complete QRA guide FINAL

Cover photo: An erratic at Farleton Knott, Cumbria. Photo: Dave Wilkinson.

CAVE ARCHAEOLOGY AND KARST GEOMORPHOLOGY OF NORTH WEST ENGLAND

Produced to accompany the QRA/BCRA Joint Field Meeting to Cumbria, North Lancashire and the Yorkshire Dales, June 21st—24th 2012.

© Quaternary Research Association, London, 2012.

ISSN: 02613611 ISBN: 090778084925323

Field Guide

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers.

Edited by H. J. O’Regan, T. Faulkner and I. R. Smith

Printed by Rayross Print Factory, 96 Duke Street, Liverpool, L1 5AG.

Recommended reference: O’Regan, H.J., Faulkner, T. & Smith, I.R. (eds) 2012. Cave Archaeology and Karst Geomorphology in North West England: Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association, London.

2012 ii

CONTRIBUTORS AND EXCURSION LEADERS

Matt W. Telfer

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA

Tim T. Barrows

Geography, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon EX4 4RJ.

Hannah Townley

Natural England. 3rd Floor, Touthill Close, City Road, Peterborough, PE1 1UA

Arthur Batty

Ingleton, North Yorkshire.

Peter J. Vincent †

Eleanor Brown

Natural England, Block B Government Buildings, Whittington Road, Worcester, WR5 2LQ

† Deceased; formerly Department of Geography, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, LA1 4YB.

Tony Waltham

Nottingham, [email protected]

Trevor Faulkner

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT

Peter Wilson

Environmental Sciences Research Institute, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Co. Londonderry BT52 1SA

Helen Goldie

2, Springwell Road, Durham, DH1 4LR.

Andrew Hinde

Natural England, NNR base Ingleborough. Colt Park Barn, Chapel-le-Dale, via Carnforth, Lancashire LA6 3JF

Anna L.C. Hughes Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Allegaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway Tom C. Lord

Lower Winskill, Langcliffe, Settle, North Yorkshire, BD24 9PZ.

Joyce Lundberg

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.

Wishart A. Mitchell Department of Geography, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE Phillip J. Murphy

School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT.

Philip W. Prescott

Department of Geography, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE

Hannah O’Regan

School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF

Garry Rushworth

Archaeological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP

Ian Smith

School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF

Peter Standing

Storth, Cumbria, LA7 7LJ

Nancy Stedman

Natural England, 25 Queen Street, Leeds, LS1 2TW

Graeme Swindles

School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT

Tim Taylor

Archaeological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Peter Wilson, Matt W. Telfer, Tom C. Lord and Peter J. Vincent† We are grateful to Robert White of the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority, The British Society for Geomorphology, the Manchester Geographical Society, and the Quaternary Research Association for the provision of funding that assisted with this work. Kilian McDaid at the University of Ulster prepared the figures for publication. Ian Smith and Hannah O’Regan The authors would like to thank Mark Brennand, Chantal Conneller, Dave Coward, Daniel Elsworth, Adrian Lister, Tom Lord, Jo Mackintosh, Alan Saville, Sabine Skae, Dorothy Sheppard and Caroline Wilkinson for their kind and invaluable help on various matters and the Holker Estate and Mr Whitton for access to the caves. We would also like to thank Neil Jones (LJMU) for his help with the figures. Tony Waltham and Arthur Batty The authors thank the British Cave Research Association for funding dating of the Keld Head stalagmites as part of its cave science research initiative, the many cavers who mapped the caves, and John Cordingley for collecting the underwater calcite deposits. Tom Lord, Joyce Lundberg, Philip Murphy This work would not have been possible without the help and support of the late Roger Jacobi over many years, and more recently Terry O'Connor. Robert White of the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority has encouraged reanalysis of the Victoria Cave archive, and funded AMS radiocarbon dates. The organisers thank the staff at the Dalesbridge Centre for their assistance in the smooth running of the field meeting. iv

INTRODUCTION

ITINERARY

This field guide covers recent research into cave archaeology and aspects of karst geomorphology in Cumbria and the Yorkshire Dales, where the latest results are informing us about glaciations since MIS15 or earlier, the later stages of the Devensian glaciation, and human influences since the Lateglacial. The field meeting that accompanied the publication of this volume was held on June 21st—24th 2012 and was jointly organised by the Quaternary Research Association and the British Cave Research Association. This is the first such joint meeting between the two associations and grew from contacts made at the AHRC-funded Upland Caves Network meetings (2008-2010). This field meeting was also the first meeting for the newly-formed BCRA Cave Archaeology Special Interest Group. For further details see: http:// cag.bcra.org.uk/ The fieldmeeting was organised by Dr Trevor Faulkner and Dr Hannah O’Regan and it was based at the Dalesbridge Centre, Austwick, Settle, LA2 8AB.

Coverage The Ordnance Survey Outdoor Leisure 1:25000 series map 2 (Yorkshire Dales, Southern and Western Areas) and map 7 (The English Lakes, South-eastern Area) are useful companions to this volume. Inclusion of sites in this guide does not imply public access and where public rights of way do not exist, the landowners permission should be sought before visiting.

DAY 1
Quaternary of Kingsdale (AM) Ribbleshead (Lunch) Victoria and Jubilee Caves (PM) DAY 2
Kirkhead, Kent’s Bank and Whitton’s Caves (AM) Hale Pavement (Lunch) Gait Barrows Pavement (PM) DAY 3

Leaders: Trevor Faulkner and Arthur Batty. Leader: Wishart Mitchell. Leader: Tom Lord.

Leader: Ian Smith. Leader: Peter Standing. Leader: Helen Goldie.



Norber (AM)

Leaders: Peter Wilson, Tom Lord, Helen Goldie. Loess at Winskill (Lunch) Leaders: Peter Wilson, Tom Lord. Palaeoecology at Attermire (PM) Leader: Graeme Swindles.

Orientation The QRA Field Guides: Western Pennines (Mitchell, 1991e), The Quaternary of the eastern Yorkshire Dales (Howard and Macklin, 1998) and Isle of Man and NW England (Chiverrell et al., 2004) cover adjacent areas with little overlap. Other relevant books include Limestones and Caves of NW England (Waltham, 1974), The geomorphology of NW England (Johnson, 1985a), Karst and Caves of Great Britain (Chapters 2 & 3) (Waltham et al., 1997: GCR Vol. 12), Quaternary of Northern England (Huddart and Glasser, 2002: GCR Vol. 23) and The Yorkshire Dales (Waltham, 2007).

