Automation in Construction 57 (2015) 156–165
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Automation in Construction journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon
Review
Enhancing environmental sustainability over building life cycles through green BIM: A review Johnny Kwok Wai Wong ⁎, Jason Zhou 1 Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
a r t i c l e
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Article history: Received 1 September 2014 Received in revised form 2 April 2015 Accepted 6 June 2015 Available online xxxx Keywords: Building information modelling Green building Green BIM Environmental sustainability Energy simulation
a b s t r a c t The innovation of building information modelling (BIM) technology provides a new means of predicting, managing and monitoring the environmental impacts of project construction and development through virtual prototyping/visualisation technology. This paper aims to provide thought-provoking insights into the shortcomings in the scope of the existing green BIM literature, and outlines the most important directions for future research. A total of 84 green-BIM-related papers have been reviewed and compared. Most green BIM research, centres on environmental performance at the design (44 papers) and construction stages (25 papers) of building lifecycles. Few studies concentrated on the development of BIM-based tools for managing environmental performance during the building maintenance, retrofitting (8 papers), and demolition (12 papers) stages. It is suggested that a ‘one-stop-shop’ BIM for environmental sustainability monitoring and management over a building's full life cycle should be considered in future research. Future green BIM tools should also include the three R's concept (reduce, reuse and recycle) in their sustainability analysis for both new development and retrofitting projects. The system should offer better integration with facility operation maintenance manuals for more effective low-carbon management. The use of cloud-based BIM technology to enable the management of building sustainability using ‘big data’ is also needed. Despite these potential developments, it is argued that the lack of computer tools and the complications of the BIM models are hindering the adoption of green BIM. © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents 1. 2. 3. 4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable buildings and BIM — case studies Research methodology. . . . . . . . . . . Research findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Building planning and design . . . . 4.2. Building construction process . . . . 4.3. Building operation . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Building repair and maintenance . . . 4.5. Building demolition. . . . . . . . . 5. Discussion and future research . . . . . . . 6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. Introduction
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2766 5565. E-mail addresses:
[email protected] (J.K.W. Wong),
[email protected] (J. Zhou). 1 Tel.: +852 2766 4305.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2015.06.003 0926-5805/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
The concept of environmental sustainability has stimulated transformational changes for the built environment, with reductions in the levels of energy consumption and natural resource depletion that have been required in traditional building life cycles. The architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry has been criticised as a
J.K.W. Wong, J. Zhou / Automation in Construction 57 (2015) 156–165
major carbon emitter and a relatively unregulated discipline in terms of control and management of carbon emissions [106]. Although the concept of ‘going green’ and ‘environmental sustainability’ has been around in the construction industry for many years, official statistics indicate that the AEC sector continues to be a major energy consumer. For example, approximately 10% of all global energy end-use takes place during the manufacture of building materials [100]. Energy consumption in the operation phase of building life produces 30–40% of the total global GHG emissions [99]. Construction and demolition (C&D) waste contributes about 40% of all solid waste in the developed countries [100]. With the ever-increasing scarcity of resources and rising energy costs, minimising energy consumption and restricting AEC industry-related GHG emissions have become increasingly pressing challenges. Over the last two or three decades, the developments of computeraided design (CAD) software and of building information modelling (BIM) have changed the traditional design formats and communication patterns of the AEC sector. BIM is defined as a set of interrelating policies, processes and technologies that generate a systematic approach to managing the critical information for building design and project data in digital format throughout the life cycle of a building [87]. In such a system, construction project decisions are generated and communicated through the use of 3D models (see [10,69]). As BIM allows for multidisciplinary information to be superimposed within one model, this approach provides an opportunity for environmental performance analyses and sustainability-enhancement measures to be performed precisely and efficiently [10,14,92]. ‘Green BIM’ has become a tremendously popular term and concept in building and construction sector over the last few years. Despite its ubiquitous use, there is an apparent lack of academic definitions of what exactly a ‘green BIM’ is meant to be. So far, there has been limited academic and technical literature discussing the definition of green BIM. In the SmartMarket report, McGraw-Hill Construction [76] provided an in-depth discussion over the green BIM practices approaches in the construction industry. Green BIM is considered the use of BIM tools to achieve sustainability and/or improved building performance objectives on a project [76]. Wu and Issa [110] points out that green BIM is the synergies of BIM and green building, which is used to help achieve green objectives and to improve sustainable outcomes of the building development. Alawini et al. [4] mentions the green BIM is a tool that is created to help building design industry efficiently integrate sustainable components, especially