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Designing a GIS-Based CSCW System for Development Control with an Event-Driven Approach Jun Chen, Jie Jiang, and Anthony Gar-On Yeh
Abstract Development control in urban planning is a collaborative decision-making process where a group of urban planners and land management staffs review or process the building application(s) submitted by a public agency and private citizen according to predefined regulations and workflow. This paper presents an event-driven approach for designing and developing a GIS-based Computer Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW) system for urban development control. This approach attempts to model both the structural and behavioral aspects of the development control process by integrated representation of agents, events, and states as well as their relations. These relations can be represented with UML (Unified Modeling Language), causal entity-relation diagram, and Event Pattern Language-based formal specifications. The integration of heterogeneous spatial and non-spatial data within such a GIS-based CSCW system for development control is also introduced in this paper. A method to link spatial objects and attributes in the multiscale, multitype dataset is proposed. Moreover, three kinds of specific functions are developed for handling routine works of development control, such as office automation functions, desktop spatial data handling and mapping tools, and generic queries.
Introduction In the past fifteen years, more and more local authorities have been getting involved in the development and application of urban GISs in China and other parts of the world. The main purpose is to improve the efficiency of urban planning, management, and other urban operations. Four development phases in China can be summarized as shown in Figure 1. In the first development phase, dating from the middle 1980s, GIS technology was used by urban planning and other urban departments for some concrete projects, such as land suitability evaluation, environmental quality assessment, and urban traffic simulation (Yeh, 1985; Chen et al., 1989). The major role GIS played was to assist cartography and spatial analysis. In the late 1980s, some urban departments began to digitize their spatial data and set up their department GIS databases. Such GIS focused on the integrated management of the department-related spatial and non-spatial data, as in the departments of planning or surveying (Chen et al., 1988; Yeh, 1990; Lee, 1990). It was realized that it is not easy for one department to have access to the GIS database developed by another department in the same organization. This second phase J. Chen and J. Jiang are with the National Geomatics Center of China, No. 1, Baishengcun, Zizhuyuan, Beijing, P.R. China, 100044 (
[email protected];
[email protected]). A. G. Yeh is with the Centre of Urban Planning and Environmental Management, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong (
[email protected]). P H OTO G R A M M E T R I C E N G I N E E R I N G & R E M OT E S E N S I N G
is therefore called the Department GIS phase. Some cities entered into the so-called Enterprise GIS phase in the beginning of the 1990s. In this phase, the heterogeneous and disparate sources of spatial and attribute data in the same organization were assembled into an integrated GIS database. Computer network-based spatial data handling and office automation functions were developed and provided to planning staffs and land managers for their day-to-day routine work. A number of GIS-based Computer Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW) systems were developed (Chen et al., 1998a; Jiang et al., 2000a). Currently, a number of Social GIS are under development or investigation by several cities. These internet-based GIS aim at providing spatial data service for public access (Cheng et al., 1998; Huang et al., 2001). It has been recognized that the design and development of a GIS-based CSCW system is not easy. Such a system should be used regularly in day-to-day activities for handling both routine tasks and special projects in a systematic and effective manner. Easy access to the data by content should be developed for promoting information sharing within the organization. Specific desktop spatial data handling tools will be provided for delineating land lots or building layouts on large-scale digital maps. Office automation functions need to be developed, including applications registering, reasonableness checking, opinion giving and exchanging, permit printing, and document filing. The end users should be able to make effective use of the system and the organization would have developed a long-term and productivity-enhancing application system instead of a continual cycle of pilot projects (Jiang and Chen, 2002). From a technical point of view, advances in information technology have made it possible to develop GIS-based CSCW systems. GIS technology provides a practical means for integrating the large volumes of spatial data relevant to development control and its attribute data, including topographic maps, land occupation, property boundaries, utility networks, infrastructure provision, building density, flooding records, etc. The non-spatial data (such as planning guide-lines and regulations and the procedural information about current applications) can be managed by conventional DBMSs (such as Oracle). With the computer network-based client-server applications, planners and land managers of a department or a team within government departments can share all this information with a federated database and coordinate their activities in a structured fashion and sharing (Dave, 1995; Chen et al., 1998b). With the rapid development of 3D visualization and virtual Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing Vol. 70, No. 2, February 2004, pp. 225–233. 0099-1112/04/7002–0225/$3.00/0 © 2004 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing February 2004
