Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models - CiteSeerX

Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

Michael Schermann, Tilo Böhmann, Helmut Krcmar

Abstract In this paper we outline a new approach for explicating results of IS design research by using conceptual models when formulating theoretical statements. In particular, we argue that applying conceptual reference models in the theory-building process enables design researchers to express their hypotheses and underlying assumptions more accurately. Furthermore, our approach allows researchers to specify empirically refutable statements. We ground our work in the concept of IS design theories as proposed by Walls et al. (1992) and extend their idea twofold: first, based on an analysis of the output types of design research as proposed by March & Smith (1995) we show that conceptual reference models facilitate formulating design-theoretical statements. Second, to facilitate developing concise and elementary testable theory statements, we apply the idea of patterns as proposed by Alexander (1973). Overall, we propose a detailed framework that integrates conceptual reference modeling in the process of theorizing in design-oriented IS research. Thus, we present an important step towards building “own” theories of IS research.

1

Introduction

The quest for theoretical foundations in Information Systems research is as old as the discipline itself. For instance, Weber criticized the lack of theoretical orientation in IS research (Weber 1987). He argues that IS researchers have not yet agreed on paradigms. Paradigms provide a commonly

180 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

shared goal of a scientific community (Kuhn 1998). In line with Kuhn (1998), he argues that theories are at the center of scientific paradigms (Weber 1987). Subsequently, Weber demands that IS research should focus on the development and rigorous testing of theories. Weber identifies three main areas for improvement – among them the scientific process of designing and implementing artifacts (Weber 1987). Furthermore, Weber argues that IS researchers have to develop own paradigms and thus own theories. In the same line, many researchers have expressed the importance of design-oriented research for the progress of IS research (e.g. Hevner et al. 2004; March a. Smith 1995; Nunamaker a. Chen, 1991; Winter et al. 2009). For instance, Orlikowski and Iacono (2001) argue that the focus of IS research should be the IT artifact and its performance in practice. Thus, we argue that theories of design research may be the ideal building ground for paradigms in IS research. To facilitate constructing theories in design research we develop a framework to integrate conceptual reference models in the development process of design theories. While the word theory is often used, little agreement can be found when it comes to the structure and components of theories (Popper 2001). According to Popper (2002), a theory is a set of statements claiming universal validity (e.g. all ravens are black). Universal statements can then be transformed to prognoses within a context (e.g. the raven in the yard should be black). Following Gregor (2006), theories in design research express prescriptive statements. However, next to categories for results of design research, little is said e.g. about how such propositions about design should be expressed to facilitate the testing and improvement of design theories (Gregor 2006; Gregor a. Jones 2007). Still, we start by analyzing the concept of design theories as proposed by Walls et al. (1992) and its general categories to answer our first research question: What are the elements of an IS design theory? In the course of answering this question we will develop a first draft of a metamodel that is specifying the elements of an IS design theory. The overall goal of IS design research is to design and implement new artifacts, e.g. new information systems, that facilitate attaining human goals more efficiently or more effectively (Simon 1969). March and Smith (1995) argue that design research produces four types of output: constructs, models, methods, and instantiations. We argue that models are the primary theoretical output of design research. When using the term model we refer to conceptual models, i.e. “representation[s] of selected phenomena in some domain” (Wand a. Weber 2002). Furthermore, we argue that conceptual models, often constructed in a semi-formal graphical language, facilitate a higher degree of non-ambiguity in expressing the statements of

1

Introduction

181

a theory. Hence, our second research question is: How does conceptual modeling facilitate the process of theory development in IS design research? To answer this question we will review research on conceptual modeling and show in particular how a specific type of conceptual models –reference models– can support the process of theory development. According to Popper, science is the process of trying to refute theories (Popper 2002). Since we want to explicate design theories by using conceptual models we have to evaluate them to substantiate or refute the underlying design hypotheses. We argue that ultimately evaluating the prescriptive statements of a conceptual model requires developing a corresponding instantiation. Since IS artifacts tend to be large applications in a complex socio-technical environment, evaluation is impeded by a large number of confounding factors. Hence, Markus et al. (2002) structure design theories by forming concise design propositions. To transfer the concept of design propositions into conceptual models, we propose applying the idea of patterns, as described in Alexander (1973). Hence, our third research question is: How does a pattern-based approach support developing theories in IS design research? To answer this research question we extend the meta-model of research question one with the constructs required by the pattern approach. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In the following section we review existing research on design theories in IS research. The result of that section is a meta-model that represents the components of IS design theories. Subsequently, we incorporate conceptual models in the development process of design theories. For this purpose, we introduce the pattern idea as outlined in Alexander (1973) and Alexander (1979). In the fourth section we apply our approach by explicating three aspects of a design theory on IT service data management systems. The paper closes with a critical appraisal of our work and an outlook to future research activities. Fig. 1 depicts the line of arguments of this paper.

