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This research was fully supported by the following institutions: Chile
CONICYT: Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica. BIRF: Banco Internacional de Reconstrucción y Fomento. Convenio con el Gobierno de Chile (Préstamo N°7172-CH). PBCT: Programa Bicentenario de Ciencia y Tecnología.
Germany
Post Graduate Funding Programme from the Free State of Thuringia. Bauhaus Research School. Bauhaus-Universität Weimar.
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Zusammenwirken von Baumasse und Raumprogramm mittels BIM. Eine Fallstudie für Südamerika. Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor-Ingenieur (Dr.-Ing.) an der Fakultät Architektur der Bauhaus-Universität Weimar
Vorgelegt von Danny Alfredo Lobos Calquin Dipl-Ing Architect
geb. am 22.10.1974 in Santiago de Chile
Mentor der Arbeit Prof Dr.-Ing. Dirk Donath (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar)
Gutachter Prof. Dr.-Ing. Karl Beucke (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar) Lecturer, MSc, Arch. Phil Bernstein (Yale University)
Tag der Disputation Weimar, der 07.03.2011
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BIM Supported Building Envelopes and Space Layout Based on a Case Study in South America
Dissertation to obtain the academic degree Doktor-Ingenieur (Dr.-Ing.) at the Faculty of Architecture of the Bauhaus-Universität Weimar
Applied by the candidate Danny Alfredo Lobos Calquin Dipl-Ing Architect Affiliated with the Bauhaus-University Weimar on October 2010
Supervisor of the work Prof Dr.-Ing. Dirk Donath (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar)
Reviewers Prof. Dr.-Ing. Karl Beucke (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar) Lecturer, MSc, Arch. Phil Bernstein (Yale University, Autodesk)
Weimar, 07.03.2011
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CHAPTER 1
Technical Features
CHAPTER 2
Buildings´ Envelopes
CHAPTER 3
Space Layout Planning
Section 3.5
Graphs and Topology
CHAPTER 4
Integration
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Index (short)
1
Technical Features
19
2
Buildings´ Envelopes
27
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3
Floor Plan Layout in Architecture 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
4
Research’s Objectives Exploratory Stage Descriptive Stage Correlational Stage CAAD Prototypes Conclusions for Urban Codes Stage
Hypothesis and Research Methodology for Space Layout Planning Floor Plan and Architectural Layout Study Case Automated Space Layout Planning Graph Theory and Topology
30 30 36 51 52 62 65 67 68 75 80 96
Integration
107
4.1 4.2
Summary for Automated Space Layout Planning 108 A New Framework for Space Layout Planning in Architecture 110 Foundations for a New Digital Application 125
4.3 5
Conclusions
131
6
Discussions and Open Questions
135
7
Bibliography
143
8
Index of Images, Tables and Graphs
153
9
Appendix A
159
10
Appendix B
197
7
Index (Extended)
Acknowledgements ........................................................... 12 Abstract in English ............................................................ 13 Abstract auf Deutsch ......................................................... 14 Resumen en Español .......................................................... 15 Summary ........................................................................ 16
1 Technical Features…………………………………………19 1.1 Where We Are ............................................................ 20 1.2 Research Design .......................................................... 20 1.2.1 Research Methods ............................................................. 20 1.2.2 Research: Theory v/s Case Study ........................................... 21
1.3 Research Ideas ............................................................ 21 1.4 Sources for the Generation of Ideas .................................. 21 1.5 Research Questions ...................................................... 22 1.6 Innovation ................................................................. 22 1.7 Research Limits .......................................................... 22 1.7.1 Profile of the Research Unit / Object of Study ............................ 22 1.7.2 Location of the Study Object ................................................ 22 1.7.3 Period ........................................................................... 23
1.8 Potential of This Research ............................................. 23 1.9 Theoretical Framework ................................................. 24 1.9.1 Literature Review ............................................................. 24 1.9.2 Adoption of a Theory and Development of a Theoretical Approach .... 25
2 Buildings´ Envelopes………………………………………27 2.1 Research’s Objectives ................................................... 30 2.2 Exploratory Stage ........................................................ 30 2.2.1 The Problem of the Design of a Theoretical Volume. .................... 30 2.2.2 Urban Code: History and Nowadays ......................................... 32 2.2.3 The Theoretical Volume in the World ...................................... 33
2.3 Descriptive Stage ........................................................ 36 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7
The Early Stages of the Architectural Design Process .................... Case Study ...................................................................... The Theoretical Volume Generation ........................................ Analysis of Cases and Extraction of Data ................................... Variable: Client and the Space Program ................................... Variable: The Urban Code .................................................... Variable: The Architectural Practices in the Early Stages ...............