in energy efficiency application, into the building project lifecycle. While academia has largely neglected the definition issue, industry has moved forward themselves and provided their own definitions. For example, contracting companies like Gammon considered green BIM as a tool which utilise BIM along with sustainable design and construction techniques for making informed decisions early in the design process and enables a greater impact on the efficiency and performance of a construction project. The application of ‘green BIM’ should not be just limited to the building sustainability analysis and management of the design as well as construction stages, but also extend to the entire lifecycle of a building, including operation (commissioning and occupation), repair and maintenance, and demolition stages. Summarising the concept of green BIM above, we propose to define the ‘green BIM’ as ‘a model-based process of generating and managing coordinated and consistent building data during its project lifecycle that enhance building energy-efficiency performance, and facilitate the accomplishment of established sustainability goals’. It should be noted that while green building has been used as a term interchangeable with sustainable building and high-performance building [118], high-performance building does tend to have a bit more to it than the traditional definition of green building [24]. As defined by the Environmental Protection Agency [41], green building is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle. Highperformance building, according to the Energy Independence and Security Act, is the integration and optimization on a life cycle basis all major
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high-performance attributes, not only environmentally responsible (energy conservation and sustainability), but also safety, security, durability, accessibility, cost–benefit, occupant productivity, functionality, and operational considerations [81]. High-performance building contains high-performance, complex building services/systems (e.g. high performance HVAC system) that require ‘ongoing adjustments and tinkering, and change in the behaviour of users after the initial commissioning’ [73]. The key to a high-performance building is optimization and integration of building systems [24]. For example, the interaction of between the building occupants with the building systems like HVAC, fire safety, lighting efficiency, etc [24]. Although these properties were certainly also considered in a green building (e.g. the San Jose headquarters complex of the Adobe Systems Incorporated in California), but may not have been emphasised. An example of high performance building is the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Office Building 3156 in the United States [98]. With the adoption of energy efficiency renovations (e.g. highly efficient packaged terminal heat pump units, high efficacy lighting using electronic ballasts), renewable energy utilisation (e.g. solar photovoltaic power array) and consumption monitoring features (e.g. occupancy sensors for HVAC and lighting control, ‘smart’ energy saving power strips, etc), it reduced the building's annual energy consumption by approximately 35% [98]. To enhance interaction among project team members in the design of high-performance building, BIM plays an important role in generating iterations of the energy model to arrive at a design decision on each high-performance building element. In the last 20 years a substantial amount of literature on BIM has been generated. Numerous scholars have conducted reviews concerning elements of the existing BIM research and potential applications of BIM (e.g., [33,53,96,101]). Despite the growing understanding of BIM and its potential in environmental sustainability in scholarly research, the development of green BIM has been criticised as ‘immature, ad-hoc and unsystematic’ [109]. The adoption rate of BIM in green building projects is still very low and its full potential is yet to be explored due to the limited knowledge about this evolving technology by the practitioners [109]. There is still no systematic review of the main research efforts and achievements concerning the ways that green BIM can enhance the environmental sustainability of buildings [89,107]. With the gaps between industry needs and available academic research, as well as the deficiencies in our current understanding of the concept, a review of existing green BIM development is needed. An inclusive review of existing literature also helps revisit the academic or scholarly challenge of making disciplinary connections in light of current green BIM developments in the industry. This provides great benefits to categorise where more efforts are required and thus the future research directions of green BIM. An inclusive review of previous research can provide great benefits in terms of identifying the areas where additional efforts are most required and discerning which future directions for green BIM research would be most helpful. The purposes of this study are therefore 1) to review the major green BIM research efforts to date that apply to enhancing the environmental sustainability of building life cycles and 2) to suggest the most fruitful avenues for further research. 2. Sustainable buildings and BIM — case studies In the US, buildings use up a large proportion of all energy resources, including electric power and natural gas. Buildings also account for 40% of global CO2 emissions [13,92]. Most of these energy consumption and emission issues are related to the operation of buildings, including their heating or cooling systems, operation of lighting, electrical appliances and other building service systems [92]. With the escalating cost of energy and growing concern over the environment, the demand is increasing for more resource-efficient, ecologically sound industry practices [8,9,12,14,15,19,52]. Individuals and international organisations have increasingly responded to the environmental costs of their buildings by initiating rating systems for green and sustainable