Fig. 1. The line of arguments in this paper

182 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

This paper is of exploratory and conceptual nature. Hence, we provide argumentative support when answering our research questions. However, we base our arguments upon available empirical and conceptual research results.

2

Design Theories in Information Systems Research

In this section we discuss existing research on design theories in IS research. Secondly, we analyze the structure of design theories and summarize it as a meta-model. Finally, we identify two weaknesses in the current structure of design theories. First, no guidelines are available on how to structure concise design statements. Second, current design theories are explicated using natural languages. 2.1 Design Theories in Information Systems Research Designing and developing new information systems to improve business processes or to enable new ways of doing business is an integral part of work for both IS researchers and IS practitioners (Hevner et al. 2004; Mertens 1995). From a design research perspective, the pivotal research objectives of IS researchers is to provide theories that guide the development of efficient and effective information systems (Gregor 2006). The term design theory is not without discussion within design-oriented IS research. On the one hand, March and Smith (1995) and Hevner et al. (2004) reserve the term theory to natural and social sciences. A theory is described as a set of hypotheses, which claim to explain or predict phenomena (Popper 2002). From this perspective, design research is about applying theories from natural and social sciences to solve perceived problems. On the other hand, various researchers recognize the importance of theoretical work in design research (Gregor 2006; Walls et al. 1992). Generally, the process of design is understood as planning, specifying, and subsequently implementing artifacts (Simon 1969). As design research aims at providing solutions to perceived problems (Hevner et al. 2004), the central focus is to support the specification and development of future artifacts (Frank 1998b; Walls et al. 1992). Thus, design theories aim at providing guidance on how to solve a specific problem by claiming that “if acted upon, [they] will cause an artifact of a certain type to come into being” (Gregor 2006). Hence, formulating design specifications is similar to formulating theories, as they postulate specific effects of yet to be built arti-

2

Design Theories in Information Systems Research

183

facts (Chmielewicz 1979). Subsequently, design theories are refuted or substantiated by instantiating the design specifications within the intended domain (Walls et al. 1992). As the designed artifacts are going to be deployed in a certain environment, the ability of attaining the goals is determined by the governing natural and social laws of that environment. Hence, many researchers demand a multidisciplinary approach in design research (Gregor 2006; Nunamaker a. Chen 1991). Thus, developing design theories requires considering existing theories, e.g. explanatory, predictive and normative theories from natural or social sciences: “The prescriptive plane [of design theories] provides the common ground for integrating these different types of theories” (Walls et al. 1992). The constraints and intended applications of these underlying theories influence the properties of the resulting artifact and provide the base for evaluating the quality of the artifacts and thus the design theory itself. 2.2 Structure of Design Theories in IS Research In this section, we analyze the structure of IS design theories as proposed by Walls et al. (1992). Various authors have applied design theories as a vehicle for capturing and formulating design propositions that describe how information systems should be build (Jones a. Gregor 2006; Markus et al. 2002; Moor 2005)1. Design theories consist of two types of design propositions (see Fig 2): first, the design product specifies the properties the artifact has to possess to meet certain requirements, as well as propositions on how to test the quality of this relationship. Second, the design process describes the sequence of activities that is required to design an artifact in the way that it meets the stated requirements (Walls et al. 1992). The design product itself consists of four elements: In the element class requirements the design theory developer specifies the problem and subsequently the goals the design theory is supposed to attain. In the element artifact, the theory developer specifies the structural and functional properties and characteristics of the intended artifact2. The element kernel Please refer to Walls et al. (1992) for the following paragraphs. Gregor and Jones (2007) describe a similar structure of design theories. However, their elements can be mapped to the elements of a design theory as proposed by Walls et al. (1992). 2 Walls et al. (1992) use the prefix meta for requirements and design to denote that both aspects refer to a class of artifacts instead of a specific artifact (e.g. retail information systems versus the retail information system for company ABC). 1

184 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

theories references existing theories, e.g. from social science or mathematics, that constrain class requirements. The final element of the design product is a collection of testable hypotheses that allow evaluating the capability of the class design to meet the class requirements.