Fig. 1. Localities to be visited during the fieldtrip. See above itinerary for key. Map modified with permission from Wilson et al. (this volume). v

vi

CONTENTS The Yorkshire Dales Karst North West Karst: evidence for pre-Devensian development? Cave Geoconservation, Geodiversity and landscapes in Northern England Caves in context—a brief overview of archaeology in the north west Long term climate change in the Yorkshire Dales: the speleothem record The late Devensian glaciation in the Yorkshire Dales The Devensian deglaciation and a discussion of the Raistrick Evidence Quaternary development of Kingsdale Ribblehead drumlins Whernside A guide to work at Victoria Cave – from the 19th to 21st Centuries Kirkhead Cavern, Kent’s Bank Cavern and Whitton’s Cave near Allithwaite – Geology, sediments and archaeology Chronology of lowland limestone pavement development around Arnside and Silverdale AONB Gait Barrows, Arnside-Silverdale AONB Cosmogenic isotope analysis and surface exposure dating in the Yorkshire Dales Pedestal studies at Norber, Ingleborough Loessic sediments in NorthWest England

Late Quaternary vegetation history of Attermire, Yorkshire Dales A challenge for Karst Geomorphology

vii

T. Waltham

1

H. Goldie A. Hinde, H. Townley, N. Stedman, E. Brown I.R. Smith, H.J. O’Regan

6

COSMOGENIC ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND SURFACE EXPOSURE DATING IN THE YORKSHIRE DALES Peter Wilson, Tom C. Lord, Timothy T. Barrows and Peter J. Vincent†

11 15

W. Mitchell W. Mitchell, A.L.C. Hughes

25

T. Faulkner T. Waltham, A. Batty W. Mitchell, P. Prescott W. Mitchell T. Lord, J. Lundberg, P. Murphy

46

I.R. Smith

34

57 72 79 84

98

P. Standing 103 H. Goldie 112 P. Wilson, T.T. Barrows, T.C. Lord, P.J. Vincent 117 H. Goldie P. Wilson, M.W. Telfer, T.C. Lord, P.J. Vincent G. Rushworth, G.T. Swindles, T.F. Taylor T. Faulkner

136

143 151 154

Introduction Cosmogenic isotope surface exposure dating has become a routine method in Quaternary science for determining the exposure age of rock surfaces. It has provided valuable ages for geomorphological events such as moraine emplacement and paraglacial rock-slope failure. In the British Isles and elsewhere knowledge of Quaternary events and processes has been substantially enhanced through its application. As yet, very few cosmogenic exposure dates have been obtained from landforms within the Yorkshire Dales. Exposure ages have been published for the Norber erratics (Vincent et al., 2010); these and other analyses for the limestone pavement at Moughton (Wilson et al., in press) and the plateau rim outcrops of Ingleborough are discussed here (Fig. 1). The method – a brief overview Cosmogenic isotopes are produced when a rock surface is bombarded by highenergy neutrons and other subatomic particles known as cosmic rays. Cosmic rays interact with all elements contained in the minerals of the rock and create new nuclei. The most commonly used nuclei, Beryllium-10 (10Be), Aluminium26 (26Al) and Chlorine-36 (36Cl), accumulate in rock over time, depending on the half-life of the isotope, the erosion rate, the composition of the rock and the intensity of the cosmic rays. The procedure for establishing cosmogenic exposure ages involves careful field sampling and measurement of the rock surfaces followed by a series of chemical procedures to extract and purify the required isotopes from the samples. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) is used to measure the isotopic ratio of the sample. For 36Cl it is also necessary to determine the elemental composition of the rock. By measuring the concentration of an isotope and knowing the rate of isotope production, it is possible to establish how long the rock surface has been exposed to cosmic radiation. With respect to the 36Cl exposure ages discussed below, the literature sources of the production rates used for their calculation are cited at appropriate places in the text; the 10Be exposure ages were determined by reference to globally-averaged production rate values as used in the CRONUS-Earth exposure age calculator of Balco et al., (2008). More detailed accounts of surface exposure dating are given by Gosse and Phillips (2001), Phillips (2001) and Cockburn and Summerfield (2004). 1. The Norber erratics Norber Brow (SD 768 699; Fig. 1) is the site of hundreds of greywacke erratic boulders of the Austwick Formation (Silurian). Many of the erratics are perched 117

The erratic boulders at Norber attracted scientific attention during the late 19th century (e.g. Hughes, 1867, 1886; Tiddeman, 1872; Davis, 1880; Mackintosh, 1883; Speight, 1892) and have been described and discussed on numerous occasions since (e.g. Kendall and Wroot, 1924; Dunham et al., 1953; King, 1960, 1976; Clayton, 1966, 1981; Sweeting, 1966; Arthurton et al., 1988; Aitkenhead et al., 2002; Huddart, 2002; Goldie, 2005; Parry, 2007). The boulders are generally regarded as emplaced by ice moving from northeast to southwest. The glacier was a tongue of diffluent ice, emanating from the Ribblesdale ice stream / valley glacier. It crossed the Sulber-Moughton ridge (360 m OD) into Crummackdale (200-280 m OD) where it quarried the boulders from Silurian outcrops and carried them along slope and/or upslope for ~1 km to the limestone of Norber Brow (250-320 m OD). Because of the short distance that the boulders have been transported from their source outcrops, it is inferred that they were deposited soon after being quarried. Direct dating of the boulders establishes the timing of their emplacement and therefore constrains the beginning of final deglaciation in this part of NW England. Following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; ~26-21 ka BP, Peltier and Fairbanks (2006)), the British-Irish Ice Sheet retreated onshore from the Irish Sea basin (ISB). Readvances of ice (Clogher Head Stadial Readvance and Killard Point Stadial Readvance) occurred around the north of the ISB at ~18.315.3 cal. ka BP in association with North Atlantic Heinrich event 1 (H1) (McCabe et al., 2007, 1998). However, in the absence of direct dating it was not previously known whether the Norber erratics were deposited during ice wastage from the LGM limit or from a readvance linked with H1. Indeed, no limit of the H1 readvance has been determined in the Yorkshire Dales.

