Chapter two

USING TREATED WASTEWATER FOR IRRIGATING FORAGE SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor) IN KHARTOUM STATE

BY ALI WIDAA MOHAMMED ELAMIN ELSHIEKH B.Sc. U of K 1996 M.Sc. U of K 1999

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Ph. D. IN AGRICULTURE

SUPERVISOR: Dr. AMIR BAKHEIT SAEED

DEPT. OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM - FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE MARCH 2007

1

Dedicated to My parents, brothers, sisters, My Wife Azza and beloved kids Mohammed and Maab

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Firstly I thank Alla almighty, who gave me the power to complete this work. I would like to express my deep and greatest gratitude to Dr. Amir Bakheit Saeed for his kind supervision, valuable guidance and encouragement and moreover, for his constructive criticism offered through all stages of this study. Also I would like to express my deep gratitude to Prof. Heiko Diestel, Director of Institute of Development Planning and Landscape Architecture, Tachnische Universitat, Berlin, Germany, for his kind supervision and assistance during my stay in Berlin. Thanks and gratitude's are extended to German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), for their kind support and fostering this study. I thank the Administration of Health and Environment Services, University of Khartoum, for their assistance in transporting the treated wastewater from Soba plant to the experiment location. I’m deeply grateful to the members of the Department of Agric. Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, U of K, for their unlimited assistance, which made this study easy to come out. I owe sincere gratitude to Dr. Omer Ahmad Abdullah, Dr. Abd Elbagi Ahmed Abd Elbagi; Dr. Abd Elnasir Mohamed Ahmed; and Dr. Gimaa Abd Elgadir for their valuable assistance during the different stages of this work, and for any one who gave me assistance and his name is not mentioned here. At last I would like to thank my family and my wife Azza for their help and support, which made this work a reality.

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Table of Contents Dedication ................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................. ii Abstract .................................................................................................................................... i Arabic abstract ....................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... iv List of Figurs ........................................................................................................................ vii List of Symbols and abbreviation ........................................................................................ viii Chapter one: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 Chapter two: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 4 2.1Wastewater: ......................................................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 History of using wastewater: .......................................................................................... 5 2.1.2Wastewater constituents .................................................................................................. 5 2.1.2.1Organic Matter ............................................................................................... 6 2.1.2.2Pathogens ........................................................................................................ 6 2.1.2.3Nutrients......................................................................................................... 6 2.1.2.4 Toxic and Dissolved Minerals ...................................................................... 7 2.1.2.5Sludge ............................................................................................................ 7 2.1.3Wastewater treatments .................................................................................................... 8 2.1.3.1Preliminary wastewater treatment .................................................................. 8 2.1.3.2Primary wastewater treatment ........................................................................ 9 2.1.3.3Seconary wastewater treatment ...................................................................... 9 2.1.3.4Final Treatment............................................................................................. 10 2.1.3.5 Advanced Treatment.................................................................................... 10 2.1.3.6Disinfection .................................................................................................. 10 2.1.4 Sudan experience in the field of treating and reusing wastewater .............................. 11 2.1.4.1 Treatment ........................................................................................................ 11 2.1.4.2 Soba wastewater treatment plant .................................................................... 11 2.1.4.3 Using of treated wastewater .......................................................................... 11 2.2 Irrigation water quality: .................................................................................................... 12 2.2.1 Salinity ......................................................................................................................... 12 2.2.2 Permeability ................................................................................................................. 13 2.2.3Toxicity......................................................................................................................... 13 2.2.4 Miscellaneous .............................................................................................................. 14 2.3. Methods of controlling water quality problems: ............................................................ 15 2.3.1 Leaching ...................................................................................................................... 15 2.3.2 Crop selection .............................................................................................................. 15 2.3.3 Blending water supplies............................................................................................... 16 2.3.4 Irrigation frequency ..................................................................................................... 16 2.3.5 Miscellaneous ............................................................................................................. 16 2.4 wastewater management:.................................................................................................. 16 2.4.1 Restriction of using wastewater: .................................................................................. 17 2.4.2 Tillage:.......................................................................................................................... 20 2.4.3 Health: .......................................................................................................................... 23 2.5 Using of wastewater in Agriculture:................................................................................. 21 2.6 Effect of using wastewater on groundwater: .................................................................... 26 2.7 Effect of using wastewater in soil properties: .................................................................. 27 2.7.1 Long term effect of using wastewater on soil: ............................................................. 30 2.8 plant up take of wastewater constituents: ......................................................................... 31 2.8.1 Transfer Factor (TF): .................................................................................................... 34 2.9 Effect on animals .............................................................................................................. 34 4

