, etc. (M-MC) 5
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Another purpose of education y is [to] instill moral, social and ethical values in a student. (Pa-NAM)
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Two other contributors, both from Peru, emphasized the important role education should play in preserving local/national language and identity within a globalizing context ^ ‘to revalue the local and national culture and identity’ (Pe-JA) and ‘to develop [individuals’] personal, social and cultural identity [and] to keep strong the Spanish language’ (Pe-IV). And, finally, two contributors from Macedonia stressed education’s contribution to preparing people to ‘take advantage of y cultural opportunities in neighboring countries’ (M-KP) and to ‘strengthen [participation in] cultural and sports activities’ (M-ZV).
Reasons for achieving or not achieving purposes In discussing why more or less progress had been made in achieving the identified purposes, 554 contributors emphasized some of the dimensions
School directors y are politically appointed and changed as the ruling party changes. School directors feel obliged to follow the higher level instructions and guidelines, and very few directors dare to take initiative and implement some ideas in the school. y [So,] the vicious circle of inactivity, and not taking initiative and responsibility, goes on. (M-MC) Centralism characterizes the Peruvian state. It is a state that wants to have it all y converting the regional administrative organizations and, principally, the schools into mere executors of its norms [i.e., policies]. Schools have y no capacity to make decisions to resolve their problems, organize their schedules and calendars, or select and evaluate personnel. [Pe-HD]
Ginsburg and Pigozzi: Multiple Voices on Education for Development Seven contributors focused generally on problems of effectiveness in planning and implementation, as illustrated below:
achieving what I believe are the true purposes of education. ... There are some good people at all levels, but in general once you remove the thin top layer, capacity is seriously lacking. (E-EG)
Another important factor is the lack of effective implementation of the plans and strategies that are being developed to promote education in Pakistan. Probably, we have some of the best policies, plans, or strategies, but hardly any of this is actually implemented or practiced on ground. (Pa-NMA)
Regional generation of y educational innovations [is not occurring because of] limited administrative capacity y in the regions. (Pe-ES)
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There is a shortage of qualified teachers in the country. Because of poor incentives (low-salary scale, shortage of public services, etc.), there is a low commitment among many teachers to deliver quality education. (E-GW)
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Additionally, four contributors referenced inadequate structures and processes for monitoring, evaluation, and data-informed decision-making. As an example, a Pakistani contributor remarked that the economic and political purposes of education were not being effectively accomplished because the quality of education was low, which was partly a function of unsystematic monitoring and actions based on such information: ‘The government has failed to improve the situation in existing schools in the country. Most of the government schools, [particularly in rural areas,] do not perform well. The reason is the lack of a check and balance and proper monitoring mechanism’ (Pa-PP). Related, but not identical, to concerns about the structure of governance and management was a focus on the capacity (knowledge and skills) and commitment of managers at the school or higher levels of the system. More than one-third (i.e., 9 of 24) of the contributors noted this as limiting the extent to which economic, political, and cultural purposes of education are being fulfilled. The quotes below are illustrative:
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The fact that the Education Bill 2008 has not been passed y is a severe brake on education progress across Southern Sudan. It is not just that the legislation and therefore policy in curriculum, teacher management, M&E, etc. is not yet in place, but that where there are curricula and guidelines, these are either not followed or not disseminated. (SS-NR)
Another staff-related explanation for not effectively achieving education’s economic, political, or cultural goals concerned the capacity (knowledge and skills) and commitment of teachers. The quotes below illustrate the points made by twelve of the contributors:
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In terms of educational policy, while speaking in the same language, actually there is great disarticulation in the actions [i.e., policy implementation] across the national, regional, municipal, and district levels of government in Peru. (Pe-JA)7
The management capacity at both national and sub-national level is still in development since most managers are either war veterans or former teachers with no management training. (SS-GA)
The capacity of y supervisors and managers at all levels in the system constrains Ethiopia from