Fig. 1. Locations of sites for cosmogenic isotope analyses (Norber, Moughton and Ingleborough) and generalised direction of ice flow (arrows) from Ribblesdale into Crummackdale. Contours and summit height are in metres, and scale and orientation are given by the 1 km grid. (© Crown copyright Ordnance Survey. All rights reserved). on pedestals of Malham Formation limestone (Carboniferous) that stand 30-50 cm above the general level of the surrounding ground. The boulders have become the most widely known set of erratics in England because of their sizes, local topographic situation and accessibility. 118

Norber is also a classic area in the British Isles for demonstrating the amount and rate of post-glacial surface lowering of limestone pavements by weathering. Using assumed limestone weathering rates, Mackintosh (1883) estimated that 6 ka had elapsed since boulder deposition, while Speight’s (1892) estimate was 20 ka since deposition. In contrast, Sweeting (1966) suggested erratic emplacement had been at 12 ka BP and from this calculated a surface-lowering rate of ~41 mm ka-1. Huddart (2002) favoured an emplacement age of 15-14 ka BP, giving a surface-lowering rate of ~34 mm ka-1. An alternative view, presented by Goldie (2005), considers the Norber erratics as occurring on structurally controlled stepped surfaces that have experienced much mechanical weathering; surface lowering by dissolution was re-evaluated and estimated to be in the range 3-13 mm ka-1 over the last 15 ka. From detailed examination of the limestone pedestals and adjacent ground Parry (2007) argued that the pedestals had developed in a sub-regolith karstic environment. Parry saw pedestal formation as an essentially Holocene phenomenon because periglacial conditions with no weathering were thought to have prevailed between deglaciation and the start of the Holocene (regarded as beginning at 10 ka BP). The mean height of 17 pedestals was determined as 46 cm, giving a mean rate 119

of surface lowering of 46 mm ka-1. However, because no direct age determination was previously available for erratic emplacement, all these surface-lowering rates are tentative estimates. Exposure dating The following details and discussion are drawn from Vincent et al. (2010). Samples were collected from the upper faces of four erratic boulders using a hammer and chisels. The surfaces sampled were all >1.5 m above the presentday ground surface and each boulder was perched on a pedestal of limestone (Fig. 2). The geometry of the surrounding area and sampled surfaces were recorded with compass and clinometer. Locations and altitudes were determined with a hand-held GPS unit cross referenced to a 1:25,000 topographic map. Because quartz grains within the samples were considered to be too small for 10Be analysis (the preparation process would likely have destroyed the quartz), whole rock 36Cl analysis was undertaken. Exposure ages were calculated using the 36Cl production rates of Ca and K as published by Stone et al. (1996) and by Phillips et al. (2001), respectively. Reactions of potassium dominate the production of 36Cl in all samples.

than the ages calculated according to Stone et al. (1996) because the production rate of 36Cl from K, which dominates the production in our samples, is higher in Stone et al.’s (1996) publication. Within each data set three of the ages are internally consistent within 1σ uncertainties. The dates for NOR-02 are not consistent with the others, and are much younger. This can be explained because a large piece was removed from the top of the boulder sometime during the last ~50 years and the sample was collected from below this level. This was unknown to the authors at the time of sampling but a drawing of the boulder (Hughes, 1886) and photographs (Speight, 1892; Gresswell, 1958) clearly show a tapered block of rock above the sample position. If we assume that the true age of NOR-02 is equivalent to the arithmetic average (cf. Ballantyne, 2010) of the ages for NOR-01, -03 and -04 then we can calculate that 24 cm of rock has been removed. Estimates of the thickness of detached rock based on careful measurements of modern and earlier photographs indicate the sampling site was previously covered by 20-25 cm of rock. We therefore consider the age of NOR -02 to be an underestimate: its true age is probably similar to the other samples. In calculating a mean age for the Norber erratics we excluded NOR-02 from the calculation. The arithmetic averages for NOR-01, -03 and -04 are therefore 22.2±2.0 ka BP (Phillips et al., 2001) and 18.0±1.6 ka BP (Stone et al., 1996). Sample

Lab ID

Exposure age (ka)1 Exposure age (ka)2

NOR-01

SUERCc624

23.23±1.74

18.86±1.39

NOR-02

SUERCc626

17.65±1.59

14.35±1.28

NOR-03

SUERCc625

20.91±2.49

17.12±2.03

NOR-04

SUERCc623

22.59±1.61

18.05±1.27

Table 1. Cosmogenic (36Cl) surface exposure ages from Norber (±1σ). 1Ages based on Phillips et al. (2001), 2 Ages based on Stone et al. (1996).

Fig. 2. One of the Norber boulders (NOR-01) sampled for cosmogenic isotope (36Cl) surface exposure dating. The survey pole is 1 m in length. The two exposure ages for each boulder derived from the 36Cl production rates determined by Phillips et al. (2001) and Stone et al. (1996) are given in Table 1. The ages have not been corrected for temporal variations in production rates and therefore may underestimate the true age by 5-7% (McCarroll et al., 2010). The ages calculated according to Phillips et al. (2001) are ~3.3-4.5 ka older 120

Significance and implications The advance of the last ice sheet across the Yorkshire Dales is constrained by OSL dates on loessic silts from a doline at Dowkabottom (19 km east of Norber) to after ~27 ka BP (Telfer et al., 2009). At the LGM the British ice sheet extended as far south as the Midlands and South Wales, and the Irish Sea Ice Stream (ISIS) extended south of the Scilly Isles (Evans et al., 2005; Scourse et al., 2009). These places are, respectively, ~200 km, ~380 km and ~700 km south / southwest of Norber. Assuming that ice passing across the Norber district extended to the Midlands, then the maximum position of this sector of 121