Fig. 2. Structure of design theories according to Walls et al. (1992)

The second component design process can be mapped to the same elements: The element design method is specifying the process of designing the intended artifact in a way that the artifact meets the specified requirements. Again, the element kernel theory refers to existing theories that determine or influence the design process. The element hypothesis refers to propositions that can be derived from the design process and their underlying kernel theories and allow evaluating whether applying the design method results in the intended artifacts. As Fig. 2 shows, design theories capture design knowledge and experience in the form of design propositions on both the artifact and its construction process. Design theories are the composition of “…user requirements, a type of system solution (with distinctive features), and a set of effective development practices” (Markus et al. 2002). Overall, our analysis of the structure reveals two weaknesses of IS design theories. First, the structure of kernel theories, requirements, design, and hypotheses remains abstract. There are no guidelines on how to structure concise design statements (Markus et al. 2002). Second, March and Smith (1995) suggest that design research creates multiple types of artifacts. However, design theories do not incorporate such classifications of IS artifacts (e.g. March et al. 2000). Third, available examples of design theories are explicated in natural language and thus are presented in a nonambiguous manner (Markus et al. 2002; Moor 2005; Puhakainen 2006). However, we argue that using the prefix meta is misleading as both requirements and design refer to a class of systems. Thus, in the remainder of this paper we will refer to both elements as class requirements and class design.

3

3

Framework for Developing Design Theories Using Conceptual Models 185

Framework for Developing Design Theories Using Conceptual Models

In this section, we first argue that conceptual models and in particular conceptual reference models are theoretical design artifacts and provide semiformal representation techniques for design theories. Second, we introduce the idea of patterns to contribute twofold: to provide guidance when developing design propositions and to reduce the complexity of conceptual models. The result of this section is a framework for constructing IS design theories based on conceptual models and the idea of patterns. 3.1 Conceptual Reference Models as the Theoretical Artifact in Design Research As we have discussed above, design theories consists of both an artifact and its design process. Concerning the design process Nunamaker & Chen (1991), proposes five phases of design-oriented research: construction of a conceptual framework, development of a system architecture, analysis and design of the system, implementation of the system, and evaluation of the system (see Fig. 3). Concerning the classification of design products, March and Smith (1995) distinguish between four types of artifacts: constructs, methods, models, and instantiations. Walls et al. (1992) argue that design research results can be substantiated “only by construction of the artifact” (Walls et al. 1992). Hence, we argue that all four types of research outputs are necessary to develop artifacts. Constructs are necessary to describe certain aspects of a problem domain and provide the terminology of the research project. Models depict problems and solutions in the domain: “they are set[s] of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs” (March a. Smith 1995). In the context of design research, models represent solutions and thus contain the design statements of the research project. Instantiations are the realization of a model as they “operationalize constructs, models, and methods” (March a. Smith 1995). Although, methods are necessary to develop all types of artifacts, we omit the discussion of methods, as they are a composite artifact of a language formed of constructs and a process model (March a. Smith 1995). Instantiation of methods are processes within specific organizations (Greiffenberg 2004).

Methods

186 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

Fig. 3. Mapping of Design research results with design research phases

Fig. 3 depicts a mapping of the discussed types of IS design artifacts to the phases of design research as suggested by Nunamaker and Chen (1991). As it can be seen, constructs and models map to conceptual phases in design research. Models depict a solution, i.e. a prescription of what to do to attain a certain goal. Hence, models abstract form the necessary adaptations, which have to be incorporated when developing and introducing an instantiation. In particular, a specific type of conceptual models – conceptual reference models- qualify for taking up the role of theoretical artifact in IS design research. The term conceptual reference model (short: reference model) has been adopted to denote best practices in process design, systems design, and software design (Becker a. Knackstedt 2002; Fettke and Loos 2004). Reference models are semantically and pragmatically generalized models. They are constructed for reuse (Loos a. Fettke 2005), e.g. as framework or architecture of application models (Rosemann a. Schütte 1997). Reference models can therefore be used as a starting point for developing information systems or organizational design (Becker et al. 2002). Designers can refer to reference models when developing specific models, implying that reference models provide recommendations for solving application problems. Furthermore, reference models can be seen as blueprints for accelerating problem-solving (Becker a. Schütte 2004; Misic a. Zhao 2000). Furthermore reference models can be seen as proposals for standardization or as a result of a standardization process (Misic a. Zhao 2000). According to Becker and Schütte development and application of reference models is

