cib w104 open building implementation 767 ...

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CIB W104 OPEN BUILDING IMPLEMENTATION

! REPURPOSING ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION TO COMBAT CATASTROPHIC STRUCTURAL FAILURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A NIGERIAN CASE STUDY! Prof. Olu Ola Ogunsote, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Prof. Joseph Olasehinde Afolayan, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Dr. Chinwuba Arum, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Prof. Bogda Prucnal-Ogunsote, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria, [email protected] Abstract Regular and calamitous collapse of buildings is a major concern in Nigeria. To combat this menace, stakeholders have tried to identify its causes and make recommendations for its amelioration. This paper discusses the major building collapses in history and gives examples of collapses in Nigeria that have claimed lives, and it also identifies their causes. The profit motive and professional incompetence or negligence epitomise major facilitators of substandard structures that lead to structural failure, with immeasurable human costs. In Nigeria, these two facilitators are manifest in several processes and activities in the design and construction of buildings. The paper maintains that it is possible to strike a balance between quality and quantity in building structures, and recommends re-envisioning of the training of architects, engineers and other professional in the construction industry. The deficiencies in the training, practical exposure and ethical orientation of student architects, engineers and quantity surveyors are highlighted. These shortcomings can be ameliorated by requisite adjustments to the curriculum, more rigorous field training of students, emphasis on project management skills, and greater integration of the disciplines responsible for the built environment. This integration should include colocation of the disciplines in the same or adjacent faculties, course sharing, teaching of architectural design and structural analysis courses by subject experts, emphasis on multidisciplinary design software such as Revit, and encouragement of teamwork by encouraging the use of some form of Building Information Modelling (BIM) for the design, analysis and costing of structures. The establishment of multi-disciplinary consulting firms should be encouraged by removing legal bottlenecks to registration, and by giving them preference in the Public Procurement Act. Keywords: architecture, education, engineering, Nigeria, structural failure. INTRODUCTION Incidents of catastrophic building collapse in Nigeria have increased with urbanization, while publicity of these calamitous events has become widespread and practically instantaneous, especially with the proliferation of social media. The response of the emergency services is now timelier; the politicians make more noise and threaten stiffer sanctions against erring parties. This is sometimes followed by the demolition of adjacent buildings that were suddenly discovered to be structurally unsound. After a few days or weeks of media frenzy attention shifts to other breaking news. However, for the orphaned and widowed, bereaved and deprived, amputees and disfigured, destitute and broken hearted, the harrowing descent into depression would have just commenced. The culprits most often than not walk away as free men, and suffer only material losses. Their collaborators sometimes suffer no losses at all. This social menace is a cause for great concern, and architects are usually next in line after engineers on the roll call of suspects, even when the contractor or owner is obviously at fault. Many studies have identified the immediate and remote causes of these structural failures, and also suggested means of limiting their occurrence. While some of these studies include better training as one of the remedies, this paper analyses the structural design components in the curriculum of representative Nigerian universities, and compares these with those in leading universities, including those that offer courses that combine architectural with structural engineering training. The paper argues the thesis that repurposing and better integration of architectural and structural engineering training can reduce incidences of catastrophic building collapse.

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! MAJOR BUILDING COLLAPSES IN HISTORY History is replete with the collapse of structures. The most definitive of these still remains the Tower of Babel as documented in the biblical Book of Genesis (Plate 1). This brick tower was designed so that the “top may reach unto heaven” (Genesis 11:4), but its building was discontinued after God confounded their speech and scattered them upon the face of the Earth (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014). The Third Apocalypse of Baruch describes how they “sought to pierce the heavens, saying, Let us see (whether) the heaven is made of clay, or of brass, or of iron” (Greek Apocalypse of Baruch 3:5-8). The assumption from the text of Genesis is that the tower collapsed with age, but the Book of Jubilees documents how God overturned the tower with a great wind, and also gave the height as 2,484 metres, which is about three times the height of the Burj Khalifa (Jubilees 10:18-27; Charles 1913). The Burj Khalifa (Plate 2), being much shorter than the Tower of Babel has a more modest goal of reaching the sky.

Plate 1: Artist’s impression of the Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1563) (Source: Open History Society 2014).