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Figure 1. Four development phases of urban GIS. reality technology, an explicit photo-textured city model can be simulated and presented to citizens, instead of the presentation of traditional abstract maps and descriptive text to explain, analyze, and debate design ideas and urban processes (Danahy, 1999). Moreover, by installing a web-server on a local computer, any department in the government can become an ad-hoc “information center,” broadcasting published facts and data to the rest of the network on demand (Bernard, 1996). The published information can than be accessed by any user in the network using web browsers such as Internet Explorer. In this paper, an event-based methodology for designing and developing a GIS-based CSCW system for urban development control is presented. Based on the analysis of the relations among agents, events, and states in the process of development control, an expressive IAES (Integrated Agent-EventState) model is proposed in the second section. This model explicitly elucidates the three major components and their relations in the spatio-temporal process of development control. This serves as the basis for the system design introduced in the following sections. In the third section, the representation of the hierarchical and casual relations among agents, events, and states are examined. The integration of heterogeneous spatial and non-spatial data within the urban planning and land management departments is then examined. Some specific functions developed for handling routine work are then introduced, including office automation functions, desktop spatial data handling and mapping tools, three kinds of generic queries, and a web-based catalog browser. Further investigation is discussed in the final part of this paper.
Modeling both the Structural and Behavioral Aspects of Development Control Urban development control is a collaborative decision-making process where a group of urban planners and land management staffs may be located in different geographic locations (rooms or buildings). According to predefined regulations and workflow, a building application submitted by a public agency or a private citizen is reviewed or processed by the staffs. The output of the reviewing process to be issued to the applicant is either a legal permit describing both geometric and thematic states of the land parcel or a notice explaining to the applicant why the application is rejected. From the point of view of behavioral modeling, agents, events, and states are three major components in the collaborative process of development control illustrated by Figure 2. The staffs at different departments (or levels) can be viewed as agents who have the responsibility to make decisions in the development control process. Each decision made by the 226
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agent(s) triggers one or more reviewing events, such as site locating, land-use permitting, building permitting, or title registering. The results of these reviewing events are states, such as planned land lots, delineated land-use boundaries, registered cadastral property, as well as other land parcel states. The state of a parcel consists of its geometry, thematic attributes, and topological relations with other parcels. It was pointed out that there are relations between these agents, events, and states as shown in Figure 2, including sequential order and hierarchical relations between two agents, relations between agent(s) and event(s), relations between events, casual relations between events and states, and relations between states (Jiang, 2000; Jiang et al., 2000b]. For example, site locating event E1 occurs before land-use permitting event E2, and title registering event E3 cannot begin until E2 is finished. The entire development control process can be represented by a composite event, such as E1, E2, and E3 in Figure 2. Each of these three events can be divided further into sub-events. The causal relations between events and states of land parcels reflect the geometrical and thematic changes in the land parcels. In general, any change of states would be driven or caused by a specific event. Let S0 be the initial state of a land parcel. After the execution of the event site locating E1, the location of parcel S1 is created. S1 was modified after executing E2 and land-use boundary S2 was generated. The boundary of registered property S3 is further demarcated by the following event E3. It is evident that there are relations between different states of the same land parcel. In fact, S1 is created on the basis of S0, and S1 is modified and transformed into S2. In other words, the one-to-one relation between sequential states of the same parcel also needs to be considered in entity-relation modeling of development control. In the earlier urban GIS development phases (such as project GISs and department GISs), the emphasis was placed on the representation of the states of spatial objects, as shown in Figure 3a. The structural aspects of the spatial system under consideration were modeled with the cartographic layers, feature attribute tables, lookup tables, annotation, and map library in the case of using an ARC/INFO database. Modeling both the structural and behavioral aspects is not a new research direction in computer science (Pernici, 1990; Quer et al., 1993). For example, Teisseire et al. (1994) extended the IFO model to integrate both the structural and behavioral representation of applications in a consistent and uniform manner in terms of both the formalization and the associated graphic representation. Snoeck and Dedene (1998) tried to express the semantic integrity of structural and behavioral schema with an existence dependency graph. But it was found not to be easy, even in designing event-based non-spatial databases (Scheer, 1992). P H OTO G R A M M E T R I C E N G I N E E R I N G & R E M OT E S E N S I N G
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Figure 2. A simplified diagram of the collaborative development control process.