The knowledge, skills and commitment of all involved in the education ([e.g.,] teachers, y) are not on the desired level. y Pre-service teacher institutions are not equipping the future teachers with the needed knowledge and skills. Teachers are becoming more and more de-motivated because there is no efficient system for career development through which they would get the recognition and stimulus for further professional development. (M-MC) [One factor is] the inadequate and insufficient capacity of teachers. In January 2007 the Ministry of Education undertook a national evaluation of teachers y The results show y [that] the majority of teachers are not able to read simple texts or do basic mathematical operations. (Pe-IK) About 85% of Southern Sudan’s teaching workforce has only limited proficiency in the language of instruction ^ English. Compounding this issue is that only about 60% have post-secondary certificates. ... Needless to say, this greatly impacts the quality of education. (SS-GA)
As noted above, the less-than-desired capacity and commitment of teachers was viewed as stemming at least in part from problems with the policies 555
Development 53(4): Local/Global Encounters related to remuneration and career structures of educators. In fact, almost one-third (i.e., 7 of 24) of the contributors identified such policy matters as weakening the education system’s impact on realizing the identified economic, political, and cultural purposes, as illustrated below:
why the various economic, political, and cultural purposes of education were not being fully realized. For instance, seven contributors mentioned the political will of officials at various levels of the government as a critical factor, as reflected in the quotes below:
These goals cannot be achieved because the current system lacks y legalized standards and criteria for the success of the y teaching staff in schools, which are built taking into consideration the opinions of the parents themselves as well as different social structures. (M-ZV)
I believe that a country cannot be developed until its rural areas are developed and its females are educated ... But I feel that our government is not sincere and committed to improve the situation. The policies and laws are available ... but the government does not seem even to try to solve this problem. (Pa-PP)
The teacher is very important to achieve these purposes. And, at the same time, it is necessary to dignify the profession. y We need capable and committed teachers, y [who are] well-prepared teachers, y evaluated periodically, and remunerated based on their performance or [students’ learning] outcomes. (Pe-IV)
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Furthermore, eight contributors discussed the level of support and involvement of parents, community, and civil society as affecting education’s accomplishing the different economic, political, and cultural purposes. For example:
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Another factor seen to be undermining the achievement of education’s economic, political, and cultural goals, mentioned by almost half (10 of 24) of contributors, is the content of the curriculum.8 The following quotes reflect this point:
[The first factor is] the low priority that the governments have given to education. y Our investment per student still is very low compared to that of neighboring countries y The lack of priority also is expressed in the discontinuity of policies. (Pe-HD)
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The higher education sub-sector is yet to produce what the labor market needs. This might partly be an issue of relevance [of the curriculum]. (E-GW)
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Cultural and political purposes are not being effectively achieved. ... Koreans still need political education [focused on] participation, obligations as well as rights y Given the diversity of global society caused by international mobility, political education should consider the dimension of cultural diversity. (K-KHK) Education [in Macedonia]... fails to offer skills needed for modern professions (information technology skills, communication skills, cooperative skills, organizational skills, problem-solving and decision-making skills, etc.) ... Education reinforces the development of ethnic identities and ignores the need for developing national identity. (M-VPB)
Contributors not only focused on policy and other aspects of the education system and the capacity and commitment of educational personnel. They 556 also gave attention to other actors in explaining
The economic purpose of education is being effectively achieved y because Korean parents regard higher academic qualifications as essential in their children’s future lives [and] they are willing to invest privately in their children0 s education. However, while Korea has experienced very [impressive] economic development for the last 60 years, other purposes of cultural and political spheres are not well effectively being achieved. (K-KHK) The involvement of the community in the [system] of education y is not only about addressing limited resources y Involvement of the community and, especially, parents y [is also important] because learning does not only take place in classrooms. y Over the years the dependence of the education system on the central level has made y the community move away from its role and commitment. (Pe-ES)9
