CHRISTIANITY Chapter Outline and Unit Summaries I. Introduction ...

CHAPTER TWELVE: CHRISTIANITY Chapter Outline and Unit Summaries I. Introduction A. The Largest Religion in the World with Two Billion Members B. A Vastly Diverse Religion with Several Common Unifying Themes 1. Jesus Christ is the Center of the Religion 2. Jesus Resurrected from the Dead 3. Jesus Redeems Human Race 4. All People Have Only One Life, and Eternal Destiny in Heaven or Hell Determined by Decisions in Life II. The World of the First Century C.E. A. Christianity Begins as Sect of Judaism in First Century C.E. B. Roman Empire in First Century Provides Political, Religions, Economic Conditions for Growth and Spread of Christianity 1. Rome Ruled Much of Europe, North Africa, Mediterranean 2. Empire Provided Common Language (Koine Greek), Currency, Culture based on Roman and Greek Ideas 3. Romans Build Roads, Clear Seas of Pirates, Generally Making Travel Safe for Christian Missionaries 4. The Pax Romana: Cruel but Effective Means of PeaceKeeping that Allows Stable Environment in which People can Focus on Learning, Practicing, and Spreading Religion 5. Greco-Roman Civilization Had No Common, Major Religion to Give Organized Opposition to Christianity a. Many Old Greco-Roman Gods and Goddesses Losing Interest of the People

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b. Spiritual Ferment and Culture of Religious Exploration Paved Way for a Missionary Religion to take Hold c. Rise of Many New Mystery Cults Pave Way for Christianity (1) Cults were Egalitarian (2) Cults Based on Secret Initiation Rituals and Communal Meals (3) Christianity able to Build Itself with Many Converts from Cults 6. Christianity Capitalizes on Growing Sense in Judaism, and Other Religions, that World Might End Soon and a Redeeming Messiah Would Come to Usher in a New Age III. The Life and Teachings of Jesus A. Objective Facts about Life of Jesus and Origins of Christianity Rare 1. No Non-Christian Sources Mention Jesus Before End of First Century C.E. 2. Group of People Identified as Christians Recognized in Roman Empire circa 60-65 C.E. 3. The Christians Arouse Hostility and Persecution in the Generally Tolerant Atmosphere of the Roman Empire 4. Christianity Grew Despite Persecution and Became Official Religion of the Roman Empire in Fourth Century C.E. B. Christianity’s New Testament: Biased but Still the Best Source for Information about Jesus 1. Four Gospels of New Testament Not Biographies of Jesus 2. Basic Agreements between the Heterogeneous Four Gospels a. Jesus a Resident of the Village Nazareth in the Province of Galilee b. Generally Ignore Details of Childhood and Adolescence c. Jesus Presented as in Most Ways a Faithful Jew within Context of First Century Judaism d. Jesus’ First Public Act was Baptism in the Jordan River by a Figure Called John the Baptist

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e. After Baptism Jesus Went into Judean Wilderness to Fast and Pray for Forty Days, Tempted by Satan f. Jesus Returns to Galilee to Preach and Gather a Circle of Disciples who Consider Him a Rabbi g. Jesus Preached Publicly for One-to-Three Years h. Jesus Preached in Galilee and in Judea / Jerusalem i. Jesus Taught with Both Simple, Direct Sayings (Sermon on the Mount: “Blessed are the poor … Blessed are the meek …”) and with Parables (i.e., short, easy-to-remember stories with very human characters, for example “The Good Samaritan”) j. Jesus Worked Miracles, Usually Healings, Exorcisms, and Feeding Hungry People k. Some of His Followers before His, and All of them After, Identified Jesus as the Jewish Messiah l. Opposition to Jesus Grew as He Became Known in Galilee and Judea (1) Pharisees (a liberal-progressive group of synagogue oriented rabbis that accepted more than Pentateuch as Scripture) Opposed Jesus; Many of Jesus’ Followers, and Perhaps Even Jesus Himself, were Originally Pharisees) Oppose Jesus (2) Sadducees (aristocratic-conservative group associated closely with Temple and its priesthood) Oppose Jesus (3) Zealots (revolutionary group of Jews who seek to end Roman imperial rule of Palestine; some of Jesus’ followers might have been Zealots) Oppose Jesus m. In Jerusalem On Eve of His Death Jesus Has a Last Supper with His Followers, Possibly a Celebration of the Feast of Passover (1) Jesus’ Words at Last Supper Considered Some of Most Important in the Bible (2) Catholics and Protestants Disagree on How to Interpret Last Supper Words “this is my body … this cup … is … my blood” (see Luke 22:17-20) n. Jesus Betrayed by Judas, One Member of His Inner Circle of Followers o. Jesus Arrested in Some Joint Conspiracy of Jewish Leadership and Roman Government (1) Gospels Focus Much of Blame for Jesus’ Unjust Death on Jewish Leaders and Jewish Crowds in Jerusalem that Convinced Pilate