the ice sheet was reached in less than another ~3 ka; an average rate of advance of ~70 km/ka. The mean age for the Norber erratics, based on Phillips et al. (2001), indicates that deglaciation occurred in this area ~2 ka after the LGM. This deglaciation age is not incompatible with minimum deglaciation ages from other contexts and locations in northwest England and equates to an average rate of northwards retreat of ~100 km/ka. For the ISIS, McCarroll et al. (2010) report cosmogenic-isotope derived deglaciation ages of 23-22 ka BP for the Llŷn peninsula and 19-18 ka BP for Anglesey. These ages indicate rapid northwards retreat of the ice margin. However, different sectors of the British ice sheet may have reached maximum limits at different times (Evans et al., 2005) and retreated at different rates, and more direct data is required for the timing and rate of northwards retreat between the Midlands and northwest England. Furthermore, if the mean age of 22.2±2.0 ka BP for erratic emplacement and deglaciation at Norber is underestimated by 5-7% (McCarroll et al., 2010), the true age will be ~23.5±2.0 ka BP. This seems an improbably early date for deglaciation but, as yet, we are unable to discount it. The younger average age based on Stone et al. (1996) of 18.0±1.6 ka BP is also compatible with the existing minimal deglaciation ages from northwest England. In particular, at New Close, 15 km southeast of Norber, ice-free ground is indicated by the OSL age of 16.5±1.7 ka BP on loessic silts (Telfer et al., 2009) and a speleothem from Stump Cross Cave, 33 km southeast of Norber, with a U-series age of 17.0±2.0 ka BP (Sutcliffe et al., 1985). Farther north, downwastage of the Lake District ice dome was underway around ~17 ka BP (Ballantyne et al., 2009). For the western Irish Sea, McCabe et al. (2007) have demonstrated that open water marine conditions prevailed ~19-18 ka BP. Therefore the mean age of 18.0±1.6 ka BP (~19 ka BP if corrected by 5-7%) for erratic emplacement and deglaciation at Norber is currently more consistent with the wider geochronological evidence for deglaciation of northwest England and parts of the northern sector of the Irish Sea than is the mean age of 22.2±2.0 ka BP. The OSL age of 19.3±2.6 ka BP on loessic silts at Warton Crag indicates ice-free conditions at that time (Telfer et al., 2009) but this age overlaps, within uncertainties, with both mean values from Norber. From the coast of northeast Ireland McCabe et al. (1998, 2007) have identified readvances of the Irish ice sheet from stratigraphical and geochronological data. These readvances, termed the Clogher Head Stadial Readvance (18.3-17.0 ka BP) and the Killard Point Stadial Readvance (17.0-15.3 ka BP), are considered to correlate with the H1 event (uncertainty range ~18-16 ka BP; Everest et al., 2006) in the North Atlantic region. The mean age of 18.0±1.6 ka BP for the Norber erratics indicates that their emplacement overlaps with the uncertainty range for the H1 event, especially with the Clogher Head Stadial Readvance. This is the first indication that the Dimlington Stadial ice sheet in northwest England may have participated in H1, but more age determinations are required in order to validate or refute this connection. 122

The horizontal and vertical dimensions of the Yorkshire Dales sector of the British ice sheet at the time of erratic emplacement are not known with certainty but erratic distribution and site topographic context provide some minimal dimensions. The train of large erratic boulders at Norber extends downslope for a further ~1 km towards Austwick. Likewise, at Ingleton and Winskill trains of large erratics derived from Silurian inliers extend ~1-2 km downvalley from their source outcrops. If these erratic trains are equivalent in age to the Norber boulders it may indicate that during their emplacement the ice sheet margin in this part of the Yorkshire Dales terminated a short distance beyond the edge of the upland mass along a line from Ingleton to Austwick. The limited downvalley distribution of erratic boulders at Norber, Ingleton and Winskill is intriguing because LGM ice extended far to the south of these sites. A possible explanation is that the inliers only became exposed to glacial erosion from beneath their limestone cap rocks at a late stage in the last glaciation that was associated with a readvance of ice in this sector of the British ice sheet. For diffluent ice from the Ribblesdale ice stream to cross the Sulber-Moughton ridge to Crummackdale and Norber implies an ice thickness of at least 100 m in the area of divergence. This is a minimum value because it takes no account of unconsolidated sediment thickness (depth to rockhead) on the floor of Ribblesdale. Farther down Ribblesdale the ice thickness must have exceeded 150 m in order to account for emplacement of the Winskill erratics. These estimated ice thicknesses indicate that the Ribblesdale ice stream must have extended south of Settle during erratic emplacement, but its southern limit is uncertain. The earliest dated evidence for ‘post-glacial’ megafaunal colonisation of the southern sector of the Dales is from Kinsey and Victoria Caves, 6 km and 9 km respectively southeast of Norber. Lord et al. (2007) and Lord (unpublished) have obtained AMS 14C ages on bones of Ursus arctos from Kinsey cave, the earliest of which is 14.6±0.4 cal. ka BP. The ages are coincident with the onset of the Lateglacial (Windermere) Interstadial (Greenland Interstadial 1), which is represented by an abrupt warming signal at ~14.7 ka BP in the Greenland ice core records (Lowe et al., 2008). Despite an extensive program of AMS 14C dating of bones from caves in the region, evidence for large mammals is conspicuously absent prior to the start of the Lateglacial Interstadial, suggesting that abrupt warming at the beginning of the interstadial was a key factor in large mammal colonisation and in initiation of a much more productive ecosystem. It seems unlikely that after deposition of the Norber erratics there was any significant temperature increase until the onset of the Lateglacial Interstadial. The controlling factor in regional deglaciation was probably a reduction in snowfall rather than warming, so the period between regional deglaciation and large mammal colonisation was probably cold and relatively dry. The δ18O record of the NGRIP ice core (Fig. 3; Svensson et al., 2006) indicates persistent stadial conditions throughout this period in the North Atlantic region. 123