3

Framework for Developing Design Theories Using Conceptual Models 187

motivated by the prospect of reducing cost, enhancing revenues, or minimizing risks (Becker a. Schütte 2004). Thus, inherent to the term “reference model” is a claim that the model comprises knowledge that is useful in the design of specific solutions for a particular domain. From an empirical standpoint, this claim of utility is demonstrated through successful applications of the model (Frank 1998a). Overall, the claim of reference models is linked to their application in the design and implementation of solutions for different contexts. Therefore, we argue that reference models are the central theoretical artifacts in IS design research. Additionally, there are also pragmatic reasons for expressing design theories by employing reference modeling. Conceptual models are usually constructed in a semi-formal graphical modeling language. Thus, they provide a restricted vocabulary. Furthermore, often conceptual modeling incorporates a multi-perspective approach to facilitate communication between stakeholders (Wand a. Weber 2002). In sum, we argue that expressing design theories by employing reference models is a beneficiary approach. 3.2 Patterns as a Useful Way to Structure Design Theories Based on Conceptual Models Reference models tend to be very complex, as the work of Becker & Schütte (2004) or Scheer (1998) demonstrates. Furthermore, reference models generally focus on providing complete design proposals. To employ conceptual modeling in the development process of design theories it is necessary to decompose conceptual models to small and concise entities. Therefore, we apply Alexander’s pattern approach (Alexander 1973). Alexander’s foundational conceptualization of design is that “good” design resolves perceived misfits within a context (Alexander 1973). Originally developed in the field of architecture, patterns have been applied to many domains (Gamma et al. 1994; Schumacher 2003). To facilitate good design, design requirements are deconstructed in a hierarchical manner. A certain aspect of the design solution will meet each requirement. Alexander’s main argument is that design issues can be solved by combining coherent and modular solutions to specific problems (Alexander 1973). These coherent solutions are called patterns (Alexander 1973; Alexander 1979). A pattern generally comprises the following elements (Buschmann et al. 1998):

188 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

• The context comprises causes which lead to the problem described in a pattern and the conditions under which the problem occurs. The context should support assessing the relevance of a pattern. • The problem describes contradictions causing the perceived misfits in the context of the pattern. These aspects of the problem are often called forces (Buschmann et al. 1998). • The next section of a pattern explains the proposed solution by describing how to dissolve the forces described before. An illustration of consequences of applying the pattern is given as well. • The closing section of a pattern is composed of references to related patterns. As patterns are rarely used independently, Alexander broadens the pattern idea to a system of interrelated patterns that he calls a pattern language (Alexander 1979). The semantic power of such pattern languages is determined by the references between patterns, which consequently allow capturing solutions for more complex problems. Overall, patterns are coherent design entities that describe a solution to a specific problem in the sense of design principles as proposed by Markus et al. (2002). Decomposing design theories into patterns enables identifying the design propositions. Furthermore, concise patterns allow evaluating design statements (i.e. construct of the pattern language) separately and thus derive more concise and elementary evaluation objectives. Therefore, the idea of pattern languages facilitates reconstructing dependencies between different elements of a design theory and thus supports the identification of core elements. By stating consequences for application of the pattern solution, patterns facilitate explaining the impact of applying a design proposition as well as formulating hypotheses on its benefit. 3.3 Framework Based on the concept of patterns we can now extend the meta-model of section 3.2 to incorporate reference modeling in design theory development. A design theory consists of design theory patterns. These patterns reference each other and thus form a pattern language. Please note that these references can point to other theories as well3. A design theory pattern consists of a context, a problem, and a solution, i.e. a design statement ex-

3

Of course, reconstructing the theory as a set of patterns would be necessary.

4

Towards a Design Theory for IT Service Data Management Systems 189

pressed by a conceptual model. The context refers to kernel theories that apply to the specific pattern.