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Plate 2: The Burj Khalifa in Dubai. Standing at 830 metres, this remains the tallest building and the tallest manmade structure in the world. Much like the Tower of Babel, the Burj Khalifa aims to reach from the earth to the sky (Source: Photograph by the authors 2011). Other examples of building collapse in the Bible are less nebular, but probably more dramatic. In the Book of Judges, Samson toppled the two main pillars upon which the house stood, and killed himself and all the

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! Philistines within (Judges 16: 28-30). The Book of Joshua describes how the walls of the City of Jericho collapsed after the Israelites marched around it seven times, blew their horns and shouted (Joshua 6: 1-27). While theologians and archaeologists debate with historians and scientists about the veracity of these biblical building collapses, written history has sufficient cases of catastrophic building collapses dating from the Roman Empire to the present time. Many of these structures were bridges and masts, but amphitheatres, residential buildings, office towers and many other high-rise buildings have been known to collapse (Table 1). The most dramatic of these is the collapse of the 110-storey twin towers at the World Trade Centre in New York after the September 11 terror attack of 2001 (Plates 3 and 4). More recently, the 2013 collapse of the Rana Plaza garment factory in Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh which killed more than 1,100 workers and injured 2,500 others shocked the world (Plate 5). Table 1: Major building collapses in history. Year

Structural collapse

Location

Casualties

27

Fidenae amphitheatre collapse

Fidenae, Italia, Roman Empire

More than 20,000.

140

Upper tier collapse of the Circus Maximus

Rome, Italia, Roman Empire

About 13,000.

1973

Skyline Plaza, a 24-storey apartment building

Virginia, USA

14 killed, 34 injured.

1986

6-storey Hotel New World

Singapore


1993

6-storey Royal Plaza Hotel

Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand


1995

Sampoong Department Store

Seoul, South Korea


2001

110-storey Twin Towers, World Trade Centre

New York, USA

2,606 killed in the towers and on the ground.

2010

Tenement building

New Delhi, India


2012

20-storey high-rise office building, 10-storey and 4-storey buildings

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

At least 17 killed.

2013

Building under construction

Thane, Mumbai


2013

Rana Plaza Garment Factory

Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh

More than 1100 killed, more than 2500 injured.

(Source: Internet search).

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Plate 3: Dramatic collapse of the Twin Towers at the World Trade Centre in New York after the September 11 terror attack of 2001 (Source: Google Images).

Plate 4: Ground Zero: Gaping hole left after the collapse of the Twin Towers at the World Trade Centre in New York after the September 11 terror attack of 2001 (Source: Authors’ photograph, 2005).

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Plate 5: Collapse of Rana Plaza Garment Factory in Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh (Source: Tamal 2014). EXAMPLES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE IN NIGERIA Building collapse in Nigeria is very common and well documented. A recent national technical workshop organised by the Nigerian Building and Roads Research Institute examined the history, causes, cost and consequences of building failures in Nigeria (Akindoyeni 2012; Aliyu 2012; Alufohai 2012; Atume 2012; Ejeh 2012; Ike 2012; Jambol 2012 and Matawal 2012). Several authors have published research findings about the same subject, and made various recommendations (Adedeji 2013; Akinwale 2010; Ayodeji 2011; Dimuna 2010; Ede 2010; Fakere, Fadairo & Fakere 2012; Ibrahim 2013; Nigerian Building & Road Research Institute 2011; Olanitori 2011; Oloyede, Omoogun & Akinjare 2010; Olusola, Ojambati & Lawal, 2011; and Taiwo & Afolami 2011). These building collapses often claim scores of victims, and are most common in urban areas (Table 2). Table 2. Examples of major building collapse in Nigeria. Date

Structural collapse

Location

Casualties

October 1974

Multi-storey building under construction

Mokola, lbadan

27 killed.

June 1977

School building

Kaduna

16 killed, many injured.

August 1977

Housing Estate

Barnawa, Kaduna

28 killed

September 1987

Residence

Idusagbe Lane, ldumota, Lagos

17 killed.

June 1990

Sague Comprehensive Primary and Secondary School

Port Harcourt

50 killed.

June 1997

Three-storey building under construction

Enugu

20 killed.

June 2005

4-storey building

Aba

25 killed, many injured.

July 2005

3-storey building

Lagos

30 dead, many injured

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! Date

Structural collapse

Location

Casualties

July 2005

5-storey office building

Port-Harcourt

30 killed, many injured

July 2006

4-storey block of flats

Lagos

25 killed.