it is evident in the field that the limestone pavements onto which some erratics were deposited were not all planar; several calcreted, undulating, palaeokarstic surfaces are present making meaningful weathering measurements problematic. 2. Moughton - limestone pavement The karst landforms of NW England and the limestone pavements in particular, have attracted the attention of geologists and geomorphologists for over 100 years (e.g. Hughes, 1901; Davis, 1880). While some researchers have concentrated on the morphological and morphometrical aspects of the karren types that dissect many pavements (e.g. Goldie, 1973, 2009; Rose and Vincent, 1986) others have focused their attention on the role of vegetation and soil in pavement development (e.g. Jones, 1965; Trudgill, 1986). A common theme has been an assessment of the influence of glaciation on pavement evolution, with some researchers favouring glacial scour as the pavement-forming mechanism (e.g. Sweeting, 1966, 1974; Clayton, 1981; Waltham, 1990). Thus, pavements are often regarded as glaciokarstic phenomena. Fig. 3. The NGRIP oxygen isotope curve for the period 26-10 ka BP (after Svensson et al., 2006) with loess and Norber erratic ages indicated. The period bracketed by the ages of 18.0±1.6 cal. ka BP for the Norber erratics and 14.6±0.4 cal. ka BP for the arrival of large mammals, coincides with the “mystery interval” (17.5-14.5 ka BP) of Denton et al. (2006) during which “mutually contradictory” responses of the climate-atmosphere-ocean system have been documented. Nevertheless, paraglacial and periglacial processes were active at this time in northwest England and included rockfall talus accumulation, evidenced by the sections exposed outside Victoria Cave during the 1870s excavations (Tiddeman, 1875, 1876) and loess deposition across the region (Telfer et al., 2009). Outside Victoria Cave a ~5 m thickness of talus rests on a diamict interpreted as LGM till and is in turn overlain by large mammal bones dated by AMS 14C to the Lateglacial Interstadial (Murphy and Lord, 2003). The accumulation of loess testifies to available supplies of suitably sized sediment, most likely glaciofluvial outwash, and winds of sufficient strength for entrainment and transport. We therefore envisage that a cold and windy environment with only partial vegetation cover prevailed throughout this interval in northwest England (Huijzer and Vandenberghe, 1998).

In contrast to this widely held view Vincent (1995, 2004, 2009) argued that the morphological diversity of limestone pavements represented more complex origins and that they should no longer be regarded as simple glaciokarstic features. Whilst accepting that glaciation had played a part in pavement development, he suggested that a more appropriate means of understanding pavement genesis lay in an appreciation of Lower Carboniferous (Asbian to Brigantian stages) geology and the cyclical nature of relative sea level changes, associated limey sediment accumulation and volcanic activity. The limestones display a variety of characteristics related to this cyclicity and to Carboniferous subaerial weathering, volcanic ash deposition and the formation of karstic surfaces. Vincent (1995, 2004, 2009) recognised that four pavement types exist in northwest England, namely: 1, glacially eroded joint-dominant pavements; 2, glacially eroded calcrete-dominant pavements without palaeokarst; 3, glacially exhumed calcrete-dominant pavements with palaeokarst; 4, glacially truncated palaeokarst. Thus, the controls on pavement morphology involve complex interactions between Carboniferous weathering and diagenetic processes, and Quaternary erosional processes.

Several studies have used the Norber erratics to determine the weathering rate of the limestone surface on which the boulders occur. These attempts have been hindered by the uncertain age of erratic emplacement. The contrasting weathering rates have been based on timescales of 10 ka (Parry, 2007), 12 ka (Sweeting, 1966) or 15 ka (Huddart, 2002; Goldie, 2005). No matter which deglaciation age is ultimately shown to be correct for Norber, the boulders were deposited somewhat earlier than previously thought and the estimated weathering rates are in need of revision (see Goldie, this volume). Furthermore

It has also been proposed that, in addition to glacial scour, many of the pavements previously carried a cover of till that has been or is being eroded (Sweeting, 1966; Clayton, 1981; Trudgill, 1986; Goldie and Marker, 2001). This is evidenced by the presence on some pavements of abundant rundkarren, which will only develop beneath a ‘soil’ (Sweeting, 1972a; Ford and Williams, 2007). Loess is also present on the limestone in many places (Vincent and Lee, 1981; Wilson et al., 2008; Telfer et al., 2009), although much of this was reworked in the Holocene, particularly as a consequence of the marked climatic deterioration at 8.2 ka BP (see Wilson et al., this volume; Vincent et al., 2011). Therefore, since deglaciation pavement weathering is likely to have occurred in sub-regolith and/or sub-aerial environments.

124

125

The rates of pavement weathering and limestone surface lowering in general are important when attempting to understand the regional landscape changes that have occurred since the disappearance of the last ice sheet. Previously, estimates of surface lowering rates at Norber (Fig. 1) have been based on the height of limestone pedestals that have been protected from weathering by overlying erratic boulders, and the inferred age of erratic deposition. This approach has produced a range of surface-lowering rates because: 1) the age of erratic emplacement was not securely dated, and 2) defining pedestals and determining their height has proved to be controversial (see above). Here we have applied cosmogenic (36Cl) analysis to samples collected from a limestone pavement at Moughton (SD 778 728; Fig. 1), 4 km southeast of Ingleborough. The aim of the research is to establish the amount of surface lowering (pavement weathering and erosion) since deglaciation. Our use of 36Cl to determine the amount of surface lowering follows the pioneering work of Stone et al. (1994, 1998) on limestones in Australia.

Fig. 5. Sample site MOU-04 on the Moughton pavements. The hammer is 25 cm in length.

The limestone pavements at Moughton are developed in the lithologically variable Gordale Limestone member of the Holkerian-Asbian Malham Formation. The member varies from thick- to very thick-bedded and includes calcarenite packstones, wackestones and grainstones (Arthurton et al., 1988). The pavements occur at ~350 m OD and overlook the head of Crummackdale, a short, south-going valley drained by Austwick Beck (Figs. 1 and 4). Over large areas the pavements are bare; in some places a patchy grassland vegetation cover is present, and there are scattered sandstone erratics and angular limestone blocks (Fig. 5). The sandstone erratics at Moughton are considerably smaller than the greywacke erratics at Norber, and there is no pedestal development below them.

Cosmogenic isotope analysis The following details and discussion are drawn from Wilson et al. (in press). To determine the amount of surface lowering on the Moughton pavements we collected four samples for cosmogenic 36Cl analysis. The samples were collected from the centre of clints within a small (300 x 100 m) area using a hammer and chisel (Fig. 5). The geometry of the surrounding terrain and the sampled surfaces were recorded with compass and clinometer. Locations and altitudes were determined with a hand-held GPS unit cross referenced to a 1:25,000 topographic map. Chemical and mechanical weathering on a limestone surface dissolves the outer layers, removing accumulated cosmogenic 36 Cl. Therefore on a weathered surface the 36Cl concentration is lower than expected, underestimating the true age of the surface. When the amount of accumulated weathering is significant (>~3 m), the surface concentration can be assumed to be in steady state and an apparent lowering rate can be calculated (Lal, 1991). However, where the surface has not reached steady state, such as in the case of the Moughton pavement, and the true age of the surface is known or can be estimated, the surface concentration can be used to calculate a lowering rate since first exposure. To determine the amount of surface lowering we use a revised mean exposure age for the Norber erratics as the original exposure age of the pavement. The revised age for the Norber erratics is 17.9 ± 1.0 ka BP (χ2/ ν = 0.3 (normalised chi square test - used to determine whether scatter in the data is consistent with a single population with dispersion due only to random error, i.e. a value close to 1; where the value is much greater than 1, see below, variability is unlikely to be due to measurement errors alone). This revised exposure age has been derived from a modified 36Cl production rate, for which literature citations are given in Wilson et al. (in press).