What should and can to be done? In responding to question #4, contributors outlined a range of areas in which actions should be undertaken so that the education system would be more effective in achieving various economic,
Ginsburg and Pigozzi: Multiple Voices on Education for Development political, and cultural purposes.10 They also signalled their optimism or pessimism regarding the likelihood that such actions would be undertaken within the next five years (in addressing question #5). We begin our presentation of their views on what should and can be done, by focusing on their calls for increased funding for the education sector. This issue was mentioned by just over one-third (9 of 24) of the contributors, including individuals from five of the six countries (the exception being Ethiopia). For example:
have the money; y what will be missing is the political will y to manage those resources. (Pe-HD)
The focus of eight other contributors, including six of seven from Peru, was on issues related to decentralization, as reflected in the following comments: Among the imperatives is y a hardware approach, which tackles the systemic change, restructuring governance from the centralized to a decentralized system. This will improve administrative efficiency, financial sufficiency, provincial autonomy, and political legitimacy y [I am optimistic because] the government makes strenuous efforts to build a broad consensus on restructuring society including the education system. (K-KYC)
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Comprehensive policy reforms ^ especially decentralization of education management facilitating teachers’ voice in planning and policymaking promoting research/evidence-based policy & practice in education. y I am moderately optimistic as some scattered actions are being taken in the country. y We might have some of the relevant policies but there has always been deficiency in their effective implementation. (Pa-NMA)
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Increase the national budget in education y [which is] necessary for implementing regional education projects and institutional education projects y My optimism comes from the side of the regional governments, which already have made advances in the decentralization of education y My pessimism comes from the side of the national government. (Pe-LMJ)
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In order to achieve the economic purpose of education, government should play a central role, ... exercising strong control over educational policies through relevant rules and regulations and also through funding y I am very optimistic for positive outcomes of the Korean government’s initiatives designed to develop high quality human resources through education. (K-YKL)
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If Southern Sudan is to improve access to, quality of and performance in education, more resources will have to be allocated y [and] managed better. y I am optimistic that the demand for education and the growing private sector may encourage the government to increase resources for education. [Also,] there is great interest in Fast Track Funds, and eligibility is contingent on government contribution of 20% to education. (SS-GA)
The most frequently mentioned action seen as needed to achieve education’s economic, political, and cultural purposes involved some type of reform of the system of governance and management. In eight cases this involved general statements about governance, management, and planning, as illustrated immediately below and in other subsequent quotes: A re-engineering of the management system y by strengthening the technical and technological capacities, reorganizing structures, and modernizing procedures y [I am not too optimistic, however, because, despite] the projections that [Peru] will
Deregulation, such that regional governments can take measures, for example, so that the best teachers participate in initiatives oriented to improve children’s learning, things that now can’t be done because of national regulations. y My position is optimistic, but [such actions] require y a proactive stance of the regional governments in relation to experimental innovations. (Pe-ES)
And seven contributors called for more concerted efforts in monitoring and evaluation, at various levels of the system from the school to the nation as a whole. To illustrate: Develop mechanisms (legal and practical) that operationalize the achievement of purposes and making sure (through monitoring and evaluation) that they are followed on national, local and school levels. y I am more pessimistic than optimistic y [because, for example,] during the last twenty years many projects (mainly internationally supported) were implemented y [but] the effects got lost after the projects ended. (M-VPB) Create an integrated educational management information system y [I am relatively optimistic because] 557