July 2006

Block of 36 flats, penthouse and shops

Ebute Metta, Lagos


August 2006

4-storey building

Lagos

50 killed, many injured

July 2008

Four-Storey Shopping Centre under construction

Utako District, Abuja


June 2009

2-storey building

Iddo, Lagos


August 2010

4-storey building

2 Ikole Street, Garki 2, Abuja

21 killed.

July 2011

3-storey building

6 Mogaji close, Idumota, Lagos

18 killed.

(Sources: Adedeji 2013; Dimuna 2010; Fakere, Fadairo & Fakere 2012; Ike 2012). The most notorious cities for building collapse are Lagos, Port Harcourt, Abuja and Enugu (Plates 6, 7 and 8). The higher incidence of collapse of buildings in highly populated areas has been ascribed to the high demand for housing and services, leading to shylock landlords engaging in sharp practices in order to increase their profit.

Plate 6: The two-storey building in Jakande Estate, Isolo, Lagos that collapsed in November 2012. Two sisters died in the incident (Source: Google images).

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Plate 7: Remains of a 6-Storey building that collapsed at Maryland, Lagos in November 2011 (Source: Matawal 2012).

Plate 8: Collapse of a two-storey building owned by the Nigerian Navy in Gwarimpa, Abuja. (Source: Ike 2012). STRUCTURAL FAILURE IN BUILDINGS Failure is an unacceptable difference between expected and observed performance. A failure can be considered as occurring in a component when that component can no longer be relied upon to fulfil its principal functions (Roddis 1993). Structural failure occurs when ultimate limit states are surpassed resulting in collapse, overturning or buckling. On the other hand, structural failure due to serviceability limit states being exceeded leads to deformation, cracking, vibration, etc. (British Standards Institute 2001, 2002). Building collapse is therefore necessarily characterised by structural failure due to ultimate limit states being exceeded.

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! Limit State Design (LSD) A limit state is a set of performance criteria such as vibration levels, deflection, strength, stability, buckling, twisting, or collapse that must be met when a structure is subject to loads. Limit states design of structures is based on the limit states beyond which structures become unfit for their intended use. The reliability of a structure is determined using two limit states: the Serviceability Limit States (SLS) and the Ultimate Limit States (ULS). Limit state design is known as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) in the United States. The serviceability limit states are the limits beyond which specified service criteria are no longer met. Structures that exceed serviceability limits may cause occupant discomfort in everyday use, when they are subject to routine loads, even though they may not collapse. For example, when the vibration of a floor can be felt by users, or a bridge can be seen to sway, or a truss can be seen to sag, then the structures might have exceeded their serviceability limit states, and users may feel unsafe in such structures. Ultimate limit states concern the safety of the whole or part of the structure, and are evidenced by failure of structural members when exceeded. The ultimate limit states specify the conditions under which a structure may collapse when subjected to peak loads. Examples are general yielding, rupture, buckling, overturning and fractures. Limit state design covers the variability of material strength, loading and structural performance. Ultimate limit states are determined by limit states for strength, stability, fatigue, brittle fracture and structural integrity. CAUSES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE The University of the West of England, Bristol (2009) classified the causes of building collapse under the following general headings: ● Bad design. ● Faulty construction. ● Foundation failure. ● Extraordinary loads. ● Unexpected failure modes. ● Quality of materials. ● Quality of workmanship. ● Cost cutting measures. ● Acts of God and environmental disasters. ● Soil failure. ● Combination of causes. Dimuna (2010) listed the following as the causes of building failure or collapse in Nigeria: ● Deficient structural drawings. ● Absence of proper supervision. ● Alteration of approved drawings. ● Building without approved drawings. ● Approval of technically deficient drawings. ● Illegal alterations to existing buildings. ● Absence of town planning inspection or monitoring of sites. ● Clients’ penchant to cut corners. ● Use of substandard materials. ● Inefficient workmanship (labour). ● Use of acidic and salty water. ● The activities of quacks. ● Clients’ over reliance on contractors for decision making on site. The Nigerian factor A rather interesting proposition about the causes of building failure by Ede (2010) is that there are some causes that are unique to, or at least more prominent in Nigeria, and he dubbed these the Nigerian factor. According to him, the Nigerian factor in the building industry rears up its ugly head in different forms such