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construction [14]. In recent years, there have been a growing number of regulations in many countries that mandate targets for energy and resource efficiency and encourage emission mitigation in new building developments or retrofitting projects. Different rating systems are being used in various nations to assess the environmental performance of buildings. Such systems include Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) (in the US), Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology (BREEAM) (in the UK), Green Star (in Australia), the Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency (in Japan) and the Building Environmental Assessment Method (BEAM) Plus (in Hong Kong). Architects and planners increasingly consider ways to minimise the environmental impact and energy consumption of buildings through improved design, increased energy efficiency and conservation. The 2008 report from McGraw Hill Construction found that the operating costs of green buildings are around 14% lower than those of traditional buildings, and that this improvement can lead to an 11% increase in building values compared to those of traditional buildings [75]. In view of the rise in concern for global sustainability, the means of managing and minimising energy consumption and carbon (or GHG) emissions over the full life cycles of buildings has been a fast-growing topic of research in the fields of construction and engineering. One stream of this research has focused on how construction information technologies (such as BIM) can contribute to building sustainability and overall performance. The full life cycle of a building involves the processes of raw material extraction, building material manufacturing, on-site material assembly, occupation or use, repair and maintenance, demolition or deconstruction and disposal or re-use of the materials [27,47,63]. BIM is regarded a multi-layered socio-technical system as it contains the technical core and the social part, which combines the man-made technology and the social and institutional consequences of its implementation in society [124]. The technical core of BIM is the software (i.e. BIM software) which enables 3D modelling and information management [124]. BIM software is designed and produced by the vendors specifically to work in a BIM framework, and can insert additional information, such as sustainability and maintenance information, into the model. Autodesk Revit is one of the commercially BIM software which is available in the market which allows the users to design a building and structure and its components in 3D/4D model. BIM involves the cutting-edge digital technology to establish the model. Model in the BIM is a representation of an object or an idea, usually with a certain degree of abstraction [66]. BIM technology can provide an effective way to enable the integrated design of energy efficiency and the assessment of energy consumption over the building's life cycle [48,115]. Connecting the BIM model to a decision-making tool and to sustainability metrics helps to enable useful decisions in the early project design stage and allows detailed sustainability trade-off analysis to be made by referring to real project data. This process provides a means for modelling the impacts of decisions concerning design, operations, maintenance and occupant behaviour-modification, thereby promoting a sustainable built environment through the use of multi-dimensional visualisation technology [19]. Such an approach also enables designers to assess various options for sustainable design that promote energy efficiency and resource minimisation in relation to project costs. 3 . Research methodology In this study, a comprehensive literature search based on the ‘title/ abstract/keyword’ search method was first conducted through the scholarly publication search engine (Scopus). Scopus is chosen as it covers a wider journal range (i.e. over 22,000 journals) [42]. It allows multidisciplinary search and offers author profiles which cover affiliations, number of publications and their bibliographic data, references, and details on the number of citations each published document has received [26]. Scopus also leads over other search engines in indexed
documents as well as citations in all research fields. This is especially evident in engineering & technology discipline [21]. The keywords used in the literature search included ‘green building information modelling’, ‘building environmental sustainability’, ‘building environment design’, ‘(whole) building energy simulation’, and ‘energy performance analysis’. Articles and technical papers in refereed journals or refereed conference proceedings that included these particular terms in their titles, abstracts or keyword lists, covering various stages in the entire building lifecycle were considered. As green BIM is a relatively new technological advancement, this review surveyed articles published between 2004 and 2014. Some of the top journals included in this literature search were including, but not limited to: Automation in Construction (AIC), Building and Environment (B&E), Building Simulation (BS), Construction Management and Economics (CME), Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management (ECAM), Journal of Construction Engineering and Management (JCEM), Journal of Management in Engineering (JME), International Journal of Project Management (IJPM) and Building Research and Information (BRI). Article categories including editorials, book reviews, letters to the editor or discussions/closures and comments were excluded. One hundred thirty-seven papers were scanned during this process, and 84 green-BIM-related papers were identified and included in the analysis (Table 1). The most frequently cited journal was Automation in Construction (with 14 studies). The reviewed papers were then categorised according to the key stages of building development. These categories included i) building planning and design, ii) construction, iii) repair and maintenance, iv) operation and v) demolition. It was also worthy of note that although findings are illustrate by each stage through building life cycles, some previous works in each stage are also interrelated through the life cycle of building, not just an individual matter only during a particular stage. The details of developments in green BIM relating to each of these stages in the building life cycle are discussed in the following section. 