Nonpoint Source Pollution Jing Nie1, Daniel Dianchen Gang1*, Barbara C. Benson2, Mark E. Zappi3
ABSTRACT:
3
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Louisiana
The article presents a comprehensive
at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504; Tel. 337-482–6685; Fax. 337-
review of research advancing in 2011 on nonpoint source
482-6688; e-mail:
[email protected]
pollution (NPS). Progresses on modeling and estimation of
In recent years, nonpoint source pollution has diminished
NPS pollution, impacts of climate and land tenure changes
water quality on a large scale in China. Zhang and Xu
on pollutants loads, and NPS pollution management are reviewed.
(2011) found that 80% of urban rivers in China were
In addition, major nonpoint pollutants are also
significantly polluted, and poor water quality was a key
summarized.
contributor to poverty in rural China. The Web of Science KEYWORDS:
watershed,
climate
change,
database indicated that the amount of papers concentrated
best
on environmental science increased dramatically in the past
management practice, stormwater, modeling, nonpoint
decade. Gao et al. (2011a) monitored nitrogen data in Luan
source pollutants, nonpoint source pollution
River Channel, Yuqiao Reservoir, and 14 major surface rivers of Tianjin, China. The results showed that dissolved
doi: 10.2175/106143012X13407275695634
inorganic nitrogen which mainly came from the Luan River water during the non-flood season was the major
Major Nonpoint Source Pollutants Nitrogen
and
Phosphorus:
Nitrogen
contaminant in the main water bodies. In the other 14
and
major rivers, the annual average content of total nitrogen
phosphorus are two important nonpoint source pollutants.
(TN) is in the range of 1.45 to 11.7 mg/L, with an average
————————— Department of Civil Engineering, University of Louisiana at
of 4.16 mg/L; the annual average concentration of NH4+-N
Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504; Tel. 337-482–5184; Fax. 337-
is in the range of 0.057 to 8.54 mg/L, with an average of
482-6688; e-mail:
[email protected]
2.48 mg/L; and the annual average concentration of NO3- -
1*
2
Department of Environmental Science, University of Louisiana
N is in the range of 0.04 to 3.56 mg/L, with an average of
at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504; Tel.337-482-5239; email:
0.908 mg/L. The annual average value of TN in the Yuqiao
[email protected]
Reservoir is 1.90 mg/L, showing a significant upward trend year by year.
1642 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
From the research directed by Ding (2011), the
organic nitrogen concentrations and increased in nitrate
total NPS-N loading of Yongding River in Hebei, China
(NO3−) concentrations over the last 30 years. For these
was 5.68×104 t in 2008. The loading from agricultural land
results, a good strategy could be developed to improve
use was 4.38×104 t, and that from rural life and livestock
regional downstream NO3− pollution by reducing the NO3−
feeding was 0.90×104 t and 0.40×104 t respectively. The
exports from N-saturated upland forests.
large amount of N loading suggested that assessment of N was necessary.
In order to track nonpoint source nitrogen (N)
Xia et al. (2011) analyzed the
pollution in Baltimore, U.S., Kaushal et al. (2011) analyzed 15
N-NO3-, and δ
18
O-NO3- to investigate fate and
spatiotemporal characteristics of diffuse source N pollution
δ
in the Lean River catchment. Different water samples in
transport of nonpoint N in forest, agricultural, and
the wet season, dry season, normal season and the
urbanized
agricultural busy season were analyzed.
The data
Ecological Research site. Annual N retention was 55%,
confirmed that due to the fertilizer application, rainfall and
68%, and 82% for agricultural, suburban, and forest
runoff were the main factors causing non-point source N
watersheds, respectively. The results demonstrated that N
exported from the catchment.
source contributions changed with storm magnitude
The universal soil loss equation (USLE) and
watersheds
at
the
Baltimore
Long-Term
(atmospheric sources contributed similar to 50% at peak
simple method were used by Zhang et al. (2011a) to
storm N loads).
calculate and estimate the non-point source pollution from
system and agriculturally derived N, but N from
Nanchang University campus separately.