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! as corruption, lawlessness and presumptions that any engineer or professional in the built environment can assume all forms responsibility in a building process without the basic skills required for it. Atume (2012) further expanded this argument by listing the forms in which the Nigerian factor appears in the building industry and they include the following: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Corruption. Lack of supervision. Bad governance. Misuse and abuse of authority by those in authority especially some of the professionals. Insufficient quality control and standards. Lack of sanctions against erring professionals and landlords. Illegal conversion of buildings which often lead to structural deficiencies. Non adherence to approval regulations. Lack of soil investigation and improper interpretation of site conditions. Negligence. Unethical dealings between project promoters and the relevant planning authorities. Non-involvement of registered professionals in one or more stages of the project. Poor and bad construction practices. Incompetent and low quality workmanship. Greed. Corner cutting by the client or the contractor. Hasty construction. Use of poor quality materials or poor or inadequate formwork. Construction by all-comers due to the perception of engineering as an easy access window to make quick money.

Tempting as this proposition about the uniqueness of Nigeria in matters concerning structural failure of buildings may be, reports from numerous developing nations, and even poor regions of developed countries suggest that the causes of building collapse are more universal than national. Pecuniary facilitators of building collapse One factor that underlies most of the causes of building collapse is greed. There is a tendency by most stakeholders in the building industry to maximise profit, often at the expense of safety or moral standards. This greed is most obvious from the activities of clients, owners and contractors, but even professionals and consultants sometimes delivering substandard or incomplete services. Many professionals are more interested in the fees they will collect than in the quality of their services, and therefore engage in various unprofessional practices such as fee undercutting, supplanting, bribery, collusion with contractors and negligence. This greed is most noticeable in the following practices. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Cost savings by not using qualified and certified consultants and workers. Use of cheaper but structurally inferior materials. Use of insufficient quantities of, or omission of key structural elements. Building on cheaper but unstable soil without necessary reinforcement. Cost savings by neglecting essential tests. Cost savings through elimination or reduction of structural redundancy, and considering such as unnecessary luxury. Cost savings through reduction or elimination of regular maintenance of critical structural elements. Ignoring signs and warnings of imminent structural failure because of the cost implications of repairs.

The dichotomy of quantum and quality in building structures A recurring theme in the cases of collapsed buildings is the poor structural quality of buildings being a trade-off for making higher profits. This zero-sum postulation is however false, since it is possible to design and build safe buildings at reasonable cost, and with reasonable profit. This is a challenge to professionals, researchers and academicians, who must find better and smarter ways of building stronger, safer and cheaper buildings. The use of novel materials in rebuilding devastated communities after disasters is gaining ground, although the issue of the often significantly higher reconstruction costs need to be addressed.

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! THE NEED FOR REPURPOSING ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION This paper has identified several deficiencies in the training, practical exposure and ethical orientation of building professionals. These deficits may be reduced by re-envisioning architectural and structural engineering education. Deficiencies in the curriculum The challenges of building collapse and the increasing demands on the construction industry necessitate regular review of the curriculum of architecture and structural engineering programmes. Yet, many universities operate outdated curricula, and graduates often do not possess the skills anticipated by employers, or those required to operate professional consultancy services successfully. Inadequate field training of students Exposing students to more rigorous field training through frequent field trips and well supervised Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is necessary to enhance the practical experience acquired by students in school. The choice of SIWES workplaces by students is sometimes not based on the quality of practical experience they would acquire, but more on the remuneration and working conditions. Employers sometimes consider these students as cheap labour and not as trainees, and therefore do not expose them to necessary challenges and supervision. Lack of emphasis on project management skills While some form of project management or professional practice procedures is taught in architecture and engineering schools, they are rarely taught by professionals who are fully engaged in professional practice, and the mode of teaching rarely emphasizes real life case studies. Yet the complexity of large projects requires refined project conceptualization, financing and management skills. This skill deficit is worsened by the non-recognition or poor remuneration of project managers, and the architect or engineer is often made to perform the required duties without additional compensation. This often leads to disconnect between the various professionals and the ensuing mistakes and inefficiencies can increase the risk of structural failure. Non-integration of the disciplines responsible for the built environment The empire syndrome and the regulation of architecture and structural engineering programmes by different professional bodies make integration of these programmes challenging. This also applies to related disciplines such as building and quantity surveying. These professionals need to work as a team on practically all large construction sites, yet their training is largely compartmentalized. Poor professional ethics Some consultants emphasize the business aspect of their practices over the social responsibility expectations, and over the ethical guides of their professions. They perform as little of their duties as possible, and demand maximum compensation. They are also easily compromised, and they enter into shady deals with contractors, and even with other consultants. They employ unqualified assistants, who they underpay. The best place to inculcate good professional ethics is in school and during tutelage, thus the curriculum and practical exposure must emphasize this. EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATION OF ARCHITECTURE AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMMES All schools of architecture offer structural analysis and design in one form or the other. The number of credit hours offered varies, but most schools offer at least four courses on at least two levels. Departments of civil engineering sometimes offer one or two courses directly related to architectural design. The building structures courses in architecture schools are usually taught by architects, and since there is no continuing education programmes for lecturers, the tendency is for the currency and standard of the building structures curriculum to decline over time. This has led to a situation whereby architecture graduates can rarely independently complete structural analysis and design of even small structures. The architectural design courses in departments of engineering are also taught by engineers who rarely possess the currency in professional architectural practice to make much impact on the students.