4. Research findings 4.1 . Building planning and design The planning and design stage is the point at which the most basic decisions are made in terms of the sustainability, energy use and environmental design of a building [15,16,72]. Making informed and precise design decisions as early as possible can help the process of sustainable design to become far more efficient and cost-effective. For example, sustainability analysis tools allow the design team to make better-informed decisions earlier in the process by quickly evaluating different design options and identifying greener designs [28]. These analyses help planners to realise the implications of their building designs for the environmental performance and efficiency of a building and its tenants. Traditional design environments have provided much less support for the designers or project team members to visualise the feasibility of early design decisions. Azhar [11] suggested that design and construction practitioners in the US regard the green BIM tool as providing ‘some-to-significant’ time and cost savings as compared to the traditional methods. The potential of computational assessment methods and tools for allowing actual environmental performance assessments of buildings has been highlighted only since the late 1990s [38]. Before the widespread application of green BIM in recent years, several other computation or modelling approaches were adopted for assessing building sustainability, [5,64,82,114]. For example, Brahme et al. [23] proposed a model that integrated differential modelling, homology-based mapping and generative design agents to provide a comprehensive building performance analysis in the early design stage. Baldwin et al. [17] applied information modelling and optimisation techniques to establish an integrated model named the ‘Design Structure Matrix’. This model enables designers to optimise the design process and helps to eliminate waste during construction stage. Baldwin et al. [18] also investigated the
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159
Table 1 Publications in the area of green BIM published from 2004–2014. Journal AIC JCCE JCEM JME Other journals Total
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2
2
2010
2011
3 3
1 1
1
2013
2014
6
3 3
1 1
1 1 1
2012
1
8 10
potential of design information modelling for evaluating the options in reducing construction waste from high-rise residential buildings, i.e., prefabrication and pre-cast structures. With the technological advancement and wider use of BIM, applications of BIM for making sustainable design decisions have become ubiquitous over the past few years. For example, Inyim et al. [54] established a BIM-extended tool (SimulEICon) that enables decision-making regarding sustainability during the design phase of a construction project. Lin and Gerber [71] developed a tool called the ‘Evolutionary Energy Performance Feedback for Design’ (EEPFD) that provides advice on energy performance at the early design stage by offering rapid iteration with performance feedback through parameterisation, automation and multi-objective optimisation. Krygiel and Nies [64] summarised the different ways that BIM can aid in planning and design for building sustainability. The benefits they identified included the following: i) assessing the building's orientation (for selecting a good orientation that can reduce energy costs); ii) analysing the building's massing (for analysing building's form and optimising the building's envelope in terms of various factors such as the ratio of equivalent transparency (Req) (see [29]); iii) conducting daylighting analysis; iv) investigating the water harvesting potential (for reducing water requirements in a building); v) modelling building energy performance (for reducing energy needs or analysing renewable energy options that can contribute to low energy costs (see [58]); vi) examining the suitability of sustainable materials (for reducing material needs and using recycled materials) and vii) designing site and logistics management (for minimising wastes and carbon footprints). Clevenger and Khan [125] evaluated the contribution of BIM to the design-to-fabrication process for building materials. They suggested that BIM can improve the building delivery performance and thus help to minimise any unnecessary environmental impact due to design errors or miscommunications between different parties. Scholarly studies in recent years have also demonstrated the ability of BIM to assist with green building rating certification. For example, Biswas et al. [22] developed a tool incorporating BIM technology to help with the evaluation of environmental consequences from design decisions. Their study involved one of the earliest attempts to apply BIM to the rating and certification of green buildings. Barnes and Castro-Lacouture [20] suggested that 13 credits and 1 prerequisite in the LEED rating system can be directly assessed and documented by using the Autodesk Revit BIM tool. Azhar et al. [14,15] also found that 17 credits and 2 prerequisites (which result in 38 points in the LEED) can be assessed by adopting BIM software (i.e., Autodesk Revit™ or IES Virtual Environment™). In the same vein, Gandhi and Jupp [44] examined the potential application of BIM for the Australian Green Star Building certification. Wong and Kuan [104] also explored the prospective application of the BIM tool in facilitating the BEAM Plus sustainable building certification process in Hong Kong. Twenty-six out of 80 credits in this certification system can be determined with the support of documentation produced by Autodesk Revit. Recently, Jalaei and Jrade [55] developed a tool that incorporates BIM, energy performance analysis and a cost estimating system to enable the sustainable building certification system in assessing a variety of green building design options. Also, some types of commercially
10 12
7 7
9 10
5 7
10 16
2 8 16
Total 14 4 2 2 62 84
available software (such as Autodesk's Revit Conceptual Energy Analysis) have been developed to help designers in converting their conceptual designs into energy analytical models, thereby providing the means for an integrated whole-building energy analysis. Other software tools have been developed to support the complex processes of sustainable design such as analyses of daylight and solar access. These tools can also help in automating the drudgery of activities such as calculating material quantity takeoffs.