36 38 38 39 42 43 49
2.4 Correlational Stage ...................................................... 51 2.5 CAAD Prototypes ......................................................... 52 2.5.1 Introduction to a Computer Science Solution Strategy ................... 52 2.5.2 Survey of the Existing Commercial Software Programs .................. 54
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2.5.3 Survey of Existing Prototype Software Programs .......................... 55 2.5.4 Parametric Model in Autodesk Revit ........................................ 59
2.6 Conclusions for Urban Codes Stage ................................... 62
3 Floor Plan Layout in Architecture…………………65 3.1 Hypothesis and Research Methodology for Space Layout Planning .................................................. 67 3.2 Floor Plan and Architectural Layout ................................. 68 3.2.1 Foundations of Floor Plan Layout in Architectural Design ............... 70 3.2.2 Criteria, Variables and Rules ................................................. 71
3.3 Study Case ................................................................ 75 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5
Process and Sequence for Designing High-Rise Residential Buildings ... 75 Chosen Buildings ............................................................... 76 The Floor-Plan ................................................................. 78 Space Program ................................................................. 79 Sizes for Spaces: a Discreet Universe ....................................... 79
3.4 Automated Space Layout Planning ................................... 80 3.4.1 Brief History and Development of Space Layout Planning ............... 80 3.4.2 State-of-the-art Review ...................................................... 81
3.5 Graph Theory and Topology ........................................... 96 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4
Basics of Graph Theory ....................................................... 97 Proof for Graphs in Floor Layout ............................................ 98 Graph Theory / Topology Approach for Buildings ......................... 99 Graph Software Review ...................................................... 101
4 Integration…….………………………………………………107 4.1 Summary for Automated Space Layout Planning.................. 108 4.2 A New Framework for Space Layout Planning in Architecture . 110 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6
Theses .......................................................................... 110 An Information Visualization Approach .................................... 111 Description of the Framework .............................................. 111 Proposals and Prototypes .................................................... 112 Theoretical Proposals ........................................................ 113 Prototypes ..................................................................... 115
4.3 Foundations for a New Digital Application ......................... 125
5 Conclusions…………………………….……………………131 6 Discussions and Open Questions………..……..135 6.1 Plausibility ............................................................... 136 6.1.1 The Meaning of Plausibility.................................................. 136
6.2 Research Methodologies ............................................... 136 6.2.1 A very specific case in Providencia…....................................... 136
6.3 Urban Codes and Zoning Planning tools ............................ 137 6.3.1 Rural vs. Urban ............................................................... 137
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6.3.2 High-Rise Buildings vs. Building Blocks .................................... 137 6.3.3 Urban Codes Digital Tools in Latin America, Europe and USA .......... 137 6.3.4 Earthquake in Chile 27/2 .................................................... 137
6.4 Architecture ............................................................ 138 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 6.4.6 6.4.7
Traditional Architectural Design ........................................... 138 Canonical Forms .............................................................. 138 Knowledge from Practitioners .............................................. 138 Lack of Conventions among Architects .................................... 138 Study Programmes in Schools of Architecture ............................ 138 Conservative Architects? What to do? ..................................... 139 How do we explain that Weimar and Chile can have the same Results using our Approach? .......................................................... 139 6.4.8 Were the Sevilla Pavillion (Mies van der Rohe) and the Falling Water House (Frank Lloyd Wright) a Mistake? .................................... 139 6.4.9 Flexibility: Model and Theory versus Reality ............................. 139 6.4.10 Weather Crisis and Architecture Role ..................................... 139
6.5 Space Layout Planning ................................................ 139 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.4