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p. q. r. s. t. u.

to Execute Him, Thereby (Inadvertently) Encouraging Centuries of Christian AntiJudaism (2) Roman Political Authority Also Shares Major Blame for Jesus’ Unjust Execution Jesus Interrogated by Jewish Leaders Jesus Interrogated by Roman Imperial Governor of Palestine, Pontius Pilate, Who Suspected Jesus was a Zealot Jesus Given Death Penalty by Crucifixion on a Friday Afternoon Jesus Placed in a Tomb Jesus’ Followers Find Tomb Empty on Sunday Morning, Claim He was Resurrected from the Dead The Risen Jesus Appears to Followers for a Period of Time and then Ascends to Heaven

3. Core Message of Jesus in Gospels Difficult to Identify a. Jesus Seemed to Teach Pacifism / Non-Violence (see Matthew 15:11: “Do not resist one who is evil. But if any one strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also …”) but Allowed Disciples to be Armed (Luke 22:36) b. Jesus Seemed to Oppose Interpretations of the Jewish Law that Put the Law above People, but Generally was Very Reverent Toward Jewish Law c. Jesus Seemed Concerned with the Coming End of an Age and/or End of the World d. Jesus, Like all Great Teachers, was Concerned with Human Values, the Perils of Riches, and Compassion IV. Early Christianity A. The Jerusalem Church 1. After Initial Shock and Period of Hiding, Jesus’ Followers Emerge to Preach that He Was Raised from Dead a. Followers Claim a “Holy Spirit” was Given to Them by Risen Jesus b. Jesus Now Explicitly Identified as Messiah / Christ 2. Earliest Community of Christians (Messiahists) in Jerusalem Considered Selves a Reformist Sect within Judaism

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3. New Testament book Acts of the Apostles Chronicles Early Years of the Christian Movement a. Simon Peter Seems to Have Been Primary Leader and Spokesman for Early Christians b. James, Half-Brother of Jesus, Seems to Have Been Second Most Important Leader; Led Jerusalem Community when Peter Became Missionary c. Hostility to Christianity Among Jewish Leadership Intensifies d. Stephen, the First Christian Martyr, Preached Jesus was Messiah to Jewish Leadership and was Stoned to Death e. Persecuted Christians in Jerusalem Leave and Spread their Belief that Jesus is the Resurrected Messiah to Other Places in Judea and the Empire B. The Life of Paul 1. Major Figure in the New Testament a. Half Book of Acts Focused on Paul b. Fourteen Books in New Testament Traditionally Considered Authored by Paul c. Missionary Who Founded Many Early Christian Communities d. Considered First Systematic Theologian of the New Christian Religion 2. Biography of Paul (Saul of Tarsus) a. Saul: A Diaspora Jew from Tarsus Asia Minor b. Trained in Greek Philosophy and Rabbinical Theology by Great Rabbi Gamaliel, Member of Pharisee School c. Never Knew Jesus, Originally Strong Opponent of Christianity and Persecutor of Christians; Likely Witness to the Stoning of Stephen d. On Mission to Persecute Christians in Damascus Saul Has Vision of Risen Christ, Changes Name to Paul, and Retreats from Public Life e. Paul Reemerges in Jerusalem, Joins Jesus’ Followers and Begins Missionary Career f. Strongest Advocate for Controversial Practice of Allowing Non-Jews (Gentiles) to Join Christianity;