Development 53(4): Local/Global Encounters government officer recruitment system, which includes those working in education and other sectors, is not easily changeable. (K-JYP)
in Peru we live in an important conjuncture for advancing actions oriented to [achieving] results and implementing effective strategies for improving [educational] quality. (Pe-IK)
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Every school needs to have its own vision and a strategy for achieving its goals. Collaboration is the crucial form of creation and improvement ... Schools need to collaborate with parents and the local community in order to create a safe and stimulating learning environment for the students and an encouraging environment for the teachers and the whole school staff. (M-MC)
While contributors highlighted system change and manager capacity, they also pointed to needed changes in what might be considered core elements of the system, ones that most directly affect student learning. For instance, six contributors mentioned efforts to reform the curriculum, four mentioned identified pedagogy, and five referenced instructional resources ^ including information and communication technology, as reflected in the quotes below11:
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The government cannot provide more funding for expanding the quality and relevance of higher education and technical and vocational education. In this context, one of possible suggestions is to seek the support and encourage the participation of the private sector and industry y I am optimistic that the actions I listed above will be partially undertaken in the next five years. (E-GW)
[In relation to] completing the y Reform of Executive Power y we should consider more carefully the administrative capacities needed by functionaries of the state y [I am somewhat optimistic] despite the difficulties. (Pe-LP)
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Pre-planning, implementation, and evaluation of implementation are the three actions that need to be taken by the government as well as the citizens. y I have mixed feelings. I am optimistic because of the y role of the media in sensitizing the citizens of Pakistan [about the importance of education] y Accountability is also ensured through media. [However,] I am pessimistic because of the y media’s mud-slinging y [has] a major negative impact. (Pa-NAM)
Given their emphasis on system reform as well as broadening community participation, it is not surprising that contributors also gave considerable attention to capacity building and career/incentive structures of managerial and supervisory personnel. The following quotes illustrate the comments made by eleven contributors:
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There is a need to radically transform the existing government officer recruitment system y so that talented individuals can be hired as civil servants. For this to be done the selection system y has to turn into a qualifications-centered and ability-focused one. y [I am not optimistic because] this overall
Serious efforts will need to be made to reform the school curriculum at all levels, to make the teaching-learning process more empowering and student-centered, focused more on developing critical thinking skills, analytical skills, creativity, and civics, in terms of nurturing more proactive, empowered citizenship. y [I am not too optimistic, because for such] a y sea-change [to] take place [in education requires major changes in] y the broader sociocultural environment. (E-EG)
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Moreover, five contributors emphasized the importance of increasing the involvement of parents, community members, and the private sector in making decisions, enhancing accountability, and increasing financial resources. For example:
Key imperatives y include the y the software approach dealing particularly with the curriculum y The key competencies required by future society are as follows: (i) interacting in heterogeneous groups y, (ii) acting autonomously y, and (iii) using tools interactively (language, symbols, knowledge/ information, technology) y I am optimistic y [but] success of implementation y will be very much dependent upon the strong will of the government, leadership of educators, administrators, educational policy makers, and cooperation of the school community. (K-YHC) The introduction of ICT could have a crucial role in developing contemporary skills but only if computers are used appropriately y [not] simply used as electronic textbooks ... In order for computers to be used in active practical projects, more computer peripherals should be introduced y [I am optimistic because] the government has already committed funds to ICT in schools and recognizes the need to supplement these with appropriate peripherals. (M-KP)
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Recruitment, fair payment and training of teachers is paramount to improving the quality of teaching ... The ongoing work with payroll should be enhanced with a‘payroll cleansing’exercise, review of salary grades to be more motivational, better inspection y of teaching quality, increased training programs y and a general ‘re-branding’ of teaching as a respectable y However, there is an element of ‘chicken and egg’ here, as such linking of desire, effort and ultimate remuneration may be only possible after exposure to the outside and a quality education. Southern Sudan still has a long way to go. (SS-NR)