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! Attempts have been made by some universities to offer degrees that combine architectural design with structural engineering. Others have located architecture departments in faculties of engineering, and many courses in such architecture programmes are taught by engineers. Princeton University, Princeton, USA: Architecture and Engineering programme This unique programme is offered jointly by the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the School of Architecture, and it combines the curricula of the two schools. The programme has two options: the structures focus and the architecture focus. The architecture option has a strong emphasis on architecture theory, history, and practice, and is designed for students planning to do graduate work in architecture or to practice engineering in consultation with architects and planners. It includes 6 engineering science and 2 engineering design courses (Table 3). The structures option has a strong emphasis on civil and environmental engineering, and is designed for students who intend to become practicing engineers and may go to graduate school in architecture or engineering. It includes 3 compulsory architecture courses (Table 4). Table 3: Engineering courses offered in the architecture option of the Architecture and Engineering programme, Princeton University, Princeton, USA. Course type Engineering science requirements

Engineering design requirements

Subject code CEE 205 CEE 262A

Course title

Level / comments

Mechanics of Solids

200

Structures and the Urban Environment

200

CEE 312

Statics of Structures

300 (or CEE 361)

CEE 361

Matrix Structural Analysis and Introduction to Finite-Element Methods

300 (or CEE 312)

CEE 364

Materials in Civil Engineering

300

ARC 311

Building Science and Technology: Building Systems

300

ARC 374

Computational Design

300

CEE 366

Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures

300

CEE 461

Design of Large Scale Structures: Buildings

400 (or CEE 462)

CEE 462

Design of Large Scale Structures: Bridges

400 (or CEE 461)

(Source: Princeton University, Princeton 2014). Table 4: Architecture courses offered in the structures option of the Architecture and Engineering programme, Princeton University, Princeton, USA. Course type

Subject code

Course title

Engineering science requirement

ARC 374

Computational Design

300

Track specific requirements

ARC 203

Introduction to Architectural Thinking

200

778

Level



! Course type

Subject code

Course title

ARC 204

Introduction to Architectural Design

200

Junior Independent Work

300

ARC

Level

Source: Princeton University, Princeton 2014. Howard University, Washington, USA: School of Architecture and Design The School of Architecture and Design is in the College of Engineering, Architecture and Computer Sciences. There are several structures courses offered in the 5-year programme (Table 5). Table 5: Engineering courses offered in the School of Architecture and Design in the College of Engineering, Architecture and Computer Sciences, Howard University, Washington, USA. Course code

Course title

Credit units

Level

Semester

ARCH-501

Structures I (Statics)

3

300

Fall

ARCH-502

Structures II (Strength)

3

300

Spring

ARCH-503

Structures III (Structural Innovations)

3

400

Fall

ARCH-504

Structural Innovations (Elective)

3

400

Spring

Total

12

Source: Howard University, Washington, USA 2014. Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland: Master of Science in Architecture programme The Faculty of Architecture offers a 5-year programme, which is divided into a 7-semester first degree programme and a 3-semester second degree programme. Structural engineering courses are taught by structural engineers but the courses are specifically tailored to architecture students (Table 6). Table 6: Engineering courses offered by the Faculty of Architecture, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland. Subject code

Course title

ECTS credits

Level

Semesters

I-B-3

Building Mechanics

3

100

First

I-B-3

Building Mechanics

3

100

Second

I-C-14

Building Structures

3

200

First

I-C-14

Building Structures

2

200

Second

II-C-4

Building Structures

2

400

Second

II-C-4

Building Structures

3

500

First

Total

18

Source: Politechnika Krakowska, Wydzial Architektury 2014. University of Jos (UniJos): Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme The University of Jos offers a 4-year Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme. Structural analysis and design courses are offered at the 200, 300 and 400 levels (Table 7).