There have been some initial efforts to represent both structural aspects and behavioral aspects in GIS applications. Peuquet et al. (1995) proposed an event-based spatio-temporal data model where the sequence of events through time was organized in increasing order along a time line. Another event-oriented approach was discussed by Claramount et al. (1995; 1996) to model changes among a set of entities. Spatial entities and their temporal versions were associated through intermediary logical tables (past events, present events, and future events) that permit the description of complex succession, production, reproduction, and transmission processes. Time, however, was treated as a complementary facet of spatial and thematic domains that are separated into distinct
structures and unified by domain links. Allen et al. (1995) tried to develop a generic model for explicitly representing casual links within a spatio-temporal GIS. A small number of elements were presented in that model using an extended Entity-Relationship formalism, including objects and their states, events, agents, and conditions, as well as relations (Produces, Is Part Of, Conditions). However, these initial efforts gave priority to some local or partial behaviors of the applications rather than to an overview of the system’s behavior. In the case of our development control system, both the structural and behavioral aspects of the overall system needed to be modeled. In other words, the agents, events, and states as well as the relations between them should be taken into
Figure 3. Integrated representation of agents, events, and states.
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Figure 4. Hierarchies of the integrated representation of agents, events, and states.
consideration in designing and developing the GIS-based CSCW system for development control.
Hierarchichal Representation of the Relations between Events, Agents, and States A hierarchical representation of agents, events, and states as well as their relations was proposed, instead of using one large diagram. A first-level diagram of the development control process is shown on the left of Figure 4, and each of its blocks can be detailed out on the second-level diagram. For instance, the block Department B was detailed out on the right of Figure 4 with the sub-agents, sub-events, and sub-states at
the next level. The whole process is represented by a hierarchical set of diagrams. Among the relations represented in the hierarchical set of diagrams, there exist the collaborative relations between agents, sequential relations between events, transitional relations between states, and executive relations between an agent and an event, trigging relations between an event and a state, etc. (Jiang, 2000). The collaborative relation between agents means a dynamic process with actions such as asking for documents, rejecting/accepting application, and informing applicant. The transitional relation between states reflects the transition from an intermediate result (such as a sketch plan) to a final result (legal plan). It is quite possible
Figure 5. An example of one-to-many relations between agents and events.
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Figure 6. Links between spatial objects, attribute tables, and multimedia data.
that several events in conjunction initiate an event, or that a state is the result of several events. Moreover, one agent might execute more than one event. Some one-to-many relations between an agent and events are shown in Figure 5. Communication with other parts of the system can be shown within an upper-level diagram at the appropriate level. To realize the above relations, UML (Unified Modeling Language) can be used. For example, each agent can be assigned a certain role, and the links between agents can be described by association. The execution of workflow and the procedure for data processing can be described by the flow of events. And the changes of spatial objects in geometry or attribute can be described with state chat. Formal representation of events and their relations with states can be modeled with the Event Pattern Language (EPL) (Gehani, 1992a; Gehani, 1992b). In our approach, an event can be described with a tuple (Eid, Ea, Epro, Es), where Eid is an identifier of the event, Ea represents the attributes of the event, Epro is the pre-condition of the event occurrence, and Es is the sub-sequential effects of the event occurrence. The Eid is a character string representing hierarchy and generalization. For instance, E2 in Figure 4 is a composite event with E21, E22, and E23 as its sub-events. A state of a spatial object can be described by a tuple (Sid, Sec, See, Spro, Spost), where Sid is the identifier of the state, Sec is the event that creates the state, See is the event that ends the state, Spro is the previous state, and Spost is the post state. With these expressions, the land-use boundary in Figure 4 can be represented as (S2, E22, E3, S1, S3). This tuple describes not only the relation between spatial objects and the related events, but also the corresponding relations between different states (Chen and Jiang, 2000).