The results
belowground leaking sewers was less susceptible to
designated that the amount of soil erosion was 1.352× 103
denitrification. In response to climate and storms, there
t/yr, the quantity of silt entering the lake was 270 t/yr, and
were large changes in nitrate sources and other sources as a
the chemical loads of total suspended solids (TSS), total
function of runoff, and storms will be critical for managing
phosphorus (TP), and total nitrogen (TN) were 115.17 t/yr,
nonpoint N pollution.
0.27 t/yr, 1.25 t/yr for roads, and 61.36 t/yr, 0.64 t/yr, 4.55
Denitrification was removing septic
To evaluate the nitrogen loss potential at the
t/yr for grassed land separately.
basin level, Zhang and Huang (2011) developed a spatial
Chiwa et al. (2011) analyzed downstream water
multi-criteria method to generate maps that can be easily
quality in the Tatara River Basin, northern Kyushu, and
interpreted
western Japan. The results revealed that atmospherically
Geographic Information System (GIS). The results were
deposited N to N-saturated forests could be a large enough
validated based on the correlation between the nitrogen loss
non-point source of N leaving the upper watershed to
potential of sub-basin and the water quality class of river.
impact downstream water quality. In downstream water,
Li et al. (2011a) asserted contributions of N and P from
to
provide
decision
support
these sources resulted in reductions in total phosphorus and
1643 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
based
on
agricultural pollution around the Lake area. The load of N
orthophosphate and TN in the raw samples decreased
and P were 1.25×104 t and 507.0 t, respectively, accounting
gradually and then increased. Ren
for 48.1% and 46.9% of total loads all over the watershed.
et
al.
(2011)
analyzed
the
spatial
The transportation capacity of N and P from agricultural
characteristics of non-point pollution, and the results
pollution around the Lake area were greater than the others
suggested that due to the complex surface condition and
sub-watersheds, which were 2.33 kg/ha and 0.11 kg/ha,
other point source pollution, the values of TSS, TN, and TP
respectively.
exceed the regulatory criteria in their study area. These
In a study on water quality of the Bahe River,
parameters varied greatly among the three land use types
Qin et al. (2011) found that with flow change, the load
(cropland, woodland and grassland). Zhang et al. (2011b)
transport rate of each pollutant and the concentrations of
reported that the land use relation approach, with simple
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), NO3-N, TP, and TN
structure and program, was feasible and practical to predict
increased initially and then decreased, as well as the
NPS pollution load of changed land use.
concentrations of NH3-N and NO2-N decreased initially and then increased.
Wen et al. (2011) concluded that farmland runoff
Using mean concentration method,
was the most significant source for the agricultural NPS
they concluded that the NPS pollution load of COD, TP,
pollution in the Liaoning province of China.
TN, NH3-N of the Bahe River in the year of 2009 were
composition and spatial pattern of agricultural NPS
8.735×103 t, 44.59t, 726.48t and 246.54t respectively. The
pollution, the pollution intensities were greater in the
NPS pollution load proportions of COD, TP, TN NH3-N of
Hunhe River and Liaohe River sub-basins in Central-
the Bahe River in the year of 2009 were 31.92%, 35.47%,
Western Liaoning province than in the upstream Hunhe
46.15% and 42.31%.
River and Taizihe hilly sub-basins in eastern Liaoning
To investigate the effect of the pollution on the
Due to
province.
water quality of the Weihe River, China, Li et al. (2011b)
Shan et al. (2011) developed a method based on
monitored five flood events and three normal discharge
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System
events during the non-flood period from July to December
(GIS) to evaluate the NPS pollution.
in 2006, at the Lin-tong section.
They found that the
remote sensing images were used to analyze the variety of
proportions of the NPS pollution load to the total load for
long-term land use change. The results exposed that there
COD, TP, TN and inorganic nitrogen were more than 30%
was a strong relationship between slope, land cover,
in 2006.
The concentrations of suspended solids (SS),
distance to the stream channel and NPS pollution.
NH3-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, COD, and TP increased initially
Anthropic activities on the landscape were intensive to NPS
and then decreased, while the concentration of dissolved
pollution.