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Fig. 4. Limestone scarp and pavements at Moughton, Crummackdale.

The samples from the limestone pavement at Moughton have lost between 22 45 cm since deglaciation (Table 2), with an average of 33±10 cm (~18 mm ka-1 over the last 17.9 ka) (χ2/ν = 20.7). The scatter is well beyond experimental uncertainties and must indicate spatial heterogeneity in surface weathering. Sample

Lab ID

Weathering (cm)

Weathering rate (mm ka-1)

MOU-01

ANU-C159-03

28±2

15.6±1.1

MOU-02

ANU-C159-04

45±4

25.1±2.2

MOU-03

ANU-C159-06

22±2

12.3±1.1

MOU-04

ANU-C159-07

38±3

21.1±1.7

33±10

18.4±5.6

MEAN

Table 2. Surface lowering values for limestone pavement at Moughton based on cosmogenic (36Cl) analysis. Significance and implications It has become conventional when discussing rates of limestone surface lowering in northwest England to report an average value per 1000 years (mm ka-1) (e.g. Sweeting, 1966; Huddart, 2002; Goldie, 2005; Parry, 2007). Our average of ~18 mm ka-1 falls between the estimates (see above) determined by previous researchers using measures of limestone pedestal height and inferred ages for initiation of lowering processes. However, values presented in this format give the misleading impression that lowering has been continuous and has proceeded at a near uniform rate suggesting, in turn, that the weathering environment has remained virtually constant through time.

Climate changes Following deglaciation the climatic conditions in NW England remained severely cold and windy. Mean July temperature was probably no higher than 10 ºC and mean January temperature was -25 to -20 ºC (Atkinson et al., 1987). During this period a ~5 m thickness of talus accumulated outside Victoria Cave (SD 838 650, 9 km southeast of Moughton). The talus overlies till ascribed to the LGM and is in turn overlain by mammal bones dated by 14C to the Lateglacial Interstadial (14.7-12.9 ka BP; Murphy and Lord, 2003). From elsewhere in the uplands of northwest England a great variety of relict periglacial features that developed in association with permafrost has been documented (Tufnell, 1969, 1985; Mitchell and Huddart, 2002). Although these features are not securely dated it is considered that some of them are associated with the severe periglacial climate that followed deglaciation. Taken with the regional loess deposits that also date from this period (Telfer et al., 2009) an inference must be that the environment was both intensely cold and extremely windy, with only a partial cover of ground vegetation most likely comprising mosses, lichens and dwarf woody species (e.g. Betula nana, Salix herbacea, Juniperus nana) (Pigott and Pigott, 1959; Pennington, 1977; Jones et al., 2002). Coincident with the abrupt warming signal at 14.7 ka BP in the NGRIP ice core (Svensson et al., 2006), large carnivorous mammals colonized at least the southern part of the Yorkshire Dales (Lord et al., 2007). The initial vegetation of the Interstadial was dominated by grasses, sedges and herbs. This was succeeded by shrub vegetation consisting principally of Juniperus and Salix; Betula woodland became established later (Pigott and Pigott, 1959; Pennington, 1977; Jones et al., 2002). Temperature reconstructions indicate that winters averaged ~4 ºC, with the coldest month at 0-1 ºC, and summers were slightly below ~16 ºC, with the warmest month at ~17 ºC (Atkinson et al., 1987). During the Younger Dryas Stadial (Greenland Stadial 1) (12.9-11.7 ka BP) a mean annual air temperature at sea level of ~ -6 ºC and a mean temperature for the coldest month of -25 to -15 ºC have been reconstructed by Isarin (1997). A July temperature at sea level of 7.5 ºC has been inferred by Sissons (1980) based on reconstructed equilibrium lines of glaciers that developed in the Lake District. Small glaciers were also nourished at several high sites in the Yorkshire Dales (Mitchell, 1996), and Isarin (1997) indicates that NW England was in a zone of discontinuous permafrost. It seems incontrovertible that periglacial processes were prominent geomorphological agents during the Stadial. The pollen record for this phase indicates open ground taxa dominated by Rumex and Artemisia; Betula nana, Salix herbacea and Juniperus nana were also present (Pigott and Pigott, 1959; Pennington, 1977; Jones et al., 2002).

We prefer to use the average value of 33±10 cm of limestone lost from the Moughton pavements since deglaciation because we do not know when, nor under what conditions, this material was removed. It has been proposed that surface lowering and pedestal development at Norber was achieved principally by rainfall (Sweeting, 1966, Faulkner, 2009) and, according to Parry (2007), occurred in a sub-regolith environment. For pedestals on Scales Moor (SD 72 77), 8.5 km northwest of Norber, Parry (2007) proposed a sub-aerial environment for their development. Goldie (2005) considered that mechanical processes had made a significant contribution to surface lowering at Norber; dissolution was thought to have contributed rather little. Some of these views may be challenged as it is now known that there have been significant changes in both climate and regolith cover since deglaciation that probably caused local environments and lowering rates to vary (see below).