Similar Names for Space Layout Planning Problem ...................... 139 What about the other four trends in Space Layout Planning? .......... 139 Space Layout Planning in Europe and USA ................................ 140 What is the Meaning of Optimization, Local Optima, and Global Optima in Space Layout Planning? ................................................... 140 6.5.5 Conflict as Catalyst .......................................................... 140
6.6 Computers and Architecture ......................................... 140 6.6.1 Why use BIM/REVIT?.......................................................... 140 6.6.2 Mix between Traditional and ICT Tools Methods ......................... 140 6.6.3 Universal Tools for Architecture? .......................................... 140
6.7 Computing Science and Programming .............................. 141 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.4
Computing Science and Programming ..................................... 141 Restrictions of .NET y C# Environment .................................... 141 Bottom-Up and Top-Down ................................................... 141 Is an Information Visualization Approach a Decision Support System? ..................................... 141
7 Bibliography ……………………………………………….…143 7.1 Books supervised by an editorial committee ...................... 145 7.2 Books ..................................................................... 146 7.3 Book Chapters .......................................................... 146 7.4 Government Official Laws and Reports ............................ 146 7.5 Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals .................................... 146 7.6 Peer Reviewed Journals .............................................. 147 7.7 Congresses Proceedings´ Papers .................................... 147 7.8 PhD and MSc Thesis .................................................... 149 7.9 Magazines/Reviews .................................................... 150
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7.10
Academic Resources in Universities .......................... 150
7.11
On-line Articles ................................................... 151
7.12
Websites / Newspapers ......................................... 151
7.13
Interviews ......................................................... 151
7.14
Lectures/Talks .................................................... 152
7.15
Personal Communication ....................................... 152
8 Index of Images, Tables and Graphs ………..153
9 Appendix A….………………………………………….……159 9.1 Tables .................................................................... 160 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4
Services provided by an Architecture/Engineering Office .............. 160 The Building Construction Process ......................................... 160 The Architectural Project Process.......................................... 161 Current Real Estate Companies financing high-rise residential buildings.......................................................... 162 9.1.5 Variables of the Architectural Practices................................... 166 9.1.6 Variables of the Space Program ............................................ 167 9.1.7 Full Space Program for Edificio Cumbres .................................. 169 9.1.8 Survey for Flats / Store Rooms / Parking lots in High-Rise Detached Residential Buildings ......................................................... 170 9.1.9 Angles for Sky exposure plane .............................................. 171 9.1.10 Minimum quantity and area of external parking ......................... 171 9.1.11 Calculation of shadows area exceeding the theoretical volume ....... 171 9.1.12 Stairwells ...................................................................... 171 9.1.13 Occupational Load Table .................................................... 171
9.3 Site Information Report Edificio Cumbres ......................... 172 9.4 Plans and Drawings for Buildings .................................... 174 9.5 Edificio Gen ............................................................. 174 9.6 Edificio Cumbres de Providencia .................................... 176 9.7 Edificio Puerta del Golf ............................................... 185 9.8 Wurman Floor Plans .................................................... 189 9.9 Interviews ................................................................ 190 9.10
Notes on the Interviews ......................................... 191
9.11
Steinmann concepts .............................................. 192
9.12
XML Codes for Graph Gear ...................................... 193
9.13
Tables for Tom Sawyer Perspectives and Spreadsheets ... 194
9.14
Programming Codes for C# ...................................... 196
10 Appendix B…………….……………………………….…197 10.1
Curriculum Vitae .................................................. 198
10.2
Glossary ............................................................ 198
10.3
Thesen zur Dissertation ......................................... 199