4.2. Building construction process The task of achieving cleaner, low-carbon construction processes and greener jobsites has become a major concern in the construction sector. Increasing evidence suggests that emissions from construction activities are just as significant as energy consumption in the operation of in-use buildings. Therefore, the need for low-cost, effective mechanisms for monitoring construction-related emissions has been emphasised [106]. Some early studies in this area explored ways to estimate the emissions from construction operations and to analyse the impact of emissions over the life cycles of buildings [1,46,62,84]. Over the past five years, several prominent universities in the US, including the University of Illinois [49,86], North Carolina State University [68] and several others [51,67,93–95] have initiated research into on-site monitoring of carbon emissions with the use of BIM systems. For example, Artenian et al. [6] applied BIM and a geographic information system (GIS) technology to optimise concrete truck mixer routes and minimise emissions from the process. Despite these research efforts, most of the early studies in this area have been criticised for narrowly focusing on particular types of construction activities such as earthworks or concreting [106]. In the future, more attention should be given to the development of a more accurate and comprehensive tool for automatic emission data analysis and visualisation [49]. Wong et al. [106] developed a visualisation tool to assist project team members in estimating and visualising carbon emission levels during the construction process. This tool helps contractors to identify the sources of the emissions and to quantify the amounts of emissions generated. Construction equipment is also considered a major culprit in the onsite carbon emissions problem [1,46,106]. Minimising such environmental impacts is an important goal of operation planning. An early study by Martinez and Ioannou [74] applied discrete-event simulation (DES) for modelling complex construction operations and helping to provide reliable data on equipment operations for emission estimation. Peña-Mora et al. [86] developed a framework for planning, monitoring and managing construction site emissions. Their emission estimation model helps planners to select low-emission construction strategies in the planning stage. This model also provides a baseline to determine the success of management decisions in the actual construction stage. Hajibabai et al. [49] developed an integrated GIS and CAD-based approach for visualising, communicating and analysing greenhouse gas emissions that result from construction activities and for graphically representing the spatial aspects of construction. This system enhances the visualisation of the distributions and dynamic variations of GHG
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emissions, and it helps stakeholders to better analyse and understand how construction activities affect the environment. 4.3. Building operation Energy consumption in the operation (or use) phase has been reported to comprise a major portion of the total energy consumption during the life of a building. This stage in a building's life cycle produces about one-third of the building's global carbon emissions. For example, residential and commercial buildings in the US currently consume about 40% of all primary energy and release 20% of the national CO2 budget, mainly due to heating and/or cooling systems [36,39,95,112,116]. A review of current applications for BIM as a tool of analysis for managing environmental performance during the operation phase [30] has suggested various applications. These applications include the following: i) analysis of heating and cooling requirements (see [97]); ii) identification of daylighting opportunities and means of reducing both the electrical lighting load and the subsequent heat and energy loads (see [83]) and iii) selecting appropriate building equipment that may reduce energy use (see [83]). Commercially available software such as the Autodesk Green Building Studio involves innovative cloud computing technology for the analysis of building energy use. This software allows estimations of energy consumption, predictions of carbon emissions and evaluations of potential for the use of renewable energy in an existing building. Property developers and investors increasingly expect that green BIM can serve as a tool for helping them to achieve high energy efficiency, to evaluate their investments on green buildings and to offer reduced energy costs and sustainability benefits for prospective tenants. In term of facility management, BIM techniques should be of assistance for promoting efficient building operation, improving the quality of service to customers, reducing the occurrence of emergencies in the building's operation stage, improving safety performance and reducing resource waste. All of these benefits can lead to the creation of truly green buildings [36,70]. 4.4. Building repair and maintenance In the building repair and maintenance phase, retrofitting existing buildings can help to promote conservation of natural resources and significantly cut a building's energy consumption, leading to a safer and cleaner living environment [50]. With the increasing concern for enhancing the energy efficiency of existing buildings during their operational lives, building managers are seeking ways to improve the sustainability of their structures. The means of doing this include incorporating sustainable design attributes, reducing operation costs, limiting environmental impacts and increasing building resiliency. All of these objectives have become priorities in retrofitting existing buildings. A number of studies have recently emerged on the use of BIM in sustainable retrofitting projects. For example, Motawa and Almarshad [79] described a BIM-based knowledge-sharing system that consists of two elements: a BIM system for data gathering or sharing and a case-based reasoning (CBR) module for capturing knowledge. This system provides a platform for facility managers and their maintenance teams to learn from preceding experience and to survey a building's full record, including its record of maintenance for different materials and components in the building. The integration of knowledge management principles (i.e., embedded in CBR systems) with information management principles (i.e., embedded in BIM systems) is regarded as one way of transforming current BIM applications to a new knowledge-based BIM (i.e., Building Knowledge Modelling) [79,80]. Wong and Lau [105] constructed a series of 3D models to review the feasibility of green roof retrofitting for the existing buildings of a densely populated older district in Hong Kong. They analysed the overshadowing of the building blocks, including their orientations and proximities to adjoining taller buildings. Through the use of three-dimensional virtual modelling, the