Multi-temporal
1644 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
Li et al. (2011c) proposed a new method in
sources during higher flows. A method was being applied
nitrate and phosphorus measurements. This method could
which is remediating point mine water discharges to
provide a more accurate dataset, whilst minimizing the
improve water quality at lower flows, but contributions
sampling cost and simplifying the collecting procedure.
from diffuse sources would continue to elevate zinc flux at
The pattern recognition technique was first used in this
higher flows.
method to find out the variable boundary in the region of interest.
Impacts of Climate and Land Tenure Changes on
Liu et al. (2011a) developed slow-release
Pollutant Loads
materials for N & P fertilizers application. Results showed that slow releasing fertilizer application can significantly
Zhang et al. (2011c) combined a general
reduce non-point pollution emission. Mercury:
circulation model (HadCM3) with the Soil and Water
Due to the importance of mercury
Assessment Tool (SWAT) hydrological model to predict
(Hg) impacts to water quality, advances in modeling
the impacts of climate change on streamflow and non-point
watershed Hg processes are needed in diverse regions,
source pollutant loads in the Shitoukoumen reservoir
spatial scales and land cover types. A study conducted by
catchment. The annual stream flow showed a fluctuating
Schelker et al. (2011) concentrated on the role of
upward trend from 2010 to 2099, with an increase rate of
hydrological
and
1.1 m3/s per decade, and a significant upward trend in
upland/wetland transition zones to surface waters in
summer, with an increase rate of 1.32 m3/s per decade. The
Fishing Brook, New York.
The results indicated that
annual NH4+-N load into Shitoukoumen reservoir showed a
stream water total mercury (HgT) concentrations varied
significant downward trend with a decrease rate of 40.6 t
(mean = 2.25 ± 0.5 ng/L), and the two snowmelt seasons
per decade. The annual TP load disclosed an insignificant
contributed 40% (2007) and 48% (2008) of the annual load.
increasing trend, and its change rate was 3.77 t per decade.
Methyl mercury (Me-Hg) concentrations ranged up to a
Gao et al. (2011b) used the proportion of P to indicate the
high level of 0.26 ng/L and showed an inverse log
impact of climate change.
relationship with discharge. The mobilization of HgT is
bioavailable P (BAP) loads (over 90%) was observed to
primarily controlled by the saturation state of the
have been exported between June and September.
connectivity of
riparian
wetlands
The majority mass of total
catchment. Zinc: In order to assess point and diffuse
Modeling and Estimation of NPS Pollution
components of zinc pollution within the River West Allen
Assessment and Application of NPS Pollution
catchment, Gozzard et al. (2011) examined zinc levels in
Models:
The U.S. Department of Agriculture has
the river under various flow regimes. The results revealed
developed two proven models of stream and riparian processes to guide restoration design and to evaluate
that 90% of the in stream zinc load was attributed to diffuse
1645 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
indicators of ecological integrity (Langendoen, 2011).
nutrition resources from 2002 to 2007 and using the export
These models have been integrated to evaluate the impact
coefficient model, the average non-point source load of
of in-stream, edge-of-field, and riparian conservation
total nitrogen above Zhangjiashan for many years was
measures on stream morphology and water quality
6.014× 103 t, and in 2003 and 2007, the amounts were
respectively.
The first one was the channel evolution
2.117× 104 t and 5.163× 103 t respectively and for other
computer model CONCEPTS and the second one was the
years, the average amount was 2.432× 103 t. The amounts
riparian ecosystem model REMM. CONCEPTS was a
of precipitation and runoff were large in wet years of 2003
robust computational model for simulating the long-term
and 2007, and the non-point source pollution loads were
evolution of incised and restored or rehabilitated stream
less because of less rainfall in normal-water years.
corridors while REMM was a computational model for
Aprígio et al. (2011) concluded that the land use
evaluating management decisions to control nonpoint
changes in the Mineirinho watershed could result in
source pollution in the riparian zone.
moderate increase in nutrient loading by using the long-
The export coefficient model (ECM) was used by
Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-THIA) model for
Ma et al. (2011a) to assess the influence of NPS on N and P
assessment of the long-term impacts in the Mineirinho
loading to the Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA) of
watershed. In the future, 68% of the annual runoff would
Hubei Province, People's Republic of China. The results
be generated by residential land use. In 2009, this use
indicated that the potential total nitrogen (TN) load was
accounted for 36% of the total water that flowed over the
much higher than the potential total phosphorus (TP) load.
surface. The nutrients increase between the two scenarios
The calculated TN load was 2.83 × 104 t, while the TP load
was 4.47% and 10.86% for nitrogen and phosphorus,
was 2.14 × 103 t in 2007, with a ratio of TN/TP of 13.23.
respectively.