2.10 Effect of using wastewater on environment: .................................................................. 36 Chapter Three: Materials and Methods .............................................................................. 38 3.1 Materials: .......................................................................................................................... 38 3.1.1 Location ........................................................................................................................ 38 3.1.2 Experimental Designs................................................................................................... 38 3.1.3 Equipment, Tools and machinery ................................................................................. 38 3.2 Methods: ........................................................................................................................... 40 3.2.1 Irrigation methods........................................................................................................ 40 3.2.2 Water samples Analysis: .............................................................................................. 40 3.2.3 Soil Samples analysis: .................................................................................................. 40 3.2.4 Plant Parameters and Tissues Analysis: ....................................................................... 42 3.2.4.1 Plant parameters ....................................................................................................... 42 3.2.4.2 Plant tissues analysis ................................................................................................ 42 Chapter Four: The Results and Discussion ............................................................................ 44 4.1 Quality of waste water ...................................................................................................... 44 4.2 Effect of tillage and water management on soil ............................................................... 44 4.2.1 Electrical conductivity (Ecs) ds/m ................................................................................ 44 4.2.2 Soil's PH ....................................................................................................................... 46 4.2.3 Concentration of Nitrogen (N) in soil mg/kg................................................................ 48 4.2.4 Organic Carbon (O C) % .............................................................................................. 48 4.2.5 Concentrations of Sodium (Na), Calsium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) in soil me/L ... 49 4.2.6 Concentration of Chlorine (Cl) in soil me/L ................................................................ 53 4.2.7 Concentration of Potassium (K) in soil me/L ............................................................... 53 4.2.8 Concentratins of Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Lead (Pb) and Cobalt (Co) in soil mg/L ........................................................................................................ 55 4.2.9 Phasphorus percentage (P%) ........................................................................................ 55 4.3 Comparison between Soils (before) and (after) Using Wastewater ................................... 59 4.4 Long term (Ten years) effects of using treated wastewater in irrigation on soil chemical properties at Yarmook Farm ................................................................................................... 59 4.5 Effect of tillage and water management on plant ............................................................. 62 4.5.1 Plant growth parameter ................................................................................................ 62 4.5.2 Concentrations of Sodium (Na), Calsium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and Potassium in plant tissues mg/L.................................................................................................................. 62 4.5.3 Nitrogen precentage (%) .............................................................................................. 65 4.5.4 Ash precentage (%) ...................................................................................................... 65 4.5.5 Concentratins of Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Lead (Pb) and Cobalt (Co) in plant tissues mg/L.......................................................................................... 69 4.5.6 Phasphorus percentage (P%)l ....................................................................................... 69 4.5.7 Plant Yield Kg .............................................................................................................. 69 4.6 Transfer Factor of elements between Soil and Plant ........................................................ 73 4.7 Quality of produced forage for animal consumption ....................................................... 73 Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................ 76 5.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 76 5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 76 Reference ............................................................................................................................. 78 Appendixes .......................................................................................................................... 98

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Abstract: Recycling of wastewater has emerged as a realistic option to overcome problems related to water shortages and its adverse environmental impacts. Wastewater reuse could free huge amounts of fresh water currently used for irrigation and make this resource available to meet the growing needs for fresh water for domestic uses. The present study is an attempt to evaluate the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation under Khartoum state conditions. The experiment involved comparing the effects of three types of water viz: treated wastewater (W1), alternating treated wastewater with River Nile water (W2) and River Nile Water (W3), using three different tillage operations, harrowing (T1), disc ploughing (T2) and chisel ploughing (T3). Replicated soil samples were taken from three depths D1 (0-20 cm), D2 (20-40 cm) and D3 (40-60 cm). Forage crop (Sorghum bicolor, locally known as 'Abu Sabain') was used as the indicator plant. The parameters measured include soil properties, plant growth & yield attributes minerals transfer factor and quality of the forage as animal feed. The treated wastewater was analyzed with reference to international (FAO) standard for irrigation water. W1 constituents were found to conform to FAO and Jordon standards for irrigation water. However, the bicarbonate (HCO3-) is in the severe restriction zone according to FAO standard. W1 significantly (P< 0.05) increases Ec, pH, OC, N, Na, Ca, Mg, K, Cl, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Pb, Co and P in soil, followed by W2 and W3, respectively. On the other hand plant growth parameters, plant yield and concentrations of Na, Ca, Mg, K, N, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Pb, Co and P in plant tissues were significantly (P< 0.05) increased with W1 followed by W2 and W3, respectively. Tillage operations and depths showed significant (P< 0.05) effects on the distribution and concentration of trace elements and nutrients in soil and plant tissues.

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The study showed that there was no significant (P< 0.05) difference between water treatments in transferring the elements from soil to plant. Of these Ca (0.77) and Co (0.74) registered higher transfer factor (TF) followed by P (0.47), K (0.36), Cu (0.34), Zn (0.28), Pb (0.21), Fe (0.16), Mn (0.12) and Na (0.11), respectively. The forage produced by W1 was found to comply with the standards of the American National Academy of Sciences, for domestic animal feed.