sun path of the studied region was simulated to evaluate the amount of rooftop area that would not be affected by the shadows cast from the adjacent buildings. Hammond et al. [50] established the ‘Sustainable Framework’ and ‘Best Practices’ for green retrofitting. Their research findings suggested that BIM integration helps to implement sustainable design principles into the renovation or retrofitting of existing buildings. In a study by Jiang et al. [56], a set of RESTful programming interfaces were established to allow maintenance teams to access and exchange data, including information on security and data privacy issues. This approach offered a server-centric BIM platform for energy efficient retrofitting work. 4.5. Building demolition With the increase of construction activities over recent decades, there is an escalating concern for the environmental impacts of construction and demolition (C&D) works. The ever-increasing amount of C&D waste disposal in landfills, especially in developed cities such as Hong Kong, has become a critical socio-environmental problem and a political issue [32]. With the growing awareness of environmental sustainability, governments and industries in many countries have had to consider effective C&D waste management practices. To alleviate C&D waste generation, governments have introduced various policies. Hong Kong, for example, has introduced a compulsory waste sorting scheme for government projects and a waste disposal charging scheme [31]. As the three existing landfills in Hong Kong are expected to reach their full capacity one-byone from this year onwards, it is vitally important that the AEC industry strives to decrease C&D waste and to attain a more sustainable system of waste management. Other cities in the world are also encountering similar challenges. Scholars have been trying to develop tools for estimating the waste from building demolition projects. One such tool is SMARTWaste, developed by the UK Building Research Establishment. This tool helps to estimate and identify the types and amounts of waste products that will be generated onsite [25]. Such a model, however, requires detailed information from experts. The SMARTWaste tool depends on the use of regional data, reliable and accurate record keeping and waste accounting to realise its function. These complex requirements hinder rapid and accurate waste estimation. So far, there has been only limited use of green BIM for managing and monitoring environmental performance in the demolition phase of building life cycles. In an earlier study by the Associated General Contractors of America [7], a digital BIM visualising tool was developed to identify and estimate C&D waste materials. These data allow practitioners to develop a more cooperative and efficient material recycling plan before an actual demolition or renovation. In the recent studies by Cheng and Ma [31,32], a BIM system was set up that proved able to extract the information on volumes and materials for every selected element in a building information model. This tool can incorporate the information for detailed waste estimation and planning which can be used to predict the number of truck delivery journeys and the amounts of statutory waste disposal charges. Akbarnezhad et al. [2] also developed a BIM-based model for assessing the impacts of various building deconstruction options in term of their economic costs and environmental benefits (i.e., minimisation of carbon emission and energy consumption). Recycling is considered to be a considerably more sustainable option than the traditional means of demolition and landfilling. Recycling not only avoids some of the cost, energy use and carbon emission that are incurred during the landfilling process, but it also reduces the demand for extraction of new materials by making alternative recycled materials available [3,60]. The international construction community has increasingly advocated the sustainable use of resources and recycling of materials such as concrete, timber and steel. However, without detailed prediction and planning for the types and volumes of recycled building materials, it can be time-consuming and expensive for contractors and recyclers to conduct a material recycling process [32]. If a building is
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Table 2 Summary of green-BIM related publications and their research focus in building life cycle (2004–2014). Author/building life cycle Akbarnezhad et al. [2] Wu and Issa [110] Zhai and McNeill [117] Hammond et al. [50] Frank et al. [43] Jalaei and Jrade [55] Wu et al. [111] Zuo and Zhao [118] Wong and Kuan [104] Inyim et al. [54] Volk et al. [101] Lin and Gerber [71] Katranuschkov et al. [58] Kandil et al. [119] Gandhi and Jupp [44] Russell-Smith and Lepech [90] Wong et al. [106] Eadie et al. [40] Costa et al. [36] Cooley and Cholakis [120] Costin et al. [37] Clevenger and Khan [34] Cheng and Ma [32] Chi et al. [33] Wong and Lau [105] Yeheyis et al. [113] Wong and Fan [107] Buyle et al. [27] König et al. [61] Jrade and Jalaei [57] Motawa and Almarshad [79] Motawa and Carter [80] Liao et al. [70] Wu and Issa [108] Rajendran et al. [89] Rajendran and Gomez [88] Cheng and Ma [31] Jiang et al. [56] Bynum et al. [28] Azhar et al. [15] Chang et al. [29] Moon et al. [78] Liu et al. [72] Stadel et al. [95] Hajibabai et al. [49] Tzivanidis et al. [97] Yuan and Yuan [115] Welle et al. [103] Heydarian and Golparvar-Fard [51] Gustavsson et al. [47] Shiftehfar et al. [94] Sattineni and Azhar [91] Azhar et al. [14] Azhar [11] Artenian et al. [6] Bank et al. [19] Chen et al. [121] Schlueter and Thesseling [122] Khasreen et al. [59] Lee et al. [67] Peña-Mora et al. [123] Novitski [83] Yoon et al. [114] Barnes and Castro-Lacouture [20] Ahn et al. [1] Azhar et al. [13] Azhar and Brown [12] Häkkinen and Kiviniemi [48] Kumar [65] Howard and Björk [53] Schlueter and Thesseling [92] Autodesk [10] Azhar et al. [16] Baldwin et al. [18]