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Acknowledgements To my wife Loreto Galdames and our daughter Rafaella. My parents and brother Mario Lobos. I want to thanks Prof Dr-Ing Dirk Donath, for his constant concern about promoting science and invention, as well as his profound commitment to architecture and its basic principles. Thanks for his constant search for a perfect balance between the researcher´s independence, and the tutelage and participation in the topic researched. Thanks also for providing and facilitating the appropriate environment and infrastructure for the quest for knowledge, debate and reflection that a PhD student requires. To the Chilean Board of Technology and Innovation (CONICYT-Chile) and the Post Graduate Program from the Free State of Thuringia (Germany) for their fully support to this research. To Prof. Dr-Ing Karl Beucke and Prof. Phil Bernstein for taking part in this work. All the comments led to improve the quality of the research. To the library of the Bauhaus University Weimar (Germany) and all the people who work there; Cesar Ascencio and students from UCINF (Chile); Baddia y Sofia Arquitectos (Chile): Felipe Sofia, Felipe Gonzalez, and Consuelo Larrea; Computer Science Professors at Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Universidad de Chile, and Universidad Catolica (Chile); Hans Fox, USACH (Chile); Gloria del RioCidoncha (Spain); Daniel Wurman (Chile); Charles Eastman (USA); Dr. Reinhard Konig (BU-Weimar) and Prof-Dr. Frank Petzold (TU-Munich), for the deep and rich discussions about Space Layout Planning approaches and Programming Languages aspects; Uli Foessmeyer (Germany); Luis Felipe Gonzalez (Chile); Dario Navarro Sandoval (México); Hagos Aman Ahmed (Ethiopia). To the people who encouraged/supported me to do this research in Germany: Rodrigo García, Orión Aramayo, Luis Felipe Gonzalez Bohm, Max Welch Guerra, Sergio Muñoz, as well as the ones who supported me in Germany: Lorena Díaz&Ian Hendrick, Jessica Paez, Mario Silva. To God and all from above. Finally to Mitch Riggleman (School of Architecture, University of Tenesse) and Scott McColl (School of Architecture, University of California) for their support in the English proof-reading stage.
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Abstract in English BIM Supported Building Envelopes and Space Layout Based on a Case Study in South America Before designing a high-rise residential building, architects must deal with a set of rules that determine a theoretical volume that works as a visual reference of the “default” Zoning Planning and Building Codes applied to the plot. This volume must satisfy the architects´ own practice as well as the clients’ needs. Exploring alternatives and finding the optimum volume in a reasonable time is a crucial yet complex task for this type of building. The phenomenon observed here is the strong relationship between the building envelope and the interior layout during the early stages of design. The following variables have been detected: clients’ needs (Space Program), Zoning Planning tools (Urban Codes), and architectural design (Architectural Practices). The first part of this research focuses on the identification and description of these variables; it also aims at the formulation of a hypothesis about the relation between them. A survey for commercial software programs and prototype tools is also presented. Finally, a synthesis of these relations is turned into a prototype software program (a digital tool) that supports the fast creation and analysis of new building envelopes in an urban plot, within BIM (Building Information Modeling) environment, under a parametric and constrained approach. The second part of this research focuses on the link between the interior floor plan layout and the building envelope design, known as SLP (Space Layout Planning). In this specific case, the BIM framework has been chosen to create this link. The creation of floor plan layouts in Architecture is a problem that, because of its complexity, has no precise general method to be resolved. Rules from specific cases can be accessed and used for a digital support methodology. An overview and a description of the traditional architectural design methods are shown (classical concepts, manual methods, etc.). Definitions such as space program, space relationships, and space function are discussed to understand the phenomenon of architectural layout design. Parameters, variables, constraints and goals are described. A brief history of the development of this Space Layout Planning field and a review of the state-of-the-art in the field of automatic generation of layouts are presented. Several experimental techniques, approaches, and strategies are reviewed (optimization, generative systems, artificial intelligence, genetic algorithms, physically based modeling, etc.) as well as commercial CAAD, BIM, and Graph software. Finally, a complete framework on BIM is described. This is based on Simulation and Evaluation paradigm, and it will be useful to research and develop our own methodology for the early stages of building design. Keywords: Building Information Modeling, Urban Modeling, Architectural Design, Space Layout Planning, Architectural Floor Layout, Simulation and Evaluation, Graph and Topology.