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! Table 7: Structural engineering design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, University of Jos, Jos. Course code

Course title

Number of credit units

Level

Semester

ARC 245

Building Structure and Architectural Forms I

2

200

First

ARC 246

Building Structures and Architectural Forms II

2

200

Second

ARC 345

Building Structures and Architectural Forms III

2

300

First

ARC 443

Building Structures and Architectural Forms V

2

400

First

ARC 444

Building Structures and Architectural Forms VI

2

400

Second

Total

10

(Source: University of Jos, Jos 2014). Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA): Bachelor of Technology in Architecture programme This 5-year programme includes four compulsory courses offered at the second, third and fourth levels (Table 8). The courses cover basic theory of structures and reinforced concrete, steel and timber design. Students gain practical experience during the one-semester Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) programme which all students must participate in during the second semester of the fourth year of training. The architectural training inculcates in them basic engineering skills, such that while taking responsibility for the aesthetics of the building, the basic structure would have been proposed along with the form. The use of CAD is not standardised in the department, and there is no standard software used either for architectural or structural design. Many students however use older versions of AutoCAD, ArchiCAD and Revit Architecture for architectural design. Table 8. Structural engineering design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Course code

Course title


Level

Semester

ARC 211

Theory of Structures I

2

200

First

ARC 212

Theory of Structures II

2

200

Second

ARC 304

Building Structures (Reinforced Concrete Design)

3

300

Second

ARC 411

Building Structures (Steel/Timber Design)

3

400

First

Total

10

(Source: The Federal University of Technology 2012). Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA): Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) Programme Students are given architectural perspective by being acquainted with dimensional awareness, graphic communication in relation to the environment and free-hand drawing of forms in terms of shades, light and shadow. They learn about isometric and perspective projections along with structural detailing. They gain environmental, visual and detailing skills which basically fuse the skills of an architect with those of an engineer (Table 9).

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! Table 9: Architectural design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Course code

Course title


CVE 409

Elements of structural detailing & architecture

3

Total

3

Level

Semester

400

First

(Source: Federal University of Technology 2012). University of Lagos, Lagos (UNILAG): Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme This 4-year programme includes four compulsory courses offered at the second, third and fourth levels (Table 10). Table 10: Structural engineering design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, University of Lagos, Lagos. Course code

Course title


Level

Semester

ARC 231

Structures I

2

200

First

ARC 232

Structures II

2

200

Second

ARC 331

Structures III

2

300

First

ARC 431

Structures IV

2

400

First

Total

8

Source: University of Lagos, Lagos 2014. Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria: Bachelor of Science in Architecture programme This 4-year degree programme offers building structures at 200, 300 and 400 levels. The courses are taught by architects, but sometimes by structural engineers (Table 11). Table 11: Architectural design courses in the curriculum of the Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Course code

Course title


Level

Semester

ARCH 205

Building Structures I

2

200

First

ARCH 206

Building Structures II

2

200

Second

ARCH 305

Building Structures III

2

300

First

ARCH 306

Building Structures IV

2

300

Second

ARCH 405

Building Structures V

2

400

First

ARCH 406

Building Structures VI

2

400

Second

Total

12

(Source: Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 2014). PROPOSED INTEGRATION OF ARCHITECTURE AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING COURSES