Permafrost environments are generally snow-covered for a significant part of each year and the associated nivation processes can be effective geomorphic agents (Ballantyne and Harris, 1994; Thorn, 1976, 1978, 1988). In summer, snowmelt and thawing of the active layer saturates the ground and aids

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gelifluction, and also enhances freeze-thaw activity; furthermore, at normal atmospheric pressure CO2 is more soluble at lower water temperatures (Williams, 1949; Parry, 1960; Sweeting, 1966, 1972a). (Ford and Williams, 2007) report that the equilibrium solubility of atmospheric CO2 in water increases from 0.52 to 1.01 mg l-1 when temperature is reduced from 20 ºC to 0ºC. Even in cold climates a biogenic source for some adsorbed CO2 cannot be excluded entirely, given the likelihood of tundra vegetation and thin organic soils. Thus, over time snowmelt-dominate hydrological regimes in karstic environments can contribute to surface lowering by dissolution (Smith, 1972; Sweeting, 1972b; Helldén, 1973; Lauritzen, 1990; Ginés, 2009). At Moughton, therefore, it is entirely reasonable to suggest that limestone surface lowering under and adjacent to lying snow would have started immediately following the melting of glacial ice. Freeze-thaw shattering of bedrock would also have been important, the products of which are likely to have been transported downslope by gelifluction. Freeze-thaw removal of blocks from pavement surfaces (Fig. 5) may account for some of the spatial heterogeneity apparent in the lowering rates. Nivation processes during the Holocene may also have contributed to surface lowering. Evidence from Greenland ice cores indicates that there have been several marked oscillations of climate during the Holocene (Rasmussen et al., 2007). The most pronounced of these, at 8.2 ka BP (hereafter referred to as the 8.2 ka event), is characterized by an excursion towards cooler temperatures peaking sometime between ~8.5 and ~8.0 ka BP and lasting for ~70-200 years. During this event the inferred mean July temperature at Hawes Water, north Lancashire (SD 47 76, 30 km northwest of Moughton) was reduced by ~1.5 ºC (Marshall et al., 2007). This agrees well with July temperature changes for the 8.2 ka event in Great Britain modelled by Wiersma and Renssen (2006), and coupled with an expansion of sea ice translates into a mean annual air temperature (MAAT) reduction in excess of 2 ºC close to sea level and significantly colder winters. Applying an environmental lapse rate of 0.65 ºC/100 m (Wheeler and Mayes, 1997), the MAAT at Moughton is 2.3 ºC lower than at sea level. With a 2 ºC cooling during the 8.2 ka event Moughton would have been ~4.3 ºC colder than at modern sea level. Based on 20th century data available for Malham Tarn (SD 89 67, 13 km southeast of Moughton) and Fountains Fell (SD 86 71, 9 km eastsoutheast) this MAAT reduction indicates that for sites like Moughton at ~350 m above sea level, the annual number of days with snow cover may have been ~160 (Vincent et al., 2011). The increased duration of snow cover is considered to have facilitated nivation processes and it is entirely reasonable to infer that the rate of limestone surface lowering increased once again at this time. Although the 8.2 ka event is the most marked phase of Holocene climatic deterioration, several others are documented by North Atlantic sediment cores 130

and Greenland ice cores (Bond et al., 1997; Rasmussen et al., 2007). These occurred at 11.4, 10.1, 9.3, 5.9, 4.2, 2.8, 1.4 and 0.6 ka BP, and each lasted for ~100-400 years. For the most recent of these events, the Little Ice Age of the 14th-19th centuries AD, documentary evidence concerning long-lasting snowpatches in northern England is available (Manley, 1952a, 1952b, 1958; Kington, 2010) and nivation processes are again likely to have increased in significance. Therefore for short periods during the Holocene nivation processes are thought to have been important in causing accelerated chemical and mechanical weathering of the limestone. Examples of 20th century nivation processes in the uplands of Great Britain are provided by Tufnell (1971), Vincent and Lee (1982) and Ballantyne (1985). These studies focus on physical weathering and sediment redistribution by snowpatch meltwater. Unfortunately no data are available for rates of chemical weathering. A complicating factor in isotope production during all these cool/cold periods is the thickness and longevity of snow cover. Snow shields the surface from the cosmic ray flux thereby reducing isotope accumulation in underlying rock, but is impossible to quantify. Our calculated lowering rates should therefore be regarded as maximum values. Regolith cover The Moughton pavements are unlikely to have been bare since deglaciation. Rather, they probably had a cover of till and/or loess that has been eroded. Parry (2007) considered that surface lowering and pedestal formation at Norber had occurred in a sub-regolith dissolution environment; the regolith was thought to be brown earth soil or till (presumably the brown earth soil developed in the till). If till had previously existed at Norber and Moughton it is likely to have been calcareous, given the local dominance of limestone (Bullock, 1971; Vincent and Lee, 1981; Trudgill, 1985). It is well known that calcareous soils either protect the underlying limestone from dissolution or greatly reduce the rate at which it proceeds (Sweeting, 1966; Trudgill, 1986; Zseni, 2009), an effect termed ‘shielding’ by Ford (1987, 1996). Therefore calcareous till would need to have undergone decalcification before significant dissolution of the underlying limestone began. How long this would have taken is not known; it would have depended on the thickness of the till, its original CaCO3 content, and the volume of water passing through the till. This situation is analogous to the argument presented by Parry (2007) concerning dripwater from limestone erratics on Scales Moor. It was shown that the water becomes alkalized as it flows across the surface of the erratics and therefore cannot accomplish any dissolution when it drips onto the underlying limestone pavement. Therefore the estimated average lowering rates at Norber do not take into account the time required for the till to decalcify. Some till-derived brown earth soils still have CaCO3 in their lower horizons (Bullock, 1971; Trudgill, 1986). An assumption that the till was initially non-calcareous is clearly 131

untenable. It is possible that sub-regolith limestone dissolution at Norber and Moughton commenced more recently than the start of the Holocene. Deglaciation made available considerable amounts of fine material for aeolian transport, and loessic sediments have been identified on the outcrop of Carboniferous limestone throughout the region (Vincent and Lee, 1981; Wilson et al., 2008). At New Close, Malham (SD 912 645) and Warton Crag, north Lancashire (SD 494 726) loessic sediments have yielded optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates of 16.5±1.7 ka BP and 19.3±2.6 ka BP respectively (Telfer et al., 2009). These sediments represent primary air fall loess deposited on ground vacated by the ice. Nine OSL ages from loessic sediments in northwest England are coincident (within uncertainties) with the 8.2 ka event. Vincent et al. (2011) regarded these ages as indicating the timing of loess reworking in association with the climatic downturn. The increased duration of snow cover during the event (see above) is considered to have facilitated nivation processes and, through meltwater erosion via overland flow, to have caused the reworking of the loess and till from areas that are now bare limestone pavements into topographic depressions. Although it cannot be demonstrated that the Moughton pavements previously carried a cover of till and/or loess we consider it highly unlikely that they have been bare since deglaciation. Goldie and Marker (2001) investigated doline sediments in the area around Moughton, and claim that they resemble glacial drift and loess. We believe that some of these materials are likely to have been reworked from nearby and now bare pavement areas (Vincent et al., 2011). We cannot assume that a former pavement regolith cover was of uniform thickness. Till and/or loess may have had either a patchy distribution or have been of spatially different depths. As with snow cover, regolith also attenuates the cosmic ray flux to the buried rock surface. These factors could account for varations in rates of surface lowering in sub-regolith and sub-aerial contexts, and ultimately explain some of the heterogeneity in the values we have determined.