Records specified that “algae blooms” occurred 8 times in
As indicated from the research conducted by
TGRA that year, therefore, there might be a correlation
Moltz et al. (2011), sediment represented a major non-point
between the eutrophication potential in the inlet water of
source pollutant throughout the world. The erosion index
TGRA and the TN/TP ratio of potential NPS loads.
which is an adaptation of the Universal Soil Loss Equation
In order to estimate non-point source pollution
(USLE), correlated well with measurements of sediment
load in watersheds with a consideration of the influences of
yields from runoff plots.
rainfall and the reduction of pollutant in the process of
identify sub-watersheds within the US portion of the Rio
transport, Wang et al. (2011a) conducted a study with an
Grande Basin that merit further investigation for non-point
improved export coefficient method. Taking the Jinghe
source pollution prevention and control via the use of
River in Shaanxi province as an example, by combination
hydrologic modeling techniques.
These indices were used to
with the statistical data information of total nitrogen
1646 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
Chen et al. (2011) applied the Soil & Water
Generally, the water quality pollution and
Assessment Tool model (SWAT) to study the space
ecological deterioration in peri-urban rivers are usually
distribution of non-point source pollution in Dafeng city,
serious under rapid urbanization and economic growth. In
China. Based on GIS technology, the spatial and attribute
the study, Jia et al. (2011) selected a typical peri-urban
database of the three river basins were established. In order
river, Nansha River in China, as a case study to investigate
to make the SWAT model applicable in this area, they
the scheme of peri-urban river rehabilitation. The Nansha
divided river sub-basin artificially and then collected the
River was currently seriously contaminated by urban and
runoff and the water quality data series from 2003 to 2008
rural pollutants from both nonpoint sources (NPS) and
to calibrate the parameters and validate the model. After
point sources (PS). First, the study assessed the pollutant
analyzing flow production, non-point pollutant space
loads from point sources and nonpoint sources in the
distribution and contribution of different types of land use,
Nansha River watershed. Then, a coupled model, derived
they concluded that low coverage meadow, construction
from the Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code and Water
land and cultivated land produced the most runoff in this
Quality Analysis Simulation Program, was developed to
area.
simulate the hydrodynamics and water quality in the Two different models were implemented by
Nansha River.
According to the characteristics of the
Wang et al. (2011b) to simulate the urban NPS pollution.
typical peri-urban river, three different PS and NPS control
The results exhibited that residual pollutant should be
scenarios were designed and examined by modeling
considered in pollutant when the total runoff volume is less
analysis. Based on this study, a river rehabilitation scheme
than 30 mm.
was recommended for implementation.
After being calibrated and verified with
observed data from an urban catchment in the Los Angeles
Yin et al. (2011) used a mathematical SWAT
County, the model was more capable of simulating
model to establish a database of non-point source pollution
nonpoint source pollution from urban storm runoff with
from Tumen River watershed in the northeast of China.
consideration of residual pollutant than that without
The hydrologic simulation, runoff and soil erosion were
consideration of residual pollutant. Wang et al. (2011c)
calculated for 5 sub-basins and 46 hydrologic response
analyzed back propagation (BP) neutral network model
units (HRUs) which were divided from watershed. The
structure to simulate COD pollution load.