Fig. 4. Structure of pattern-based design theories

As Fig. 4 reveals, it is not required to assign kernel theories. Walls et al. (1992) argue that in information systems it might not be possible to identify appropriate kernel theories. Hence, Markus et al. broaden the definition of kernel theory to include theories-in-use (e.g. Sarker a. Lee 2002). The problem describes forces that are the result of user requirements. The conceptual model depicts a solution (either by specifying an artifact or a method) and resolves these forces and propose certain consequences when applying it. These consequences, either good or bad, are the basis for testable hypotheses. The process of constructing patterns can be found e.g. in Schumacher (2003). In sum, this framework enables specifying design theories using reference models. The pattern approach facilitates deriving concise design propositions. Thus, we have answered research questions two and three on how to facilitate developing design theories.

4

Towards a Design Theory for IT Service Data Management Systems

In the following we apply our framework by explicating a design theory for IT service management systems.

190 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

4.1 Introduction to the IT Service Management The IT services industry will likely have a worldwide market volume of about US$ 760bn. by 2009 (Hale et al. 2005). As IT services (i.e. services that rely on information technology) become more and more complex, systematic development and efficient delivery of IT services is an important requirement (Bullinger et al. 2003). IT service providers face challenges similar to that of industrial enterprises: establishing an integrated management of services throughout their lifecycle across different stages of the service value chain (Da Rold et al. 2005). Hence, an integrated view on all aspects of service engineering and delivery is needed. We call this view IT service data management (Böhmann 2004; Böhmann et al. 2004). 4.2 Aspects of a Design Theory for IT Service Data Management Fig. 5 summarizes three fundamental aspects of the IT-SDM design theory. The objective of IT-SDM is to facilitate requirements determination for IT service data management by specifying key domain concepts and their relationships. In the following, we focus on three key patterns that define building blocks for mass-customized IT solutions: the Service Architecture, the Service Module, and the Service Level Agreement. These patterns form three design theory patterns of our design theory.

Fig. 5. The IT-SDM design theory patterns

The following tables show these design theory patterns in more detail4.

4

A more detailed description of the patterns would go beyond the scope of this paper.

4

Towards a Design Theory for IT Service Data Management Systems 191

Table 1. The pattern Service Architecture

Service Architecture Context (with theoretical references) Problem (with forces)

Similar to industrial products, IT services are complex systems of various functionalities that are provided by many internal organization units and sub-providers. In industrial production industry, product architectures are used to componentize product elements (Scheer 1998) and thus reduce coordination costs (Coase 1937). This idea also has been transferred to software engineering (Pohl et al. 2005). • Mass-customization for IT services (Böhmann 2004) requires standardized service elements that can be combined. • Many stakeholders, e.g. marketing, sales, and engineering, have different views on IT services. • Especially managing long-term IT services requires considering existing service contracts and their impact on the service infrastructure.

Conceptual Model (ERM)

Consequences (testable hypotheses)

References

• • • • •

The differentiation in architecture, catalogue, and configurations reduces coordination costs between stakeholders in IT service engineering and delivery. Service architectures allow mass customization of IT services. Service architectures enable tracking of impacts of possible changes in the service capabilities. Product Architectures, e.g. (Scheer 1998) (external prerequisite) Service Module (prerequisite)

192 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models Table 2. The pattern Service Module Service Module Context (with theoretical references) Problem (with forces)

Modern IT services are complex sets of functionalities and rely on technical, organizational, and human resources. Thus, services can be characterized as complex systems (Bunge 1977; Ropohl 1979). Efficient management of such complex systems requires mechanisms to reduce complexity (Baldwin a. Clark 2000). • Decomposing service functionality requires describing visible and accessible characteristics. • The dependencies between service functionalities have to be identified and documented.

Conceptual Model (ERM)

Consequences (testable hypotheses)

References

• • • •

IT service can be decomposed in service modules (Böhmann 2004). It is possible to develop standardized definitions of IT services by specifying an interface. It is possible to develop service products from standardized service module interfaces. Meta-model of BWW-constructs (Rosemann a. Green 2002) (external prerequisite)

5

Conclusion

193

Table 3. The pattern Service Level Agreement Service Level Agreement Context (with theoretical references) Problem (with forces)

Efficient service delivery has to provide the contracted service functionality at the agreed quality (Bullinger et al. 2003; Sturm et al. 2000). However, services generally do not exhibit characteristics that customers can inspect prior to acquiring a service (Böhmann 2004). Furthermore services rely on the integration of external factors, e.g. input of the service cusomer (Burr, 2004). • Integration of external factors requires definition of responsibilities of service provider and service client. • Contracting services require defining the outcome of the service contract. • As services change over time, the quality definitions have to change as well. • Services have various states that result in different quality requirements.