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Ensure opportunities for [teacher] self-development [and promotion] based on merit y [I am] not very optimistic as the state of the country is dwindling every year, instead of progressing. With so much extremism to deal with, the focus of the country is to negate the anti-social forces, not only by might but through education as well. (Pa-FN)
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Better professional development of teachers and their life-long learning are essential for improvement of the educational system. Institutionalizing the process of continuous professional development is necessary to achieve this goal. y [I have a] little optimism y since the y Ministry [is] making efforts to y implement y professional development portfolios for each teacher y [Also,] new procedures of evaluation and self-evaluation hopefully will create incentives for y improving their capacities. (M-SV)
Contributors gave greater emphasis to economic purposes of education, followed by political purposes, and then (a distant third) cultural purposes. And, as reported, contributors tended to see the purposes they identified as equally relevant to ‘developed’ as well as ‘developing’ countries, while mentioning that countries within each grouping might vary in their emphasis of certain economic, political, or cultural purposes of education. Contributors offered a similar set of dimensions, both in explaining why the various purposes of education had not been fully realized and in describing what actions they believed needed to be taken to effectively achieve these purposes. Considerable emphasis was given to reforming aspects of the governance and management of the educational system (viz., (de)centralization, planning and implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and community involvement). And, related to this dimension, contributors noted the importance of developing the capacity and commitment of school administrators and other educational managers.While not as often referencing the need for reforming pedagogical practices and also sometimes calling for curricular reforms, contributors placed strong emphasis on building the capacity and commitment of teachers, coupled with restructuring teacher careers, remuneration, and work conditions. What was perhaps most surprising was the relatively few contributors who mentioned funding as a factor (especially when explaining the extent to which the purposes were currently being realized). We suspect, however, that all contributors would agree that education systems need more financial resources, though they may differ on where the funds should come from and on how they should be spent. Certainly, many of the remedies they identify and the actions they propose would require financial resources. We conclude by observing the range of optimism and pessimism expressed by contributors. Of course, their views depend on the purposes they identified, the specific contexts in which they work, and their overall worldview. Nevertheless, what is clear is that regardless how optimistic 559
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In line with the focus on actions to enhance the curriculum, teaching methods, and instructional resources, 14 contributors called for interventions to build capacity and refine career/incentive structures of teachers. For instance:
Conclusion The 24 contributors to this article, drawing on their knowledge and experiences in Ethiopia, Republic of Korea, Macedonia, Pakistan, Peru and Southern Sudan, offer a rich set of insights on the topic of education for development. Undoubtedly, if we had allowed them to elaborate on their answers to the five questions and, more so, if we had been able to organize a conversation among contributors, their voices ^ their perspectives, analyses, and judgments ^ would be even more informative.
Development 53(4): Local/Global Encounters or pessimistic they are about the possibilities for succeeding in reforming education, they continue to devote enormous time and energy
toward this goal and the related economic, political, and purposes they would like education to help achieve..
Notes
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O
PY