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‫الخـــالصــــة‬ ‫إعادة إستخدام المياه العادمة المعالجةة رة ك يخيةا عا عةج لتجةاعك المشةاي المتعقةةة رصةنةال الميةاه عأثا هةا‬ ‫السالرة عقج الريئة‪.‬‬ ‫إستخدام المياه العادمة المعالجة يميةل ال يرة‬

‫مةةدا ا هةائ مةل الميةاه العارةة المسةتخدمة راليةا ةج الة‬

‫لتةار اإلرتياجات المتناعده لقمياه العارة ج الة‬

‫ع المدل ج الدع الصامية‪.‬‬

‫الد اسة الرالية هج مراعلة تةييم إعادة إستخدام المياه العادمة المعالجة لق‬

‫ترت ظ عف عالية الخ طعم‪.‬‬

‫التج رة تضمصت مةا صةة تةيثي ث ثةة أصةعا ميةاه ميةاه عادمة معالجةة (‪ ,)W1‬ميةاه عادمة معالجةة رالتصةاع‬ ‫مة ميةاه الصية (‪ ,)W2‬ع ميةاه الصية (‪ ,)W3‬مة إسةتخدام ث ثةة عمقيةةات ر اثيةة ر اثةة مشةطية(‪ ,)T1‬ر اثةةة‬ ‫نية (‪ ,(T2‬ع ر اثة عميةة ‪ .)T3( Chiseling‬أخات عيصات الت رة مل ث ثة أعماق ‪00-0( D1‬سةم)‪,‬‬ ‫‪ 00-00( D2‬سم)‪ ,‬ع‪ 00-00( D3‬سم)‪ .‬عأستخدم المرنع العقفج أرع سرعيل (‪)Sorghum bicolor‬‬ ‫يمرنع تج يرج‪.‬‬ ‫الععام ة التةةج تةةم ياسةةوا تضةةمصت خ ةعان الت رةةة‪ ,‬ععام ة صمةةع الصرةةات ع اإلصتةةا ‪ ,‬صسةةرةأصتةا العصان ة ع‬ ‫العصان ة الصةةاد ة مةةل الت رةةة لقصرةةات‪ ,‬ع جةةعدة المرنةةع العقفةةج المصةةت لتدايةةة الريعصةةات‪ .‬ع ةةد تةةم أيضةةا‬ ‫ترقي المياه العادمة عمةا صتوا رالمستع الةياسج لمياه الة‬

‫ةج اال دل يممثة ل قةيم ع المصظمةة العالميةة‬

‫لألغاية ع الك اعة (‪ )FAO‬يممث عالمج‪.‬‬ ‫ميعصةةات الميةةاه العادم ة (‪ )W1‬عجةةدت متجاصس ة م ة المسةةتع الةياسةةج لميةةاه ال ة‬

‫ةةج المصظمةةة العالميةةة‬

‫لقك اعةةة ع اذغايةةة (‪ )FAO‬مةةا عةةدا الريعي رعصةةات )‪ (HCO3-‬ريةةج عجةةدت اعقةةج مةةل المسةةتع الةياسةةج‬ ‫المسمعح ر ‪.‬‬ ‫‪W1‬عمقت عقج كيادةمعصعية(‪ )P< 0.05‬ج ت ييك التعني اليو رج ع الرمضي ع صات عجيل ع النعديم‬ ‫ع اليالسيعم ع الما صيكيعم ع الرعتاسيعم ع اليقةع ع الصرةاو ع الكصة ع الرديةد ع المةاصجصيك‪ ,‬ع ال نةان ع‬

‫‪8‬‬

‫اليعرقت ع الفسفع ج الت رة مترعع‬

‫‪ W2‬ع ‪ W3‬عقج التعالج‪ .‬مل جوة أخ‬

‫أدت إلةج كيةادة معصعيةة‬

‫(‪ )P< 0.05‬ةةج ععام ة صمةةع الصرةةات‪ ,‬اإلصتةةا ‪ ,‬ع ت ييةةك نةةعديم‪ ,‬يالسةةيم‪ ,‬مةةا صيكيم‪ ,‬رعتاسةةيم‪ ,‬صةةات عجيل‪,‬‬ ‫صراو‪ ,‬كص ‪ ,‬رديد‪ ,‬ماصجصيك‪ ,‬نان‪ ,‬يعرقةت ع سةفع ةج أصسةجة الصرةات مترععة‬

‫‪ W2‬ع ‪ W3‬عقةج‬

‫التعالج‪.‬‬ ‫العمقيات الر اثية ع العمق أظو ا تاثي ا معصعيةا عقةج تعكية العصانة الصةاد ة ع المداية ةج الت رةة ع أصسةجة‬ ‫الصرات‪.‬‬ ‫الد اسة ةةة أعضة ةةرت أيضة ةةا أل لة ةةيو هصال ة ة أخة ةةت ف معصة ةةع (‪0.05‬‬

‫0. 7.

0. 7- 0. 2