Conceptual Model (ERM)

Consequences (testable hypotheses) References

5

• • • • •

Service quality can be described as a set of objectives that are measured and assigned to specific parties. It is possible to measure each service quality criterion. All types of IT services have distinct states, e.g. maintenance, operating, etc. Web Service Level Agreements (Ludwig et al. 2003) (external prerequisites) Service Module (prerequisite)

Conclusion

In this paper, we have first analyzed the concept of design theories. Secondly, we identified reference models as the central theoretical type of IS artifacts and subsequently proposed expressing IS design theories using reference models. To facilitate the development of concise design propositions we have incorporated the idea of patterns. Thus, our framework enables researchers to realize the following benefits: • Decomposing existing reference models into coherent patterns reduces the complexity of the resulting design theory. Patterns can be evaluated individually by testing the provided hypotheses. For instance, research on the pattern Service Architecture has shown that the subsequent archi-

194 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

tecture management efforts will be mainly beneficial for large IT services providers (Böhmann 2004). The references between patterns help to analyze the immutable core of the theory: the “deep structure” (Weber 1987). The patterns show existing links to design theories and hence help to build up a theory network (Balzer et al. 1987). Patterns can be applied individually and reduce the overhead of learning and adaptation. Thus, the individual utility of a design theory can be determined more easily. Results from evaluating design propositions will lead to local changes in the patterns. Thus, our approach facilitates the incremental enhancement of design theories. There is a rich body of literature on methods, tools, and knowledge on how to construct, apply, and manage reference models (Becker a. Delfmann 2004; Becker et al. 2004; Becker a. Knackstedt 2002) and conceptual models in general (Janiesch a Brelage 2005; Lindland et al. 1994; Pfeiffer 2007). As we have shown, this body of literature could be applied to suggest and develop “own” theories in design-oriented IS research. However, there are some limitations to our approach as well: We could not yet identify any patterns describing the design process, which is necessary to formulate a complete design theory. Existing approaches on how to develop management information systems could be analyzed and adapted for the specific requirements of the IT service industry. As we have discussed, evaluating design propositions requires instantiating and adapting the model and test the instantiation. As models are interpreted and then implemented in a technical environment, many confounding factors may apply. However, recent approaches in software engineering such as model driven development may provide a solution for that problem. Our framework represents a semi-formal approach to specifying design theories. To facilitate a more formal theory development, metatheoretical programs from philosophy of science could be applied. For instance, philosophical Structuralism could facilitate formalizing the structure of design theories (Balzer et al. 1987). Currently, we apply conceptual models to depict the solution sections of the design propositions. However, they could be used to describe other sections as well. For instance, Rossi et al. proposed a modeling approach for rationales, which could be applied to model the forces of the patterns (Rossi et al. 2004).

References

195

However, these limitations do not corrode our approach. Thus, future work will include addressing the above-mentioned limitations as well as developing a more fine-grained design theory of IT service data management. Overall, our research proposes an approach to exploit the rich body of knowledge on conceptual modeling in general and reference modeling in particular for enhancing the theoretical level of design-oriented research in the IS discipline (Chmielewicz 1979). Furthermore, expressing results of design-research via reference models helps to present concise and elementary design propositions, which in turn help to communicate these results effectively (Gregor a. Jones 2007; Lyytinen et al. 2007).

References Alexander C (1973) Notes on the Synthesis of Form, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA Alexander C (1979) The timeless way of building, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA Baldwin CY, Clark KB (2000) The power of modularity, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass Balzer W, Moulines CU, Sneed JD (1987) An Architectonic for Science: The Structuralist Program, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Boston, Lancaster, Tokyo Becker J, Delfmann P (2004) Referenzmodellierung - Grundlagen, Techniken und domänenbezogene Anwendung, Physica-Verlag, Heidelberg Becker J, Delfmann, P, Knackstedt R (2004) "Konstruktion von Referenzmodellierungssprachen: Ein Ordnungsrahmen zur Spezifikation von Adaptionsmechanismen für Informationsmodelle," Wirtschaftsinformatik (46:4), pp 251264 Becker J, Delfmann P, Knackstedt R, Kuropka D (2002) "Konfigurative Referenzmodellierung," In Wissensmanagement mit Referenzmodellen: Konzepte für die Anwendungssystem- und Organisationsgestaltung, J. Becker and R. Knackstedt (eds.), Physica-Verlag, Heidelberg, pp 25-144 Becker J, Knackstedt R (2002) "Referenzmodellierung 2002: Methoden - Modelle - Erfahrungen," 90, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Institut für Wirtschaftsinformatik Becker J, Schütte R (2004) Handelsinformationssysteme, Redline Wirtschaft, Frankfurt am Main Böhmann T (2004) Modularisierung von IT-Dienstleistungen - Eine Methode für das Service Engineering, Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2004 Böhmann T, Winkler T, Fogl F, Krcmar H (2004) "Servicedatenmanagement für IT-Dienstleistungen: Ansatzpunkte für ein fachkonzeptionelles Referenzmodell," In Referenzmodellierung: Grundlagen, Techniken und domänenbezoge-