Planning and design
Construction
Operation
Repair and maintenance
Demolition
Others: General discussion of environmental sustainability building lifecycle
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Table 2 (continued) Author/building life cycle
Planning and design
Krygiel and Nies [64] Building Research Establishment [25] Biswas et al. [22] Baldwin et al. [17] Guggemos and Horvath [46] Autodesk [8,9] Middlebrooks [77] Wang et al. [102]
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Construction
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Demolition
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designed properly, its components may be re-usable for the same or similar applications as the original components. Re-use of building components preserves the energy invested in the deconstructed building components by extending their service lives. Some previous studies have attempted to minimise the C&D waste generated from construction sites. For example, Wang et al. [102] developed a spreadsheet-based systems analysis model to assist in economic evaluation for various C&D waste management scenarios. The flow data (i.e., cost/revenue and management activities) of four different building-related materials, namely timber, asphalt shingle, carpet and gypsum drywall, were used to provide a cost–benefit analysis for various C&D waste management scenarios. As argued by Yeheyis et al. [113], a comprehensive and integrated C&D waste management framework should be able to make the most of the three Rs (reduce, re-use and recycle) and to limit the amount of construction waste disposed of by implementing a sustainable and comprehensive strategy throughout the lifecycle of a building project. Table 2 summarised green-BIM related publications and their research focus in building life cycle abovementioned. 5. Discussion and future research From the review of prevailing green BIM studies given above, several observations can be made. First, there is still lack of all-inclusive green BIM tool that provides a ‘cradle to grave’ management of a building's environmental sustainability, including the building materials, products and energy required over the building's full life cycle [59]. If the energy efficiency of the whole building lifecycle of a project can be analysed in an integrated approach as early as possible in the early planning and design stages, this improvement of energy efficiency for the entire project lifecycle will facilitate the true value of green BIM to increase recognition by the practitioners [4]. A ‘one-stop shop’ green BIM tool should be developed to provide life-cycle assessment that encompasses analysis of the environmental impacts of different building components and assembly methods throughout the entire life of the building from construction to demolition [111]. Wu et al. [111] have recently developed a real-time recording model that can measure crucial indicators concerning the energy use and carbon emissions of buildings throughout their life cycles based on a radio-frequency identification detection (RFID) system. Although previous studies (e.g., [37,91]) have shown the feasibility of integrating RFID with BIM for various settings, further efforts should be made to integrate RFID-based technology for realtime calculation of resource or energy use and carbon emission in a mobile BIM model setting. As material use inefficiency in terms of embodied carbon migration is considered a major factor in the construction industry's carbon footprint [45], the improvement of BIM tools can also help by providing analysis of the options for mitigation of emissions in terms of materials manufacturing, delivery and installation methods. Second, the literature review suggests that the conventional BIM is most commonly used in the early stages of building life cycles, especially in the design and construction phases, with fewer applications in later stages of the building life cycle such as the maintenance or demolition stages [40]. Although some recent BIM research has been developed to
assess options for the demolition and renovation of wastes (for example, [31]), there is as yet no effective application to deal with the demolition and deconstruction processes in terms of estimating the rates of material recycling from a demolition, calculating the carbon emission or footprint from maintenance and retrofitting projects or assessing the generation of C&D waste. Future BIM tools should include the concept of the three Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle) in their sustainability analysis. These tools should also be capable of predefining or automatically generating strategies to help identify the best deconstruction options for improved economic and environmental outcomes [2]. Furthermore, the BIM tool should be able to advise project teams on how to retrofit a building in a way that minimises the generation of wastes. Existing studies have demonstrated the feasibility of BIM to help with green building rating and certification, but many of these studies have concerned tools at the prototype stage of development. More studies are needed to develop a practical BIM tool for green building certification. The next stage of BIM development can also consider how the system can integrate with facility operation maintenance manuals for more effective low-carbon management [43]. It is expected that a more complex green BIM model will generate huge amounts of data and that greater information storage capacity will be required for adequate monitoring and managing of a building's sustainability performance. For example, Green BIM models could comprehend a vast library of embodied energy and LCA information, which would allow the practitioners to make the environmental and lifecycle comparison of different material