Integration of Heterogeneous and Disparate Spatial and Non-Spatial Data It is very essential to have easy access to and usability of the spatial and non-spatial data existing or newly created during the process of development control, which, generally, includes various plans, topographic maps, facility maps, administrative boundaries, cadastral maps, decision related documents, various permits, laws and regulations, etc. These heterogeneous and disparate sources of data within an urban planning and land management department need to be assembled into an integrated database (Jiang and Chen, 2002). To integrate these multiscale, multitype data, a unique identification code (called Feature ID, abbreviated as FID) is asP H OTO G R A M M E T R I C E N G I N E E R I N G & R E M OT E S E N S I N G
Figure 7. A causal entity-relation diagram of states in development control processing.
signed to each spatial object. The linkage between different spatial objects and between a spatial object and related attribute tables can be executed using the FID, as Figure 6 shows. The successive spatial states in the development control process are defined as composite spatial objects, such as planned site location, delineated land-use boundary, permitted building area, and registered property. The casual linkages between these states are represented explicitly with a causal entity-relation diagram as shown in Figure 7. Each state might be composed of a set of primitive spatial objects which are represented in the federated database. A node-link structure was also used for the associative linking of a variety of multimedia information (Shiffer, 1995). The aerial images, ground photos, 3D landscape, narrative descriptions, and digital video and sound can be encapsulated by nodes and associated with spatial object(s) on digital maps. Maps are used as the spatial reference attached by other document nodes. Users can navigate in or through geographic space to retrieve the multimedia information about the past and existing conditions of a particular location. With the support of this hypermedia information, planners are able to show people explicit photo-textured information of what their city will look like after a proposed change, instead of presenting citizens with only abstract maps and descriptive text to explain, analyze, and debate design ideas and urban processes. February 2004
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Figure 8. Some toolbars for producing development control maps (color version at www.aspars.org).
Specific Functions for Day-to-Day Routine Work Once a building application is submitted, a sequence of legally defined events will be executed by planning staffs and land managers according to the nature of the applied case, such as application registering, outlines (of land use and construction) delineating, opinion giving, permits printing, documents filing, etc. In order to automate such manual processes with networked communication and spatial data handling capabilities, three kinds of functionalities were developed for urban planners and land managers, i.e., office automation for paperwork, desktop boundaries mapping, and network-based generic queries. Office Automation Functionalities Each building application is considered as a case and assigned a unique code as the identifier. A series of office automation functions were developed within the Oracle environment, including application registering, documents checking, opinions giving and transferring, legal permits, and associate graphic documents preparing and issuing. While each of these functions is executed, the results are processed and transferred immediately to the next stage. Desktop Spatial Data Handling Tools Delineating new land lots and locating new buildings on large-scale digital maps is one of the key desktop spatial data handling tasks. A specific toolkit was developed. Some of the toolbars are shown in Figure 8, such as road arc generating, coordinates and areas measuring, legends labeling, official stamping, etc. Network-Based Generic Queries Process-query, fact-query, map-query, and law-query are four major generic queries developed on the basis of the classification of data and the integrated structure. For a given building application, it is possible to access its current, previous, and following reviewing steps with the integrated agent-eventand-state structure. In other words, it is possible to know how many steps the building application has gone through, and 230