proceeded but the timing of emergence is not known, although it was probably before the erratic boulders at Norber were deposited (17.9±1.0 ka BP). Another unknown is how the warm-based or cold-based condition of the ice that covered the plateau varied with time. Mitchell (1994) has demonstrated the presence of drumlinoid landforms, and therefore warm-based ice, at elevations of 670 m OD on some hills to the north of Ingleborough. There are no such landforms on the summit plateau of Ingleborough, but there is up to ~3 m of locally derived gritstone debris that may be of either glacial or periglacial origin. A stone rampart that is now much degraded surrounds the summit plateau. In the interior of the rampart are traces of about 20 circular stone structures. For many years the rampart and circular structures have been considered to be components of a late Bronze Age – Iron Age hillfort (e.g. Bowden et al., 1989) but Johnson (2008) has summarised the arguments against the summit being used as a defensive site, and a symbolic/ritual significance has now been proposed. Exposure dating Samples for exposure dating were obtained from the upper surfaces of four gritstone outcrops exposed around the rim of the summit plateau (and outside of the rampart) (Fig. 6). The purpose of this exercise was to establish, if possible, when the summit had become ice-free, but it was recognised that this might not be achievable. For example, if the summit had been covered by non-erosive cold-based ice the exposure ages could greatly exceed the timing of the LGM because of the exposure signal acquired by the outcrops prior to the LGM. Alternatively, exposure ages considerably younger that the hypothesised age of deglaciation could indicate that the outcrops had been buried beneath extensions of the gritstone debris that covers the plateau and have emerged as a result of ‘post-glacial’ marginal erosion of that debris.

Thus, climate change along with the nature and longevity of a former regolith cover indicate that the calculations of average rates of surface lowering estimated for the limestone of northwest England are meaningless because they take no account of the variations that are likely to have occurred in local weathering environments. 3. Ingleborough - plateau rim outcrops The summit of Ingleborough (SD 74 74; 724 m OD; Fig. 1), like other hills in the Yorkshire Dales, was most likely covered by ice during the LGM (Mitchell, 1991a; Evans et al., 2009). Three-dimensional models of the LGM ice sheet indicate that its surface elevation in the Yorkshire Dales may have been >1000 m (Evans et al., 2009). The summit emerged from the ice sheet as deglaciation 132

Fig. 6. Plateau rim outcrop (sample ING-04) on Ingleborough. Scale bar is 25 cm in length. 133

Given the high quartz content and large grain size of the gritstone samples 10Be analysis was performed. The four exposure ages are given in Table 3. All samples returned ages that fall within the Holocene stage (the last 11.7 ka) and range from 9.43±0.33 (ING-04) to 6.38±0.23 (ING-01) ka BP (based on the time-dependent Lal (1991)/Stone (2000) scaling scheme). Two of the ages are internally consistent: 9.43±0.33 (ING-04) and 9.13±0.26 (ING-05) ka BP; the other two, 6.38±0.23 (ING-01) and 7.81±0.28 (ING-03) ka BP, are significantly different from the former ages and from each other. Age calculation assumes that there has been no erosion of the surfaces since they were exposed. Applying erosion rates in the range 1-5 mm ka-1 would increase the exposure ages by between 0.4-0.9 ka. Sample

Lab ID

Exposure age (ka)

ING-01

SUERCb5004

6.38±0.23

ING-03

SUERCb5005

7.81±0.28

ING-04

SUERCb5006

9.43±0.33

ING-05

SUERCb5007

9.13±0.26

have also been quarried – the closely spaced bedding planes (Fig. 6) provide opportunities for the production of rock slabs. Therefore it is not inconceivable that the outcrops previously stood taller and have been lowered as a result of slab removal.

Fig. 7. Simple model to explain exposure ages of plateau rim outcrops on Ingleborough by erosion of overlying gritstone debris.

Table 3. Cosmogenic (10Be) surface exposure ages from Ingleborough (±1σ).

Significance and implications Clearly the surface exposure dates do not provide any indication of the timing of LGM deglaciation of the summit of Ingleborough. Rather, the ages demonstrate that the outcrops sampled became exposed to cosmic radiation at different times during the Holocene and there are two ways in which this exposure might have happened. First, outcrop exposure may have resulted from erosion around the margins of the gritstone debris that caps the plateau, as indicated in Fig. 7. In this scenario different thicknesses of debris and different erosion rates are likely to have determined when the outcrops became exposed. Removal of debris has probably been caused by frost-related processes and overland flow, and is continuing. Second, the degraded stone rampart that surrounds the summit plateau is made up of ‘orthostatic’ gritstone blocks (Bowden et al., 1989) many of which are >0.5 m in length. Bowden et al. (1989) mention the presence of shallow ‘quarry scoops’ both inside and outside of the rampart, along its southwest and southeast sides, and ‘on the west side the rampart is cut by a quarry and interrupted by three natural declivities’. These sites are likely to have provided stone for the rampart. Equally, the outcrops sampled for exposure dating could 134

Such quarrying of slabs in the late Bronze Age – Iron Age, around ~2.5-2.0 ka BP, would not necessarily lead to exposure ages of similar magnitude. This is because cosmic radiation penetrates deep into rock. Although isotope concentrations are greatest in the outermost few centimetres of a rock body, measurable isotope signals have been recorded 15 metres below the surface (e.g. Braucher et al., 2003). The quarrying of rock, unless it extends to a depth equivalent to that reached by cosmogenic radiation, will not ‘zero’ the exposure signal. Therefore an intriguing possibility is that the outcrops became exposed with deglaciation of the plateau ~19 ka BP. Cosmogenic isotope production then commenced until quarrying removed a shallow thickness of rock and with it a substantial proportion of the acquired cosmogenic 10Be. Since quarrying ceased additional 10Be has accumulated and the ages obtained reflect the residual isotope concentration plus that added since ~2 ka BP.

135

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