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Did Not Think Gentiles Needed to Follow Jewish Circumcision Laws to become Christians g. Paul’s Openness to Gentile Converts Allows Christianity to Grow, but Distances it as a Religion from its Parent Religion, Judaism h. Paul Arrested by Romans, with Encouragement of Jewish Leadership, Brought to Rome in Chains and Given Trial i. End Details of Paul’s Life Uncertain; Possibly Died in Roman Prison, Executed (perhaps with Peter) During Persecution Campaign by Caesar Nero C. The Worship of the Early Church 1. Essential Form of Worship Modeled on Jewish Synagogue 2. Christians Use Ritual of Baptism for Initiating Converts into the Religion a. Baptize Means “to immerse” b. Meaning and Purpose of Baptism Not Clear c. Modified Baptism Ritual from Both Pharisee and Pagan Cultic Forms d. John the Baptist Sets Possible Christian Precedent for Theological Meaning of Baptism: Cleansing of Sins and Beginning of a Life of Repentance e. Baptism Originally an Adult Ritual, but Becomes a Ritual for Infants 3. Eucharist: Communion Meal of Thanksgiving a. Form Modeled on the Seder Meal of Passover b. Both Jesus’ Last Supper and His Resurrection are the Events Commemorated c. Christians Celebrate Eucharist on Sunday, Making Sunday, not Saturday, Day of Sabbath d. Many Christians Consider the Bread and Wine Consumed to be the Body and Blood of Jesus, but Much Debate on the Exact Meaning of the Ritual D. Leadership in the Early Church 1. Early Christian Communities Not Highly Organized a. Likely Lack of Organization due to Fact Many Assumed World Would Soon End

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b. As Time Passed, the Need for Organized Structure Necessary for the Survival of the Religion 2. Early Leaders Did Not Have Clearly Defined Offices a. Bishop (Greek: episcopos, shepherd) Were Managers of Local Churches b. Elders (presbyteroi) Seem to Have Been Senior Members of the Community Who Made Decisions and Exercised Most Leadership c. Other Roles in the Early Church (1) Evangelists (2) Prophets (3) Apostles (Missionaries) (4) Teachers d. Exact Duties of Each Role Not Specified by New Testament e. Term “Priest” (Greek: hierus) Never Used in New Testament to Designate a Particular Role or Ministry within the Christian Church 3. Peter and the Papacy a. Peter Designated by Jesus as “rock” (Greek: petra), Assumed by Early Christians to be the Leader and Cornerstone of Church b. Tradition Claims Peter Traveled to Rome and Led Christian Community There c. Later Leaders of Roman Christians Become Known as Successors of Peter and Inheritors of His ChristGiven Role as Leader and Cornerstone of Church 4. Early Church Amorphous in Beliefs a. Paul’s Letters Indicate Great Variety of Beliefs Among Christians in Different Places b. Uniform Creed Likely Not Developed Until Late First or Early Second Century C.E. E. The Production of the New Testament (Twenty-Seven Books Total) 1. First Christians Had Scriptures Other than Hebrew Scriptures 2. Paul’s Letters (Epistles) to Churches First Christian Literature Produced (circa 50-60 C.E.)

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a. Today Scholars Think Not All Fourteen Letters Traditionally Attributed to Paul Actually by Him b. Paul’s Letters a Mixture of Practice Advice on the Life of Faith and Theological Opinion about the Meaning of Jesus’ Life, Death, Resurrection 3. Memories of Jesus’ Words and Deeds Passed on Orally for Two Generations Before First Gospel Written a. Expectation of Imminent End of World Reduced Motivation to Commit Anything to Writing b. As Those Who Knew Jesus Began to Die, Decided to Record the Oral Tradition in Writing c. Shock of Roman Destruction of Jerusalem and Temple Might Have Motivated Christians to Write the Life of Jesus 4. The Four Gospels a. Mark’s Gospel Written First, Circa 70 C.E. b. Matthew and Luke’s Gospels Written Circa 80 C.E., (1) Matthew and Luke Probably Using Mark’s Gospel as Base (2) Luke’s Gospel Likely Included Acts as Its Second Volume c. John’s Gospel Written Last, Circa 90-100 C.E. 5. Other New Testament Letters of Peter, James, John 6. Non-Canonical Books Subject of Controversy Then and Now a. Not All Books by Christians about Jesus and Christian Faith Included in New Testament b. Possibly Not Popular or Authoritative Enough c. Questions about the Canon Linger for Centuries F. Early Theological Controversies 1. Gnosticism: The First Major Intra-Christian Controversy a. Material Universe Controlled by Evil Forces b. Only Spirit is Pure and Divine c. Humans Contain Divine Spirit / Spark from Unknown Spirit God; Spark Enables Humans to Recognize Evils of Material World