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Abstract auf Deutsch BIM-Unterstützung der Gebäudehüllen und Space Layout, basierend auf einer Fallstudie in Südamerika Bevor ein Architekt mit dem Entwurf eines Wohnhochhauses beginnt, muss er sich mit dem theoretisch möglichen Gebäudevolumen beschäftigen, dass auf den gesetzlich vorgegebenen Abstandsflächen und Bauvorschriften beruht. Dieses Volumen muss den Vorstellungen des Architekten und den Anforderungen des Kunden genügen. Verschiedene Alternativen zu untersuchen und das optimale Volumen in einer angemessenen Zeit zu ermitteln, ist eine entscheidende und komplexe Aufgabe für diesen Gebäudetypus. Gegenstand der vorliegenden Untersuchung ist die starke Verbindung zwischen der Gebäudehülle und der Innenraumgestaltung in den frühen Phasen des Entwurfs. Es wurden mehrere Variablen ermittelt, die sich auf die Bedürfnisse der Kunden (Raumprogramm), die Abstandsflächenplanung (Baugesetze) und den architektonischen Entwurf (Entwurfspraxis) beziehen. Der erste Teil der Arbeit konzentriert sich auf die Bestimmung und Beschreibung dieser Variablen; er zielt darauf ab, eine Aussage über die Beziehung zwischen diesen Variablen zu formulieren. Eine Umfrage für kommerzielle Softwareprogramme und prototypische Planungswerkzeuge wird ebenfalls vorgestellt. Schließlich werden diese Beziehungen zwischen den oben dargestellten Variablen in einem Softwareprototypen zusammengeführt, welcher innerhalb einer BIM-Umgebung und mit einem parametrischen und von Randbedingungen abhängigen Lösungsansatz das schnelle Erstellen und Analysieren von neuen Gebäudevolumen in einem städtischen Umfeld ermöglicht. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Verbindung zwischen dem Grundrisslayout (auch als Space Layout Planning bezeichnet) und dem Gebäudevolumen. Um diese Verknüpfung herzustellen, wurde BIM als Framework gewählt. Die Generierung von Grundriss-Layouts in der Architektur ist ein Problem, das aufgrund seiner hohen Komplexität nicht durch eine allgemeingültige Methode gelöst werden kann. Dagegen können für bestimmte Problemstellungen (z.B. Typologien wie Schulen, Krankenhäuser usw.) Regeln abgeleitet und für eine digitale Entwurfsunterstützung verwendet werden. Eine Übersicht traditioneller Entwurfsmethoden wird vorgestellt. Begriffe wie Raumprogramm, Raumbeziehungen und Raumfunktionen werden diskutiert, um das Problem des architektonischen Layout-Designs zu verstehen. Parameter, Variablen, Nebenbedingungen und Ziele werden beschrieben. Eine kurze Geschichte über die Entwicklung des Space Layout Planning Feldes zeigt den Stand der Forschung zur automatischen Generierung von Layouts. Verschiedene Techniken, Konzepte und Strategien werden überprüft, wie z. B. Optimierung, generative Systeme, Künstliche Intelligenz, genetische Algorithmen, physikalischbasierte Modellierung etc. Zudem werden kommerzielle CAAD, BIM und GrafikSoftware-Programme auf ihre Tauglichkeit zur automatischen Generierung von Layouts überprüft. Schließlich wird ein komplettes Framework für BIM zur Erforschung und Entwicklung einer eigenen Methodik für die frühen Phasen der Bauplanung, basierend auf dem Simulations- und Evaluations- Paradigma, beschrieben. Stichworte: parametrische Modellierung, Urban Modeling, Architectural Design, Space Layout Planung,Simulation und Evaluation, Graphen und Topologie.