The result
investigation suggested that the urban construction and
presented that mean error was 0.284% when the precision
economic development in the areas not only brought the
was 0.001 and hidden layer neuron number 19 for BP
prosperity, but also led to the vegetation deterioration and
neural network. This BP neural network model had high
decline of conservation capacity to the water and soil,
accuracy.
resulting in serious water and soil loss in these areas. The results revealed that the agricultural non-point source
1647 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
pollution mainly happened in the joint area of Hailan River
in systems where nonpoint source pollutant delivery was
and Buerhatong River, and the middle area of Tumen River
diffuse and hydrologic residence time was short.
watershed.
These might be caused by the highly
Jankowski et al. (2011) used computer models for
contribution of non-point source pollution from the Yanji
simulating the consequences of nonpoint source pollution.
city, the capital of Yanbian state.
By combining a dynamic, event-based nonpoint source
It was reported that the main cause of
pollution models with geographic information systems
groundwater contamination in suburban areas of Shanghai
(GIS). A computerized system was developed to overcome
was non-point source pollution. Huang et al. (2011) found
the problems appeared
that due to the seriously pollution, both of the surface and
Doubling the agricultural nonpoint source pollution model
groundwater were not suitable to drink.
The average
(AGNPS) with pc-ARC/INFO, a menu-driven system was
content of total nitrogen in surface water was 6.34 mg/L
developed with use of the pc-ARC/INFO macro language,
and 16.85 mg/L in the groundwater, both of them were over
Pascal, and batch programming.
in
the simulating process.
the standard of Grade V surface water (less than or equal to
Zhu et al. (2011) connected two powerful
2.0 mg/L) according to the national standard (GB 3838--
watershed and water quality models (AnnAGNPS and CE-
2002). In addition, the content of nitrate nitrogen from
QUALW2) to control the water quality of Jinpen Reservoir
about 20% of the sampling sites fell into Grade V
with the main objective of supply water and irrigation for
groundwater (>30 mg/L) based on the national standard
Xi’an city, China. AnnAGNPS model outputted with the
(GB/T14848--1993).
To interpret and extrapolate field
nonpoint source pollution loading as the CE-QUAL-W2
observations, a process-based biogeochemical model
model inputted. The results disclosed that the impact of
DeNitrification-DeComposition (DNDC) and an empirical
nonpoint source pollutions had significant difference
hydrologic model L-THIA were employed.
between the flood and non-flood period when predicting
L-THIA
simulated N losses through leaching and found about 1.7%
reservoir water quality.
of annual accumulated soil N leached into the surface water
great impact for water quality of Jinpen Reservoir in the
via the surface runoff and 5.8% to the groundwater and
flood period, but less impact in the non-flood period.
3.5% in the soil liquid phase.
A possibilistic stochastic water management
Steinman et al. (2011) investigated functional and structural
responses
of
Nonpoint source pollution had
periphyton
communities
(PSWM) model was developed and applied to evaluate the
to
water quality management practices within an agricultural
simulated nonpoint source (NPS) pollution over a 2-year
system in China (Zhang et al., 2011d).
period. The study results demonstrated that the influence
exhibited useful information for feasible decision schemes
of nonpoint source pollutants on periphyton might be either
of agricultural activities, including the trade-offs between
modest or too difficult to detect using traditional endpoints
The results
economic and environmental considerations. Moreover, a
1648 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
strong desire to acquire high agricultural income would run
processes, new strategies for controlling the nonpoint
into the risk of potentially violating the water quality
source pollution can be reached in the future work.
standards, while willingness to accept low agricultural
Ge et al. (2011) established a water quality
income would increase the risk of potential system failure
module of SWAT model according to the data from 1995 to
(violating system constraints). The results suggested that
2004 to solve the serious water environment problems of
the developed approach was also applicable to many
the Haihe River Basin.
practical problems where hybrid uncertainties exist.
values in calibration and validation were 0.70, 0.55
The Nash-Sut-cliffe efficiency
Based on the observation on a pasture hill slope
respectively. It was reported that the urban runoff non-
in the Sand Mountain region of North Alabama, United
point pollution was the highest in pollution loadings
States, Sen et al. (2011) used a physically based, fully
contribution, which is 38.6%, the next is point pollution
distributed
Runoff/On
which is 31.1%. Based on the computation and simulation
hydrologic model to model infiltration excess as the
of SWAT model, the key source areas were identified after
dominant runoff generation mechanism on a pasture hill
analyzing temporal and spatial distribution of pollution
slope. Three rainfall events of varying intensity and
loadings. The pollution loading contributions for studying
duration were simulated for a highly instrumented pasture
key source areas were also computed.
hill slope to study the dynamics of runoff generation and
results proposed that there was a good correlation between
runon areas.