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d. Redeemer from Unknown Spirit God Must Come to Give Human Souls Secret of Escape from Material World e. Jesus the Redeemer Cannot Really be Human in the Flesh, Must be Pure Spirit Appearing to be Human f. Jesus’ Life, Public Teachings, Death, Resurrection Matter Little g. Jesus’ Secret Teachings on Soul’s Method of Escape from Material World Matter Most h. Gnostics Syncretism: Blending of Esoteric Ideas from Jewish, Greek, Persian, Egyptian Religions i. Mainstream Christianity Resists Gnosticism and Defends Goodness of Material World and Full Humanity of Jesus j. Many Original Gnostic Manuscripts Discovered in 1945 Nag Hammadi, Egypt 2. Marcionism: The Second Major Intra-Christian Controversy a. Marcion (d. 160 C.E.) Teaches there are Two Gods: Creator God of the Jews Presented in the Old Testament, and a Spirit God, the Father of Jesus b. Spirit God Sent Jesus to Save Humanity from the Jewish God of the Old Testament c. Marcion Contrasts Jewish God’s Rigid Legalism with the Christian God’s Love, Mercy, Forgiveness d. Marcion Rejects Old Testament as Scripture, and Most of New Testament as a Jewish Distortion of True Identity and Message of Jesus e. Marcion Excommunicated from Church 144 C.E. f. Church forms Bible Containing both Hebrew and Christian Scriptures to Refute Marcionism g. Marcion’s Rival Church Survives Decades, and Ideas Survive Even Today 3. Montanism: The Third Major Intra-Christian Controversy a. Montanus (circa Mid-Second Century) Teaches Against Organized Christianity b. Spirit Moves Freely Among Christians, Who Speak in Tongues and Prophesy c. Church Should Not Stifle Spirit with Dogmas, Rules, and Leaders d. End of World Coming Soon

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G. Mainstream Christianity Resists Heretical (partisan) Groups 1. Forms Statements of Faith and the Apostle’s Creed to Ensure Quality-Control of its Message 2. Forms the Biblical Canon to List Officially Approved Books of Scripture V. Growth of the Church of Rome A. Christianity a Multi-Cultural, Multi-Ethnic, Multi-Racial Phenomenon 1. Great Theologians and Leaders Arise from Alexandria (Egypt), Antioch (Syria), Caesarea and Cappodocia (modern Turkey), North Africa 2. Deference to Leader of Roman Church Did not Imply Absolute and Perpetual Supremacy of Roman Church’s Leaders or Practices B. After Period of Sporadic Persecutions (64-330 C.E.) Christianity Becomes Legal Religion in Roman Empire, and then Becomes the Official Religion (379 C.E.) C. Emergence of Christianity as the Religion of the Roman Empire 1. The Place of Peter in the New Testament, and Association of Peter with Rome, Bestows Special Status on Roman Church 2. Emperor Constantine Moves Capital from Rome to Byzantium, Leaving Power Vacuum in Rome for Strong Bishops to Fill 3. Eastern Churches Constantly Split by Doctrinal Controversies with No Leader Able to Stand Above the Fray and Act as Unifier D. Augustine (354-430) 1. Second Only to Paul in Influence Over Development of Christianity 2. Born in North Africa, Refuses to Believe in Christianity 3. Joins Manichean Sect (Mixture of Christianity and Zoroastrianism) but Dissatisfied with Manichaeism