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! The enhancement of the integration of architecture and structural engineering programmes in Nigerian universities can be achieved in several ways. Colocation of the disciplines in the same or adjacent schools or faculties Schools and Faculties of Environmental Technology or Environmental Sciences in Nigeria are commonly made up of the Departments of Architecture, Building, Estate Management, Quantity Surveying, Surveying and Geo-informatics, and Urban and Regional Planning. Sometimes the Departments of Fine and Applied Arts, Industrial Design, and Geography are included. Civil Engineering Departments are found in Schools or Faculties of Engineering Technology or Engineering. Although Civil Engineering Departments offer many options, of which structural engineering is only one, the tight relationship between structural engineering and other building construction disciplines is a compelling justification of their colocation in the same or adjacent schools or faculties. Course sharing The three types of courses offered in Nigerian universities are the core or compulsory courses, the cognate courses which must be passed before graduation, and the electives. All universities operate some form of course sharing, with students taking courses mounted in other departments within the same school or faculty, and even taking courses mounted in other schools or faculties, for example the university wide courses which are taken by all students. Architecture Departments are however sited in Schools or Faculties other than that in which Civil Engineering Departments reside, and course sharing between these two departments is very rare. Introducing course sharing between the two departments will enhance their integration. Teaching of architectural design and structural analysis and design courses by subject experts Structural analysis and design courses offered by Schools of Architecture should be largely taught by registered structural engineers who should be permanent faculty members in the Architecture Department. This will require creation of career paths for them, so that they can be specially assessed for promotion purposes, and be able to become Professors of either architecture or structural engineering, depending on the focus of their research. Likewise, architects should form part of the faculty of Structural Engineering Departments, and conducive environment be created for their academic and professional development. Emphasis on multidisciplinary design software Software for architectural design and for structural analysis and design has traditionally been in separate packages, although many of these packages allow some form of model transfer, especially through intermediate file formats. Current versions of Revit however combine the software for architectural design, structural analysis and design; and mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineering design. Promoting the use of such software across departments will reduce the learning curve when sharing courses, and will simplify teamwork and model sharing. Encouragement of the use of BIM software for the design, analysis and costing of building structures Building Information Modelling (BIM) enhances collaboration between all stakeholders in the conceptualization, design, construction, maintenance and even utilization of building projects by using an intelligent 3D model to inform and communicate project decisions. Although several challenges remain in the universal adoption of BIM, it is especially beneficial in the synergy between architectural design and structural analysis and design. Encouragement of multi-disciplinary consulting firms The integration of architectural design with structural analysis and design needs to be carried forward from the classroom to professional practice. Most consulting firms are uni-professional and sole-proprietorships, and the principals rarely gained enough experience while they were interns, and before they set up their own practices. Teamwork and collaboration is better achieved in multi-disciplinary consultancies with an inclusive ownership structure, such as limited liability companies. The major impediment is the requirement by various regulatory bodies that their regulatees own majority shares in registered consultancy firms. The Public Procurement Act should also give preference to multi-disciplinary consulting firms.

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! CONCLUSION Calamitous structural failure of buildings is caused by many factors, most of which are technological and social. Although professional training and curriculum development are less significant factors, these building collapses can be reduced by repurposing architectural and engineering education. This reenvisioning would necessarily address the identified deficiencies of outdated or poor curricula, insufficient acquisition of practical experience in school, lack of emphasis on project management skills, inadequate integration of the disciplines responsible for the built environment and poor professional ethics. There would also be need to revisit the knowledge sets that building professionals must acquire, with clear delineations of areas of overlap of professional responsibility, which will form the basis for curriculum review. This repurposing and integration would however be difficult since it must change the status quo significantly, and it can only be partial at best if the specialization required of the various disciplines is to be retained and enhanced. Inculcating social responsibility and professional ethics through curriculum review can also be challenging and reinforcement of these ideals during internships and through continuing professional development programmes can be crucial. RECOMMENDATIONS While the benefits and disadvantages of tighter integration of architectural and structural engineering programmes require further study, it promises to reduce the incidences of calamitous structural failure of buildings. This integration may be achieved by colocation of these disciplines in the same or adjacent schools or faculties, course sharing between the programmes, teaching of architectural design and structural analysis and design courses by subject experts, emphasis on multidisciplinary design software and encouragement of the use of BIM software for the design, analysis and costing of building structures; and the encouragement of multi-disciplinary consulting firms. REFERENCES Adedeji, AJ., 2013. ‘Environmental disasters and management - Case study of building collapse in Nigeria’, International Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 39-45. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 2014. B.Sc. Architecture: Departmental courses offered. Viewed 3 April 2014, . Akindoyeni, A., 2012. ‘Effective disaster management at the sites of collapsed buildings. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 147-163. Akinwale, AA., 2010. ‘The menace of inadequate infrastructure in Nigeria’, African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 207-228. Aliyu, U., 2012. ‘Role and obligation of the statutory regulatory authorities, consultants, contractors and artisans in mitigating building collapse. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 105-113. Alufohai, AJ., 2012, ‘Estimating the cost of building collapse in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 96-104. Atume, F., 2012. ‘Causative factors of building collapses in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’. Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 78-95. Ayodeji, O., 2011. ‘An examination of the causes and effects of building collapse in Nigeria’ Journal of Design and Built Environment, vol. 9, pp. 37-47.