Calibration and cross validation were
pollution loadings and surface flow. The key source areas
performed on all three rainfall events. Root mean squared
were southwest and northeast of the urban district, east of
error, coefficient of determination and Nash-Sutcliffe
Xiqing and Dongli, north of Jinnan and Tanggu.
Hortonian
Infiltration
and
The modeling
coefficient of efficiency were used to evaluate the
Chinh et al. (2011) investigated a convenient and
performance of the Hortonian Infiltration and Runoff/On–
powerful tool for resolving the rainfall runoff and pollutant
simulated hydrographs. The calibrated model for the first
load measurement problems.
event resulted in a root mean squared error of 1.18 m3 for
system (HEC-HMS) and GIS software extension tool were
runoff volume; the next two events resulted in root mean
used for simulations of elevation, drainage line definition,
squared errors of less than 1 m3. Similarly, the coefficient
watershed delineation, drainage feature characterization,
of
of
and geometric network generation. A new development for
efficiency values for all three events were greater than 0.70
data input processing with HEC-HMS was introduced for
for the calibrated model. From the results which displayed
optimizing parameters of the model. Results indicated that
interactions among hydrologic and climatic characteristics,
the proposed model was applicable to simulate the rainfall
and
runoff and pollutant load in the Chikugo River basin and
determination
their
and
connections
Nash-Sutcliffe
to
surface
coefficient
runoff–generation
A hydrologic modeling
1649 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
could be a useful tool for optimizing the water surface
AGNSP
management of this river basin.
constructed.
pollutants
in
drainage
ditch
system
was
Schaffner et al. (2011) focused on conventional
The impacts of land-use change in the riparian
river water quality models preventing the determination of
corridor under different geographical scales were qualified
effective mitigation measures of non-point sources. The
by the use of an integrated modeling approach. Liu and
results underlined the importance of non-point source
Tong
pollution control in tropical lowland delta areas such as the
Program-Fortran (HSPF) model to develop a hydrologic
Central Plains of Thailand.
The specific benefit of
and water quality model for the Upper Little Miami River
applying a Material Flow Model in this context was gaining
basin, a headwater subwatershed in Ohio, USA. After
an overview on NPS key problems with limited data
calibration and validation, the model was used to predict
availability and getting a supportive basis for determining
the hydrologic and water quality impacts under various
consecutive in-depth research requirements.
scenarios of buffer zones. Results designated that the 60 m,
(2011)
adopted
the
Hydrological
Simulation
Based on the agricultural non-point source
90 m, and 120 m riparian forest and wetland buffers were
pollution (AGNSP) characteristic, Li et al. (2011d) divided
able to reduce the mean annual flow by 0.26 to 0.28%,
the AGNSP model into “Sources” module and “Sinks”
nitrite plus nitrate by 2.9 to 6.1% and total phosphorus by
module. Loads quantitative calculation was applied to do
3.2 to 7.8%. HSPF was an effective tool to model NPS
the basic part of control, evaluation and management of
from riparian land-use changes, even in a small sub-
AGNSP. Here, “Sources” module was further divided into
watershed
farmland irrigation drainage sub-module which was
influences.
with
relatively
minimal
anthropogenic
calculated by DRAINMOD model based on the principle of
A dynamic model of phosphorus (P) movement
water balance on farmland and contaminants concentrations
through the Peel-Harvey watershed in South Western
in farmland drainage estimating sub-module. Meanwhile,
Australia was developed by Rivers et al. (2011) using
the model used the synthesis of fertilization and irrigation
STELLA dynamic modeling software.
as an impulse input to the farmland and the pollutant
simulated a 200 year time-frame to reflect 100 years to the
concentration change in agricultural drainage as the
present day since initial land development, and forecast 100
response process corresponding to the impulse input. In
years into the future to illustrate watershed P flux and of
addition, the complex migration and transformation process
predicting future P loss scenarios. Although the watershed
of pollutant in soil was expressed impliedly by Inverse
had an annual P loss target of 70 t per annum (tpa), the
Gaussian Probability Density Function.