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4. Under Influence of Bishop Ambrose of Milan Augustine Converts to Christianity 5. Becomes Bishop of Hippo in North Africa 6. Writes Christian Classics, Confessions and City of God 7. Formulates Doctrine of Original Sin and Predestination; Former Accepted by Christian Mainstream, but not Latter E. The Monastic Movement 1. Christianity the Only Major Religion of Western World to Encourage Monasticism 2. Movement Begins in Deserts of Egypt and Syria in Middle of Third Century C.E. a. Early Monasticism Tinged with Traces of Gnostic Disdain for Bodily, Material Reality b. Monastic Ascetics (Greek ascesis: discipline) Practice Bizarre Feats of Self-Destruction c. Under Pachomius, Cassian, Basil, Benedict Monasticism Gradually Becomes Less Ascetic, More Communal, and Focused on Contemplative Prayer, Work and Study in Service to Church d. Monasteries Become Houses of Study, Producing Some of Church’s Best Theologians and Mystics e. Monasteries Preserve Western Culture in Europe When Roman Empire Disintegrates into Chaos VI. Medieval Christianity A. Division Between Eastern and Western Christianity 1. Political, Geographic, Theological, Ecclesiological, Linguistic Differences Begin to Separate Roman Christians from Eastern Christians 2. A Clash of Religious Sensibilities: Roman Christianity Tends Toward Practical, Eastern Toward Doctrinal-Speculative 3. Issues of Papal Authority Divide Roman and Eastern Christians

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a. Bishop of Rome Saw Self as Only Figure Capable of Unifying Fractious Eastern Patriarchs b. Eastern Church Leaders (Patriarchs) Oppose Perceived Arrogance of the Bishop of Rome 4. 1054 C.E. Controversy Over Trinitarian Doctrine Leads Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Cerularius of Constantinople to Excommunicate Each Other 5. 1204 C.E. Roman Catholic Crusaders on Way to Holy Land Stop at Constantinople and Sack the City, Ensuring Lasting Bitterness Between the Two Major Branches of Christianity B. The Medieval Papacy 1. Roman Catholic Church Led by Popes Had Virtual Monopoly on European Religion for Centuries 2. As Roman Empire Crumbled, Papacy Increased in Religious Authority, Political Power, and Worldly Wealth 3. Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085 C.E.) Wins Contest of Authority Over Emperor Henry VI (d. 1106 C.E.), Establishing Papacy’s Power over Temporal Rulers 4. The Avignon Papacy Crisis (1309-1377 C.E.) Diminishes Papal Prestige and Authority 5. The Great Schism: Three Rival Popes Compete for the Loyalties of European Christians (1378-1418 C.E.), Further Diminishing Papal Authority C. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) 1. Intellectual Revival / Revolution Gripping Europe from Tenth to Fourteenth Centuries C.E. a. Rediscovery of Ancient Greek Philosophical Texts, Particularly Aristotle, Causes Theological Ferment b. Muslim Scholars of Aristotle, Like Maimonides, Challenge Christianity’s Intellectual Hegemony in Europe 2. Issues of Relationship of Faith and Reason, Grace and Nature, Science and Religion Grip European Intellectuals Reading Aristotle’s Philosophy

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3. Aquinas, Dominican Friar, Writes Influential Theological Synthesis of Christianity and Aristotle’s Philosophy a. Aquinas’ Theories on the Unity of Christian Faith and Reason, Grace and Nature, Have Long Lasting Impact on Christian Theology b. Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Popes Virtually Coronate Aquinas as the Official Theologian of Roman Catholicism c. Late Twentieth Century Catholicism Seeks to Reduce the Earlier Over-emphasis on Thomism VII.

The Protestant Reformation A. Causes and Consequences of the Reformation 1. Causes a. Rise of European Nationalism b. Emergence of New Intellectual Systems and Learning in the Renaissance c. Decline of the Papacy’s Prestige and Authority 2. Consequences a. Destroyed Christianity’s Unified Hold on European Culture and Politics b. Sparked Long Period of Intra-Christian Civil War c. Indirectly Inspired the Creation of Modern Notions of Separation of Church-State and the Freedom of the Individual who Conscientiously Dissents from the Majority B. Early Reform Movements 1. England: John Wycliffe (1320-1384 C.E.) a. Believed Common People Should have Access to the Bible, Translated Latin Bible (Vulgate) to English b. Organized Band of Wandering Preachers, the Lollards, to Preach and Teach