196 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models ne Anwendung, J. Becker and P. Delfmann (eds.), Physica, Heidelberg, pp 99-124 Bullinger HJ, Scheer, AW, Grieble O (2003) Service Engineering: Entwicklung und Gestaltung innovativer Dienstleistungen, Springer, Berlin Bunge M (1977) Ontology I: The furniture of the world, Reidel, Dordrecht Burr W. (2004) Chancen und Risiken der Modularisierung von Dienstleistungen aus betriebswirtschaftlicher Sicht Buschmann F, Meunier R, Rohnert H, Sommerlad P, Stal M (1998) Patternorientierte Software-Architektur: Ein Pattern-System, Addison-WesleyLongman Verlag, Bonn Chmielewicz K (1979) Forschungskonzeptionen der Wirtschaftswissenschaft, C. E. Poeschel Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany Coase RH (1937) "The Nature of The Firm," Economica New Series (4), pp 386405 Da Rold C, Jester R, Young A (2005) "The Future of Outsourcing," Gartner Research Report Gartner Inc., 2005. Fettke P,Loos P (2004) "Referenzmodellierungsforschung," WIRTSCHAFTSINFORMATIK (46:5), pp 331-340 Frank U (1998a) "Die Evaluation von Artefakten: Eine zentrale Herausforderung der Wirtschaftsinformatik," In Evaluation und Evaluationsforschung in der Wirtschaftsinformatik, I. Häntschel and L. J. Heinrich (eds.), Oldenbourg, München, pp 35-48 Frank U (1998b) "Reflections on the Core of the Information Systems Discipline," Arbeitsbericht 14, Universität Koblenz Landau, Institut für Wirtschaftsinformatik Gamma E, Helm R, Johnson R, Vlissides J (1994) Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, MA, USA Gregor S (2006) "The Nature of Theory in Information Systems," MIS Quarterly (30:3), pp 611-642 Gregor S, Jones D (2007) "The Anatomy of a Design Theory," Journal of the Association for Information Systems (JAIS) (8:5), pp 312-335 Greiffenberg S (2004) Methodenentwicklung in Wirtschaft und Verwaltung, Verlag Dr. Kovac, Hamburg, Germany Hale K, De Souza R, Lo T, Adach, Y (2005) "Forecast: IT Services, Worldwide, 2005-2009," Gartner Research Report Gartner Inc. Hevner AR, March ST, Park J, Ram S (2004) "Design Science in Information Systems Research," MIS Quarterly (28:1), pp 77-105 Janiesch C, Brelage C (2005) "Exploration of Conceptual Models: Application of the GOM Framework," Proceedings of the IRMA Internation Conference, San Diego, CA, USA, pp. 254-257 Jones D, Gregor S (2006) "The formulation of an ISDT for e-learning," Proceedings of the Design Science Research in Information Systems and Technology, Claremont, CA, USA