Based on the
measured present daily loss was doubled this amount (140
equation of continuity of flow and pollutants migration and
tpa) and was projected to rise to 1600 tpa if current land
transformation, the one-dimensional transport model of
management practices continued.
The model
This had significant
1650 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
implications for both future land use and subsequent water
land use scenarios in the upstream watershed of Miyun
quality in the watershed.
Reservoir in Beijing, China. These models provided a new
In the study of Li et al. (2011e), a projection
approach for land use optimization towards non-point
pursuit cluster (PPC) model was used to analyze the
source pollution control. The study showed that improper
regional partitioning of agricultural non-point source
land use was one major cause of non-point source
pollution in China. The cluster results of the PPC model
pollution. It also indicated that increase of orchards and
mirrored the actual regional partitioning of the agricultural
loss of forest cover has led to an increase in the potential
non-point source pollution in China. A novel optimization
pollution loads of nitrogen by 5.27% and phosphorus by
algorithm called Free search (FS) was introduced to
4.03%.
optimize the projection direction of the PPC model.
It
pollution control scenario, pollution loads of nitrogen
strongly indicated that the PPC model is a powerful tool in
decreased by 13.94% and phosphorus by 9.86%, resulting
multi-factor cluster analysis, and could be a new method
from the establishment of riparian vegetation buffers and
for the regional partitioning of agricultural non-point
restoring forest on unutilized land and slope arable land.
source pollution.
However, in the agricultural non-point source
Lai et al. (2011) developed an integrated two-
New Modeling and Enhanced Modeling of
model system composed of a multimedia watershed model
NPS Pollution: EcoHAT, a new model created by Yang et
and a river water quality model to effectively simulate the
al. (2011), was formed by coupling the Xinanjiang model
impacts of non-point source (NPS) pollution on river water
and SWAT. It can predict the runoff volume within a range
quality. NPS pollution loadings from Kaoping River Basin
of acceptable accuracy which was reflected by a large
were
coefficient of determination. It included algorithms for the
Management Model (IWMM). Lai et al. (2011) combined
hydrological cycle, nutrient cycle, and plant growth cycle
the Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program (WASP)
and was aimed at assessing the non-point source pollution
with the IWMM model for the Kaoping River water quality
in Hainan by simulating the non-point source pollution for
evaluation. Results indicated that land use patterns of
the watershed in calculated grid cell units based on remote
orchard farms and farmland areas were the major causes of
sensing data.
The results disclosed that with 40%
the NPS pollution. In the wet seasons, NPS pollution
fertilization reduction, 7.51% and 7.76% reduction on TN
loadings increased due to the higher flow rates (>200 m3/s).
and TP loads respectively could be reached.
And the integral approach could develop a direct linkage
The Conversion of Land Use and its Effect at
calculated
using
the
Integrated
Watershed
between upstream land use changes and downstream water
Small regional extent (CLUE-S) and Soil and Water
quality.
Assessment Tool (SWAT) models were coupled by Zhang
Tang et al. (2011a) applied a combination model
et al. (2011e) to simulate pollution loads under different
of source controlling (concentration)-sewage interception
1651 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
(conduction)-recycling to solve rural nonpoint source pollution problems. which
were
In order to remove carbonaceous and nitrogenous
The model included three patterns pound
applied a biofilm process with the attached bacterial growth
purification recycling, and constructed wetland purification
onto ceramic media. The results showed that a packing
recycling. More than 56% COD and TP, nearly 68% TN,
ratio above 0.15 was required to simultaneously achieve
NH4+-N and NO3--N, 82% NO2—N could be removed by
stable COD removal and nitrification efficiency. The inter-
this approach. Economic benefits could be increased by
event period and packing ratio seemed to have no
almost 50% to 300,000 Yuan in 2010. It not only brought
significant influence on the COD removal efficiency.