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Resumen en Español Apoyo BIM para la Envolvente del Edificio y el Diseño de Plantas Basado en un Estudio de Caso en Sudamérica Previo al diseño de edificios de residencia en altura, los arquitectos deben manejar un volumen teórico como referencia visual de la aplicación de regulaciones a la construcción (Normas de Planificación y Ordenanza General de Urbanismo y Construcciones) aplicadas al terreno. Este volumen debe satisfacer los propios anhelos de práctica de los arquitectos y las necesidades de los clientes. Explorar alternativas y encontrar el volumen óptimo en un tiempo razonable es una tarea compleja y crucial para este tipo de edificios. El fenómeno observado es la estrecha relación biunívoca que existe entre la envolvente del edificio y el diseño interior del mismo en las etapas tempranas de diseño. Diversas variables han sido detectadas, relacionadas con las necesidades del cliente (Programa Espacial), las herramientas de zonificación (Código Urbano) y el diseño arquitectónico (Prácticas Arquitectónicas). La primera parte de esta investigación se enfoca en la identificación y descripción de las variables que resultan de aplicar las Normas de Planificación a un sitio, también se dedica a la formulación de una hipótesis acerca de las relaciones entre ellas. Un catastro para software comercial y prototipo es presentado también. Finalmente se sintetizan estas relaciones en un software prototipo (una herramienta digital) creado dentro del ambiente BIM (Building Information Modeling), bajo el enfoque de Restricciones y Parámetros, que apoya la rápida creación y análisis de nuevas envolventes de edificios en terrenos urbanos,. La segunda parte se concentra en las variables de la distribución interna de recintos y su vínculo con el diseño de la envolvente del edificio, esto es conocido como Planeamiento del Diseño Espacial (Space Layout Planning, en inglés). En este caso específico hemos elegido el entorno BIM para crear este un vínculo. La creación de plantas en arquitectura es un problema que debido a su alta complejidad no tiene un método preciso para ser resuelto. Reglas de casos específicos pueden ser obtenidas y usadas para una metodología de apoyo digital. Una revisión y descripción en detalle de los métodos arquitectónicos tradicionales es presentada (conceptos clásicos, métodos manuales, etc.). Definiciones tales como programa espacial, relaciones espaciales, función del espacio son discutidos para entender el fenómeno del diseño de plantas arquitectónicas. Se describen parámetros, variables, restricciones y objetivos, en seguida presentamos una breve revisón a la historia del Space Layout Planning, luego el estado del arte para la generación automatizada de plantas. Diversas técnicas, enfoques y estrategias son revisados, tales como optimización, sistemas generativos, inteligencia artificial, algoritmos genéticos, modelamiento basado en física, etc. Software comercial del tipo CAAD, BIM y Grafos son también revisados. Finalmente describimos un entorno de trabajo completo basado en BIM para investigar y desarrollar nuestra propia metodología para el diseño de edificios basado en el paradigma de la Simulación & Evaluación. Palabras Clave: Modelamiento Paramétrico, Modelamiento Urbano, Diseño Arquitectónico, Planeamiento de Plantas Arquitectónicas, Simulación and Evaluación, Grafos y Topología.