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2. Bohemia: John Hus (1374-1415 C.E.) a. Influenced by Wycliffe b. Denounced Evils of the Papacy c. Denounced Indulgence System Whereby People Paid Money to Church to Buy Forgiveness for the Sins of Those in Purgatory d. Condemned by Council of Florence in 1415 and Burned at the Stake 3. Italy: Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498 C.E.) a. Preached Against Moral Laxity in Florence b. Offended Loose-Living Pope Alexander VI, Who Excommunicated Him c. Savonarola Hanged with Two Disciples C. Martin Luther (1483-1546 C.E.) 1. Young Luther Planned Career in Law, But Near-Death Experience Led Him to Join Augustinian Monastery 2. A Zealous, Scrupulous Anxious Monk a. Extreme in Practice of Fasting, Vigils, Confession, Self-Mortification b. Believed He Could Earn Salvation with Pious Acts 3. Discovers St. Paul’s Theology of Faith and Grace a. Paul’s “the just shall live by faith alone” Changes Luther’s Life b. Luther Studies Paul’s Letters Galatians and Romans 4. Advocates Moral Reform, End of Indulgence System a. Post Ninety-five Theses on Door of Church in Wittenburg, October 31, 1517 b. Sparks Widespread Public Controversy 5. Advocates Universal Priesthood of all Believes and Universal Access to the Bible 6. Luther’s Opinions Spread Widely Due to Printing Press

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7. 1521 Luther Goes into Hiding from Political and Ecclesiastical Enemies a. While in Hiding Luther Translates New Testament into German b. Writes Nearly Dozen Books 8. 1522 Returns to Wittenberg to Oversee Process of Reformation His Writings Inspired a. Opposed Those Reformers who Argued Only that Which is Explicitly Taught in Scripture is Valid in Christianity b. Luther Taught that Only that Which Was Explicitly Contrary to Teachings of Scripture Should be Removed from Christianity c. Luther Marries, Encourages Other Monks and Nuns to Break Their Vows and Marry Too 9. Luther Grows More Conservative in Last Years a. Writes Bitter Anti-Judaic Polemics b. Encouraged German Nobility to Violently Slaughter Peasants who Rebelled 10. Germany and Northern Europe Become a Patch-work of Catholic and Protestant Zones a. Regions Followed Lead of their Princes b. Scandinavian Nations Become Lutheran D. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531 C.E.) 1. Swiss Reformer, Contemporary of Luther 2. Nearly Identical in Theology to the German Reformers 3. Disagreed on Question of Whether or Not Christ was Spiritually Really Present in Eucharistic Bread and Wine—Zwingli Believed Eucharist Only Symbolic Memorial E. John Calvin (1509-1564 C.E.) 1. Greatest and Most Influential Mind of the Reformation 2. Writes Institutes of the Christian Religion

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a. Sets Forth Ideal Christian Religion Untainted by Roman Corruption b. Deeply Influenced by Augustine’s Theology c. Teaches Predestination 3. Leads Reformed Church in Geneva a. Very Austere Vision of Christianity b. Encouraged Capitalist Enterprises and Lending Money at Interest c. Encouraged Education d. Influence Reaches Into France, Scotland, and England F. Other Reformation Leaders and Movements 1. Protestantism Becomes Vehicle of National and Regional Independence Movements from Rome and Rome-Aligned Kings and Princes a. Church of England Established Under Henry VIII b. Numerous Political Struggles in France Between Protestants and Catholics, and Pro- and Anti-Roman Catholics 2. After Luther’s Death Hundreds of Protestant Denominations Emerge throughout Europe a. Doctrine of Universal Priesthood of All Believers Encourages Religious Individualism and Undermines Organized, Communal Religion b. Scriptural Interpretation No Longer Governed by a Set of Long-Standing Community-Based Rules c. Anabaptists (literally: those who baptize a second time) Baptize Adults, Develop into Numerous Sectarian Movements, Persecuted by both Mainstream Reformers and Catholic d. French Huguenots Suffer Persecution VIII. Modern Christianity A. The Catholic Counter-Reformation 1. Many Roman Catholics Recognized Corruption of Church, Desired Serious Reform