environmental
biogas
benefits,
purification
but
also
recycling,
pollutants from nonpoint water source, Choi et al. (2011)
produced
notable
According to current researches which were
economic benefits.
focused on the development of modern technology for NPS control, single application of grassed swales technology
NPS Pollution Management
might be inadequate to reduce NPS. Wang et al. (2011d)
New Methods to Manage NPS Pollution:
proposed a combination of grassed swales technology and
Without remediation method applied, the degradation of
other non-point source pollution control technology as a
NPS pollution has been reported to be slow. Xiao et al.
development direction in urban non-point source pollution
(2011)
control.
analyzed
non-point
source
pollution
of
organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) by runoff. The results
Best Management Practice Implementation:
showed that the concentrations of OCPs were relatively
In the assessment of NPS, the cost to abate the NPS is one
high even after 30 days, suggesting that the degradation of
important factor that must be considered. Zheng and Fu
OCPs in the soil was very slow. It strongly indicated the
(2011) pointed out that some programs such as water
importance of new methods to manage NPS pollution.
quality trading (WQT) programs have been applied to the
Udawatta et al. (2011) reported that agroforestry
CWA’s effluent limitations to reduce the pollution
and grass buffers could be designed to improve water
abatement costs. In order to reach the goal of reducing
quality while minimizing the amount of land taken out of
nutrient loads, best management practices (BMP) were
production.
According to the experiment, buffers in
required. Among the management practices available for
association with grazing and row crop management
water quality enhancement, riparian buffer strips had
reduced runoff by 49 and 19%, respectively, during the
proven effective in mitigating the removal of nutrients and
study period as compared with respective control
other pollutants in the surface waters. Estimates of riparian
treatments.
buffer costs would be valuable for developing policy
On average, grass and agroforestry buffers
reduced sediment, TN, and TP losses by 32, 42, and 46%
related to WQT and other conservation programs.
compared with the control treatments.
1652 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
Campbell
a
pollution of diatom assemblages, Lebkuecher et al. (2011)
foster
studied six streams in the Red River Watershed of North-
environmental behavior change among resource users, and
Central Tennessee and found that the three most abundant
compared the adoption of agricultural best management
diatom taxa collected were Nitzschia linearis (16%),
practices
collaborative
et
al.
watershed
(BMPs)
(2011)
implemented
management
and
non-
Navicula reichardtiana (15%), and Navicula tripunctata
out
that
(7%). Excessive sediments and nutrient enrichment on the
collaboration had a higher level of BMP adoption in some
structure of diatom assemblages, oxygen dynamics, and
special cases compared to non-collaborative settings. But
potential for excessive algal growth had affected water
typically farmers in the watershed with the partnership do
bodies in streams of the Red River Watershed.
collaborative
between
settings.
collaborative
to
Results
pointed
not have higher rates of BMPs adoption than farmers in the watershed with a traditional, agency-based approach
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1656 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
Zhang, L.; Lu, W.X.; An, Y. L.; Li, D.; Gong, L. (2011c) Response of Non-Point Source Pollutant Loads to Climate Change in the Shitoukoumen Reservoir Catchment. Environ. Monit. Assess., 1 (184), 581–594. Zhang, M. H.; Xu, J. M. (2011) Nonpoint Source Pollution, Environmental Quality, and Ecosystem Health in China: Introduction to the Special Section. J. Environ. Qual., 40, 1685–1694. Zhang, P.; Liu, Y. H.; Pan, Y.; Yua, Z. R. (2011e) Land Use Pattern Optimization Based on Clue-S And Swat Models for Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution Control. Mathemat. Comput. Model., 1–8. Zhang, X. D.; Huang, G. H.; Nie, X. H. (2011d) Possibilistic Stochastic Water Management Model for Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution. J. Water Resour. Planning and Management-ASCE, 1 (137), 101–112. Zhang, Y. L.; Wu, G. Y.; Li, H. E.; Cai, Y. L.; Wang, P. H. (2011b) Application of Land Use Relation Approach for Nonpoint
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1657 Water Environment Research, Volume 84, Number 10—Copyright © 2012 Water Environment Federation