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what are the current and the other remaining reviewing stages. An example is given in Figure 9. In order to provide easy access by content and in a natural way, visual interfaces are designed by integrating the workflow charts, fancy icons, and tip wizard. Differences in technical languages of different application areas are also taken into consideration. In fact, the end users do not always know the terms adopted by “experts” in charge of the development of the application. One example is that the term “project” is used in the interface instead of “record,” which is used by the system developers. It is also possible to know for a given reviewing step how many application cases have been reviewed in a given period of time and what are the applications under review, such as shown in Figure 10. This kind of process query is very often used by the administrator, planning staffs, and land managers at different levels with the hierarchical structure of events. The relevant states and other documents can also be retrieved with the help of the linkages between events and states. For instance, tracking issued permits is a routine work in urban development control. Based on the records related to the parcels approved or building occupancy permitted, all the changes that have taken place since a specific time can be retrieved from the federated database. Because the provision of metadata can increase data accessibility, the development of a metadata-based indexing system known as Catalogs was emphasized by some urban organizations. The Catalogs include an indexed listing of feature collections, their contents, coverage, and other metadata. A Catalog browser was developed as shown in Figure 11. Oracle Application Server 4.0 and Microsoft Internet Information Server (IIS) 3.0 were used as Web servers. Visual Basic 5.0, ESRI MapObject 1.2, ESRI Internet Map Server (IMS 1.0), Java 1.2, and HTML were used as development tools. After sending a query command from the client side with the browser to the server, the server will look at the metadata database, execute an operation, produce a GIF or HTML file, and then send it back to the browser. This allows the user to find the information about the content, quality, condition, origins, and characteristics of data, and where these data may be found. P H OTO G R A M M E T R I C E N G I N E E R I N G & R E M OT E S E N S I N G
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Figure 9. Agent-based process query about a development application (color version at www.asprs.org).
Conclusion With the event-based methodology presented above, two GISbased CSCW systems were implemented in Changzhou municipality (with about 600,000 population, 370 square kilometers) and Liuzhou municipality (with about 700,000 population, 600 square kilometers), respectively. These two systems have been in operation since 1997 and 1999, and have largely improved the efficiency of the collaborative decision making of development control by reducing duplication of effort, minimizing redundant data collection and analysis, and maximizing the sharing of information. Planning staffs and land managers as well as their administrators can perform the development control steps in a logical order instead of some artificial sequences. It is now easier for the administrators to
supervise the decision-making process, resolve conflicts, and carry out negotiations through better control of the information and networked staffs. Currently, these two systems are mainly implemented in C/S structure except for the catalogs of metadata. System developers are now converting the systems to Web architecture with C/S B/S structure, with the C/S structure for data management and B/S for information querying. It is worthy to point out that efforts were devoted to re-engineering the networked organization in the two case studies. While the traditional organizational structures have served the planning and land management departments well in the past, they have proven to be slow and cumbersome in responding to the needs of today’s competitive and networked
Figure 10. Event-based process query about a reviewing step (color version at www.asprs.org).
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Figure 11. A WWW-based catalog browser (color version at www.asprs.org).
environment (Peppard et al., 1995). It is necessary to find new ways of getting the job done by shifting the organizational structure and workflow. Moreover, the change of the workflow can be more easily represented and modeled with the eventbased approach discussed in this paper. Further research and development issues in this field include (1) a better understanding and modeling of the social cognitive and behavioral aspects of such GIS-based CSCW systems where human-human interactions and causal relations between human actions and spatial object changes are involved; (2) database revision and versioning, including backend data revision, databases integrity, database schema, and anomalies handling; (3) adding more specialized functions such as case-based reasoning system (Shi and Yeh, 1999; Yeh and Shi, 1999), knowledge-based decision making system, intelligent spatial analysis; and (4) developing 3D data structures to simulate the built urban environment.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grant No. 40171076.
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