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! British Standards Institute, 2001. BS 5950-1:2000 - Structural use of steelwork in building - Part 1: Code of practice for design - rolled and welded sections, British Standards Institute. British Standards Institute, 2002. BS 8110-1: 1997- Structural use of concrete - Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction, British Standards Institute. Charles, RH., 1913. ‘The Book of Jubilees’, in The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Cracow University of Technology, 2014. Course catalogue, viewed 3 April 2014, . Dimuna, KO., 2010. ‘Incessant incidents of building collapse in Nigeria, A challenge to stakeholders’, Global Journal of Researches in Engineering, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 75-84. Ede, AN., 2010. ‘Building collapse in Nigeria: The trend of casualties in the last decade (2000-2010)’, International Journal of Civil & Environmental Engineering, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 32-42. Ejeh, SP., 2012. ‘Issue of accountability, transparency and integrity in construction industry. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 164-174. Fakere, AA, Fadairo, G & Fakere, RA., 2012, ‘Assessment of building collapse in Nigeria Nigeria: A case of naval building, Abuja’, Nigeria International Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 584-591. Federal University of Technology, 2012. 2012-2014 Calendar, Publications committee, Federal University of Technology, Akure. Howard University, Washington, USA, 2014. Department of Architecture, School of Architecture and Design: Undergraduate courses, . Ibrahim, RB., 2013. ‘Monumental effects of building collapse in Nigerian cities: The case of Lagos Island, Nigeria’, Basic Research Journal of Engineering Innovation, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 26-31. Ike, AC., 2012. ‘Case histories of building collapses in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’. Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria, Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 55-77. Jambol, DD., 2012. ‘Building collapse phenomenon – sanctions, liabilities and legal implications. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’. Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria, Abuja, 15-16 May 2012 pp. 114-146. Matawal, DS., 2012. ‘The challenges of building collapse in Nigeria. Curbing the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria’, Proceedings of National Technical Workshop on Building Collapse in Nigeria. Abuja, 15-16 May 2012, pp. 3-54. Nigerian Building & Road Research Institute, 2011. ‘Collapse of a 6-storey building at 11 Aderibigbe Street, Maryland, Lagos, Nigeria: NBRRI’s comments’, Occasional paper of the Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute, NBRRI, Federal Ministry of Science and Technology. Olanitori, LK., 2011. ‘Causes of structural failures of a building: Case study of a building at Oba-Ile, Akure’, Journal of Building Appraisal, vol. 6 no. 3/4, pp. 277-284. Oloyede, SA, Omoogun, CB & Akinjare, OA., 2010. ‘Tackling causes of frequent building collapse in Nigeria’, Journal of Sustainable Development, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 127-132.

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! Olusola, KO, Ojambati, TS & Lawal, AF., 2011. ‘Technological and non-technological factors responsible for the occurrence of collapse buildings in South-Western Nigeria’, Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences (JETEAS), vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 462-469. Open History Society, 2014. Tower of Babel – Donald Trump, Viewed 3 April 2014, . Politechnika Krakowska, Wydzial Architektury, 2014. Programy wedlug semestrow na rok akademicki 2013/2014, viewed 3 April 2014, . Princeton University, Princeton, 2014. Undergraduate announcement 2013-14: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, viewed 3 April 2014, . Roddis, WMK., 1993. ‘Structural failures and engineering ethics’, American Society of Engineering (Structural Div.), vol. 119, no. 5, pp. 1539-1555. Taiwo, AA & Afolami, JA., 2011. ‘Incessant building collapse: A case of a hotel in Akure Nigeria’, Journal of Building Appraisal, vol. 6, pp. 241-248. Tamal, A., 2014. ‘Building collapse in Savar, Bangladesh’, .

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