1 SS-GA continues, however, that ‘unfortunately, this expectation does little to factor in labor markets and industrialization’. 2 Note that all contributions from Peruvian participants were written in Spanish; quotes included in the text were translated into English by Mark Ginsburg. 3 Interestingly, two contributors, both from Peru, also emphasized education’s role in preparing people for sustainable development, that is, balancing the needs of engaging economic activity and preserving the natural environment. For example: ‘Education should be oriented to generate a culture of sustainability of natural resources [and] biodiversity y supporting not only [a country’s economic] development but also the life of future generations’ (Pe-ES). 4 Another contributor seems to be focusing on the same purpose, developing citizens, through adopting a more critical stance and portraying citizens as more passive and compliant than how citizenship is described by other contributors:‘Politically, I would say that the aim of education is to maintain the status quo, to engender a population that is basically compliant and that supports the current government in its policies’ (E-EG). 5 M-MC continues, stating that ‘so far, these concepts have mostly been introduced through various donorsupported projects’. 6 We should note that three reasons were each only mentioned by three or fewer of the 24 contributors: vision [Pa-NAM], student assessment [K-YHC, Pe-IV], and roles played by bilateral and multilateral organizations [M-KP, Pa-NAM, SS-NR]. On the latter issue, these contributors acknowledged the important role ^ that is, financial support and technical assistance ^ of international organizations, but also noted that such initiatives often led to relatively isolated and uncoordinated initiatives. 7 Note that Pe-JA’s comments also relate to problems in implementing decentralized decision-making within the education system in Peru. 8 A related point was made by five contributors (based in Macedonia, Pakistan, Peru, and Southern Sudan), who mentioned limitations in the availability of information and communication technologies and other instructional resources. 9 However, as noted by a contributor from Macedonia, parental involvement in education policy and practice can be problematic: ‘[Establishing] a more integrated school system is complicated ... While research y shows that [Macedonian- and Albanian-speaking) students would like to be educated together, there is resistance to this from some parents and from political parties, which are almost completely divided on ethnic lines’ (M-KP). 10 In addition to the more frequently mentioned areas of action, one contributor each proposed improving the early childhood education (Pe-LMJ) and vocational/technical education sectors (Pe-IV); one contributor stressed efforts to improve the physical conditions of schools and classrooms (M-SV); and three contributors called for promoting more general social and cultural transformation of society (E-EG, K-JYP, K-KHK). As an example of the latter area, a Korean contributor stated: ‘Employers should employ university graduates based on their abilities and not on their universities’ rankings. Human resource management (HRM) in the private sectors y should be based on performance y [I am relatively optimistic because I believe that] employers will change their HRM practices quickly, because their survival very much depends upon competencies’ (K-KHK). 11 Two of these contributors also proposed actions focused on developing and utilizing learning standards in the process of regularly assessing students (M-ZV, Pe-HD).
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Ginsburg and Pigozzi: Multiple Voices on Education for Development Appendix
Table A1.
Names, countries, positions, organizations, and IDs of contributors
Name
Position and organization
ID
Chief of Party, Improving Quality of Primary Education Program Education Specialist, World Bank/Ethiopia
E-EG E-GW
Deputy Superintendent, Ministry of Education and Science
K-YHC
Kwang-Ho Kim
Director, Ministry of Education and Science
K-KHK
Yong-Kyun Lee
Director General, Social Policy Bureau, Ministry of Education and Science
K-YKL
Jae-Youn Park
Senior Research Fellow, Korean Educational Development Institute
K-JYP
Edward Graybill Girma Woldetsadik Korea Yeon-Han Chung
Macedonia Maja Cvetanovska
PY
Ethiopia
M-MC
Violeta Petroska-Besˇka
Organizer, Center for Human Rights and Conflict Resolution
M-VPB
Keith Prenton
Chief of Party, Primary Education Project
Slobodanka Velickova
Parent & School Board Member, Skopje
Zorica Vickova
Counselor for Education, Kavadarci Municipality
C
R
(Former) Senior Director, Monitoring, Evaluation and Research, Pre-service Teacher Education Program
O
Pakistan Noor M. Ansari
O
Monitoring and Evaluation Specialist, Primary Education Project
M-KP M-SV M-ZV Pa-NMA
Director General, Innovative Learning Division, Higher Education Commission
Pa-NAM
Foiza Nasim
National Monitoring, Evaluation, & Research Specialist, Pre-service Teacher Education Program
Pa-FN
Parvaz Pirzado
Sindh Province Monitoring, Evaluation, & Research Specialist, Pre-service Teacher Education Program
Pa-PP
Hugo Dı´az
U
Mayor, Chancay District
A
Peru Juan Alvarez
TH
Noor Amna Malik
Pe-JA
Vice President, National Council of Education
Pe-HD
National Coordinator, Equipos Docentes (Teacher Organization)
Pe-LMJ
Ine´s Kudo´
Senior Education Specialist, World Bank/Peru
Pe-IK
Luisa Pinto
President, Educational Forum
Pe-LP
Eduardo Sa´enz
Director, Social Development, San Martı´n Region
Pe-ES
Idel Vexler
Vice Minister, Teacher Management, Ministry of Education
Pe-IV
(Former) Chief of Party, South Sudan Technical Assistance Program
SS-GA
Assistant Project Monitor, BMB Mott MacDonald, Basic Services Fund Secretariat
SS-NR
Luz Marı´a Jero´nimo
Southern Sudan Grace Akukwe Nicholas Ramsden
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