and product specifications [85]. The potential of BIM for integrating the sustainable design and enhancing the energy efficiency of a building heavily depends on the integration of reliable, latest, research-based information and the embedding of trust-worthy evaluation tools [85]. The task of integrating all the associated knowledge domains that are important to life cycle management will be a major concern, and this will involve a growing need for generating and managing a set of ‘big data’ [35,61]. With the rapid development of cloud computing, the integration of cloud-based technology and BIM provides not only a new means of information exchange during the construction progress [108], but also offers a potential for better sustainability management over the building's whole life cycle. Cloud computing provides ‘a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, services) that can be quickly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction’ [35]. Such a service also allows for higher levels of collaboration, transparency and information accessibility. With the support of cloud-BIM, it is expected that the comprehensive management of building life cycles will become easier and more commonplace for construction projects [35]. Recently, BIM software vendor (i.e. Green Building Studio ® from Autodesk) started to incorporate the cloud-based technology into the energy analysis tool provides a faster way of analysing energy performance of building development. Future studies should extend the application of cloud computing and managing the ‘big data’ in green BIM. Green BIM adoption is expected to rise dramatically in the near future with the wider adoption of BIM tools in the building development process in many countries. From a practitioner's viewpoint, a key
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challenge concerns the availability of suitable green BIM software. The SmartMarket Report by McGraw-Hill Construction [76] surveyed green BIM practitioners and found that the availability of welldesigned, reliable and user-friendly BIM tools is an important consideration for the adoption of BIM for energy performance simulations and analysis. Lack of tools (26%) and complicated models (22%) hinder the practitioners from adopting green BIM technology. Technical compatibility issues such as the interoperability of the BIM tool with other sustainability analysis models, for example, supporting gbXML format (Green Building XML schema), an open schema developed to facilitate transfer of building data stored in BIM to energy analysis tools, are significant issues [65,78]. Cost of software licenses is another factor that inhibits a wide adoption of green BIM tool [85]. It requires the efforts of the practitioners and software vendors to deal with these challenges. 6. Conclusion Green BIM has been advocated for its potential to support environmentally sustainable building development through integrated design information and collaboration. A review of the technical literature, publications, and statements from public and private sector suggest that green BIM has emerged as a popular energy performance analysis tool during a building's conceptual design stage. It has also been applied to on-site emissions estimation and to visualisation to help anticipate and monitor the carbon footprints of construction projects. But, green BIM development has only started to scratch the surface, and its full potential is yet to be explored by practitioners. The shortcomings of the existing green BIM literature can be summarised into the following three major issues: i) limited research effort for managing environmental performance at the building maintenance, retrofitting and demolition stage; ii) a lack of ‘cradle-to-grave’ comprehensive BIM-based environmental sustainability simulation tool; iii) insufficient consideration given to the current cloud computing technology and ‘big data’ management within the green BIM tool. In view of the above deficiencies, a number of most important directions for future research in green BIM areas is outlined in this paper as follows: i) incorporating the concept of ‘reduce, reuse and recycle’ in the BIM sustainability analysis; ii) integrating the BIM system with facility operation maintenance manuals for more holistic low-carbon management during the building use stage; iii) developing a more practical BIM tool for the purpose of green building certification; iv) improving the compatibility and userfriendliness of green BIM tools; and v) more rigorous and collaborative research between scholars and practitioners on how green BIM technology should be developed to achieve the goal of reducing carbon or greenhouse gases from the entire building lifecycle. In addition, the life-cycle costs and infrastructure management in the future research work for BIM should include a sort of optimization algorithms that supports decision makers in their operational and maintenance plans through-out the asset life-cycle time. This should be apparent in the electricity plants, district cooling plants, water stations, etc. A dramatically high impact on the life-cycle costs will be recognised in case a proper dynamic operational and maintenance plan has been prepared. References [1] C. Ahn, J.C. Martinez, P.V. Rekapalli, F.A. Peña-Mora, Sustainability analysis of earthmoving operations, Winter Simulation Conference 2009, pp. 2605–2611. [2] A. Akbarnezhad, K. Ong, L. Chandra, Economic and environmental assessment of deconstruction strategies using building information modeling, Autom. Constr. 37 (2014) 131–144. [3] A. Akbarnezhad, K.C.G. Ong, C.T. Tam, M.H. Zhang, Effects of the parent concrete properties and crushing procedure on the properties of coarse recycled concrete aggregates, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 25 (12) (2013) 1795–1802. [4] A. Alawini, N. Tanatanmatorn, D. Tucker, et al., Technology adoption: building IT, in: Tugrul Unsal Daim, Terry Oliver, Jisun Kim (Eds.),Research and Technology Management in the Electricity Industry: Methods, Tools and Case Studies, 2013. [5] American Institute of Architects, Integrated Project Delivery: a Guide, AIA California Council, 2007.
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