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2. The Council of Trent (1545-1663 C.E.) a. Generally Reforms Clearly Delineated Catholicism in Ways that Made Reconciliation with Protestants Difficult b. Taught Scripture and Tradition Co-Equal c. Includes Books in the Old Testament not Considered Scripture by All Protestants d. Taught there are Seven Sacraments e. Supported Relics, Veneration of the Saints, Sacred Images f. Sale of Indulgences Controlled and Other Abuses Corrected 3. The Formation and Rise of the Jesuit Order a. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556 C.E.) Writes Spiritual Exercises, Creates New Activist Catholic Movement b. Francis Xavier (1506-1552 C.E.) Brings Jesuit Catholicism to India and Japan c. Jesuit Order Grows, Evokes Fear and Suspicion Among Protestants and Some Catholics B. Catholic Dogmas Since the Counter-Reformation 1. The Immaculate Conception of Mary (1854 C.E.) Promulgated by Pope Pius IX Teaches that Mary Born without Original Sin 2. Papal Infallibility (1870 C.E.) a. Pope Infallible on Faith and Morals b. Pope Must Claim Special Infallible Status Ex Cathedra “from the chair”) for Teachings c. Everything Pope Teaches Not Automatically Counted as Infallible, but only Very Rare, Limited Teachings Given Ex Cathedra d. Still the Dogma Deeply Offends Non-Catholic, Christians 3. The Bodily Assumption of Mary into Heaven (1950 C.E.) a. Pope Pius XII Teaches Mary’s Body Did not Decay in Tomb after Death b. Mary’s Body Taken Directly to Heaven

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C. Vatican II (1962-65) 1. Called by Pope John XXIII to Revitalize Catholic Church’ 2. Enacts Sweeping Changes in Catholicism a. Non-Catholics Officially Recognized as True Christians b. Affirms Use of Vernacular in Worship c. Index of Prohibited Books Abolished d. More Congregational Participation in Worship Encouraged e. Officially Declares that Not All Jews Responsible for Death of Jesus f. Opens Door to Reconciliation with Protestants and Eastern Orthodox Christians IX. Modern Movements A. Modern Protestant Movements 1. The Four Main Branches of Protestantism a. Lutherans, Based Primarily in German and Scandinavian Countries, and in Countries with Large Immigrant Populations from Them b. Reformed and Presbyterian, Based in Central Europe, Scotland, Parts of England, and United States, Canada, New Zealand, Australia c. Anabaptists, Including Baptists, Mennonites, Amish, Based in Germany, Eastern Europe, Canada, United States d. Church of England / Anglican and Methodists 2. Methodists a. Eighteenth Century Offshoot of Church of England b. Founder: John Wesley (1703-1792) c. John and Charles Wesley Attempt to Revive Emotional Zeal and Spiritual Commitment of Church of England d. Movement Nicknamed “Methodist” Because of Wesley’s Emphasis on Disciplined Methods of Piety and Religious Devotion

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e. Encounter Moravians, Begin to Emphasize Conversion as Central to Faith f. Emotional, Pious Intensity Appeals to Working Class, Lower Class English g. Movement Spreads to American Colonies, Becomes Second Largest Religion in America 3. Christian Groups Reach Out to Poor, Uneducated, Marginalized in Urban Industrial Western Societies a. The Salvation Army b. The Young Men’s Christian Association c. The Sunday School Movement B. The Missionary Movement 1. Missionary Work Part of Christianity from Earliest Days 2. Catholic and Protestant Missionaries Work in Almost All Corners of the Globe C. The Ecumenical Movement 1. Twentieth Century Origins a. World Council of Churches Formed in 1948 b. Actual Reunion Between Churches Has Proven More Difficult than Anticipated 2. Divisions Between Christians East and West, Protestant and Catholic, Protestant and Protestant Remain Insurmountable 3. Division Hinders World Missionary Work X. The Christian Calendar and Holy Days A. Sunday 1. Early Jewish-Christians Considered Saturday the Sabbath 2. Sunday Becomes Sabbath Day because Believed to be Day Jesus Rose from Dead

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B. Advent, Christmas, Epiphany 1. Advent (Late November, December) a Period of Spiritual Preparation for Christmas 2. Christmas (December 25th in West, January in East) Celebrates Birth of Jesus 3. Epiphany (January 6th—Twelve Days After Christmas) Commemorates Wise Men Who Visited Infant Jesus C. Easter 1. Oldest, Most Widely Accepted, Most Important Christian Holy Day Commemorates Resurrection of Jesus 2. Date Varies, Based on Lunar Calendar; Generally Connected to Vernal Equinox (March-April) 3. Lent: Forty Day Season of Repentance and Purification Before Easter 4. Holy Week: The Week Before Easter Commemorating Jesus’ Entry into Jerusalem, Last Supper, Arrest, and Crucifixion 5. Good Friday: Commemorates Day of Jesus’ Crucifixion 6. Holy Saturday: Commemorates Jesus’ Time in Tomb 7. Easter Sunday: Commemorates Jesus’ Resurrection 8. Ascension: Forty Days After Easter, Commemorates Jesus Ascending to the Father D. Pentecost 1. Ancient Christian Holiday Corresponding to Jewish Shavuot (Commemorating God Giving Law to Moses on Sinai) 2. According to Acts of Apostles Risen Christ Sent Holy Spirit to Followers on Pentecost, Exactly Fifty Days After Resurrection, on Jewish Feast Day of Shavuot 3. Pentecost Considered the Birthday of the Church, Marked Beginning of Christianity’s Missionary Work in World