References

197

Kuhn TS (1998) The structure of scientific revolutions, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago Lindland O, Sindre G, Solvberg A (1994) "Understanding quality in conceptual modeling," IEEE Software (11:2), pp 42-49 Loos P, Fettke P (2005) "Referenzmodellierung - Entwicklungsstand und Perspektiven," Information Management & Consulting (20:April), pp 21-26 Ludwig H, Keller A, Dan A, King RP, Franck R (2003) "Web Service Level Agreement (WSLA) Language Specification 1.0," Lyytinen K, Baskerville RL, Iivari J, Te'eni D (2007)"Why the old world cannot publish? Overcoming challenges in publishing high-impact research," European Journal of Information Systems (16:4), pp 317-326 March S, Hevner A, Ram S (2000) "Research Commentary: An Agenda for Information Technology Research in Heterogeneous and Distributed Environments," Information Systems Research (11:4), pp 327-341 March ST, Smith GF (1995) "Design and natural science research on information technology," Decision Support Systems (15), pp 251-266 Markus ML, Majchrzak A, Gasser L (2002) "A Design Theory for Systems that support emergent Knowledge Processes," MIS Quarterly (26:3), pp 179-212 Mertens, P. (1995) "Wirtschaftsinformatik: von den Moden zum Trends," In Wirtschaftsinformatik '95: Wettbewerbsfähigkeit, Innovation, Wirtschaftlichkeit, W. König (ed.) Physica-Verlag, Heidelberg, pp 25-64 Misic VB, Zhao JL (2000) "Evaluating the Quality of Reference Models," In Conceptual Modeling - ER 2000: 19th International Conference on Conceptual Modeling: Lecture Notes in Computer Science, A. H. F. Leander, S. W. Liddle and V. C. Storey (eds.), 1920, pp 484-498 Moor A (2005) "Towards a Design Theory for Community Information Systems," Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (HCII 2005), Las Vegas, USA Nunamaker JF, Chen M (1991) "Systems Development in Information Systems Research," Journal of Management Information Systems (7:3), pp 89-106 Orlikowski WJ, Iacono CS (2001) "Research Commentary: Desperately Seeking the "IT" in IT Research - A Call to Theorizing the IT Artifact," Information Systems Research (12:2), pp 121-134 Pfeiffer D (2007) "Constructing comparable conceptual models with domain specific languages," Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS 07), St. Gallen, Switzland Pohl K, Böckle G, Linden, F (2005) Software product line engineering: foundations, principles, and techniques Springer, Berlin Popper KR (2001) All Life is Problem Solving, Routledge, London Popper KR (2002) The logic of scientific discovery, Routledge, London Puhakainen P (2006) "A Design Theory for Information Security Awareness," University of Oulu Ropohl G (1979) Eine Systemtheorie der Technik: zur Grundlegung der allgemeinen Technologie, Carl Hanser Verlag, München Rosemann M, Green P (2002) "Developing a meta model for the Bunge-WandWeber ontological constructs," Information Systems (27), pp 75-91

198 Explicating Design Theories with Conceptual Models: Towards a Theoretical Role of Reference Models Rosemann M, Schütte R (1997) "Grundsätze ordnungsmäßiger Referenzmodellierung," In Entwicklungsstand und Entwicklungsperspektiven der Referenzmodellierung, J. Becker, M. Rosemann and R. Schütte (eds.), 32, Institut für Wirtschaftsinformatik der Westfälischen Wilhems-Universität Münster, Münster, pp 16-33 Rossi M, Balasubramaniam R, Lyytinen K, Tolvanen JP (2004) "Managing Evolutionary Method Engineering by Method Rationale," Journal of the Association for Information Systems (5:9), pp 356-391 Sarker S, Lee AS (2002) "Using a Positivist Case Research Methodology to Test Three Competing Theories-In-Use of Business Process Reengineering," Journal of the Association for Information Systems (2:7), pp 1-74 Scheer AW (1998) Wirtschaftsinformatik: Referenzmodelle für industrielle Geschäftsprozesse, Springer, Berlin, Germany Schumacher M (2003) Security engineering with patterns: origins, theoretical models, and new applications, Springer, Berlin, Germany Simon HA (1969) The Sciences of the Artificial, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA Sturm R, Morris W, Jander M (2000) Foundations of Service Level Management, Indianapolis, SAMS Walls JG, Widmeyer GR, El Sawy OA (1992) "Building an Information System Design Theory for Vigilant EIS," Information Systems Research (3:1), pp 3659 Wand Y, Weber R (2002) "Research Commentary: Information Systems and Conceptual Modeling - A Research Agenda," Information Systems Research (13:4), pp 363-376 Weber R (1987) "Toward A Theory of Artifacts: A Paradigmatic Base for Information Systems Research," Journal of Information Systems (1:2), pp 3-19 Winter R, Krcmar H, Sinz EJ, Zelewski S, Hevner AR (2009) "Was ist eigentlich Grundlagenforschung in der Wirtschaftsinformatik?," WIRTSCHAFTSINFORMATIK (51:2)