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XI. Christianity Today A. World’s Largest Religion 1. Nearly 34,000 Christian Denominations 2. Deeply Divided Along Theological, Political, Nationalistic, Geographic, Cultural Lines 3. Christianity in Decline in Secular Europe a. Church Attendance as Low as Two Percent in Some Countries b. Roman Catholicism Faces Shortage of Priests B. Liberation Theology 1. Arises in Latin America in 1960s and 1970s 2. Interprets the Message of Christianity in terms of the Needs of the Poor and Marginalized of Society 3. Opponents Accuse Liberation Theology of Being Very Close to Marxist Doctrine C. Fundamentalism 1. Begins as Nineteenth Century North American Attempt to Defend Literal Inerrancy of Scripture in Face of Scientific Critique 2. Develops into Political-Cultural Movement Seeking to Expunge “Liberalism” and “Relativism” and Homosexuality from Western Society D. New Christianities 1. Mormonism / Church of Latter Day Saints a. Founder: Joseph Smith in Nineteenth Century America b. Smith Claimed to Receive Instruction in Visions from God the Father, Jesus, John Baptist, Several Apostles, and an Angel Named Moroni c. Smith Believed the Angel Moroni Led Him to Discover the Book of Mormon

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d. e.

f. g.

(1) Long Lost Sacred Book Written on Golden Tablets in Strange Ancient Language (2) Moroni Guides Smith in Interpreting Words on Golden Tablets (3) Tablets Tell Story of Nephite Prophets—Ancient Israelites who Migrated to the Americas (4) Tablets Recount Story of Risen Christ Appearing to Native American Descendants of the Nephites (5) Smith Records Further Revelations Concerning Doctrine and Ritual in Doctrines and Covenants (6) Third Mormon Scripture Known as Pearl of Great Price Mormons Consider Selves Only True Christians, Consider First Nineteen Hundred Years of Christianity an Long Age of Apostasy Early Mormons—Including Smith—Preached and Practiced Polygamy (1) Teachings on Polygamy Led to Persecution by Other Christian Groups (2) Early Mormons Migrate from Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, Settle in Utah in 1847 Later Mormonism Claimed God Gave New Revelation Forbidding Polygamy Mormons Aggressive Missionaries, Leading to Phenomenal Growth of their Denomination

2. Protestant Mega-Churches a. Use Mass Media Effectively b. Run Dozens of Ministry Programs and Seek to be Total Presence in Lives of Members E. Christianity Fastest Growing Religion in Developing Countries 1. Christians Outnumber Muslims in Africa 2. Christianity in Korea Grows at Ten Percent a Year from Grassroots Efforts 3. After Colonialism African Christianity has Developed into Indigenous Movement Containing Many Elements of Traditional African Religion

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Key Names, Concepts, and Terms Jesus resurrection parable Sermon on Mount Peter and James Paul Gospels New Testament Last Supper Acts of Apostles Pentecost Holy Spirit Bishop Gnosticism Marcionism Montanism Bible

Creed Baptism / Eucharist Constantine Trinity Bishop of Rome / Pope Augustine Monasticism Eastern Orthodoxy Patriarch Avignon Papacy Great Schism Aquinas Wycliffe, Hus, Savonarola Luther, Calvin, Zwingli Reformation priesthood of all believers Henry VIII

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Anabaptists Methodists John Wesley Council of Trent Jesuits Papal Infallibility Vatican II missionary ecumenical Mormonism Book of Mormon mega-church Liberation Theology Fundamentalism Lent / Easter Advent / Christmas Ascension