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Summary 1. The problem and objectives of the work The problem addressed by this research is the application of the plausibility concept to the early stages of the architectural design within a Building Information Modeling environment. A specific type of building has been chosen; the high-rise residential building. Two crucial phases in the early stage of design for this type of building have been identified: the application of zoning planning tools for the generation of building´s envelope (mass study) and the generation of floor-plan layouts from the list of rooms (space program). Both stages are strongly connected in practice, but in the research field they are inquired separately. The objective of this work is to support the architects’ work in this early stage by finding the link between the problem of the envelope’s creation, the problem of room distribution inside the building, and their variables (urban codes, clients’ needs and architectural practices). The first part is called Urban Codes (related to Zoning Planning) and the second part Space Layout Planning (Space Layout Planning). Since architects work under a time pressure, they do not always have time to explore more configurations or alternatives to an idea (envelope or floorlayout). For this reason, it is a motivation for us to improve this process with our research. All the variables of each stage are described in depth, from the architectural point of view and in terms of the parameters for their implementation in a digital environment. 2. State-of-the-art First, scientific and architectural literature is provided: about the early stages, about architectural design, building envelopes, building codes, and floor-plan generation and their variables. The first discovery was that researchers normally split the problem because they do not know all the variables of the complete process in this specific part of the early stages. The reviewed literature of the state-of-the-art shows that it is possible to use digital approaches in both problems. In the case of Zoning Planning, it reveals that digital tools can create envelopes automatically by using the values of codes as input. There are two trends; one is to support the visualization of Zoning Planning norms in several blocks within the city, and the other is to visualize them in one site. In our case, the norms in a single site and for a single building are utilized. A missing tool for the application of specific Zoning Planning variables on one site was detected. For the case of Space Layout Planning, architects have to fit a wide space program (the clients´ needs) into a shape (building envelope). Here the floor plan design starts. Architects must consider many variables when designing floorplan layouts. At least, thirteen variables that influence a floor-plan layout design have been described. Literature reveals that from the 1950s, four trends supported by computers for the automatic creation of floor plan layouts have been developed: Constraint-Based, Generative, Shape Grammars and Expert Systems. These approaches take some variables of the real floor plan layout process (use of rectangles, adjacency, overlapping, nesting, functions, etc.) and create a layout automatically. However, none of these approaches have been utilized in architectural practice. In floor plan layouts, architects usually choose one main criteria to resolve in their projects, and the concept of “optimum” is seldom used to explain these results. Optimization formulas are not used in floorplan creation. This is because the most important issues are aesthetic and composition, and it is difficult to define an optimization for them. The work aims to set a bridge between these Space Layout Planning approaches and the architectural practice, by supporting the creation of floor plan layouts but not automatically. For this aim, Graph Theory and Topology was inquired; and the literature showed some clues that led us to apply this approach in the Space Layout Planning problem with satisfactory results.
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3. Method utilized Due to the high complexity of the problem, the methodology utilized was a mix between quantitative and qualitative research techniques. Exploratory, descriptive and correlational stages were developed for the first part related to envelope’s creation. Simulation & Evaluation strategies were used for the Space Layout Planning stage. The creation of simulation´ models and experiments were also included. After the definition of our subject of study in the first part (high-rise residential detached buildings), a set of rules from a small sample group was deduced: eighteen variables are needed to design an envelope. These variables come from Urban Code, Zoning Planning, and Site Report Information. Then these rules were transformed into variables to be added to a software prototype within BIM (Building Information Modeling) environment that supports the creation of building envelopes. In the second part (about Space Layout Planning), the same type of building is used to demonstrate that Graph and Topology techniques can catch and keep the complexity of a number of spaces and relationships in a given floor plan. In both parts, surveys of existing digital approaches were made in the academic, research, and commercial fields. Graphs and Topology approaches offer a new possibility since they are able to synthesize and keep the complex information of a floor layout. A floor layout (for this type of building) normally contains hundreds of objects and relationships. The possibility of visualizing these objects and maintaining their relationships during design is a key issue in Architecture. Under the Graph and Topology approach, the simple drawings of the floor plans of different buildings provide insightful information about floor layout configurations. This information can be stored in graphs and it can be re-utilized for creating new layouts. A new concept, without automatic generation of the floor plan layout and based on an Information Visualization Support approach for BIM (Building Information Modeling), is a valid solution. 4. Results Two concepts were found and developed within a BIM (Building Information Modeling) environment: the concept of Parametric Building Envelope and the Information Visualization Support. The first was developed for the generation of building envelopes by using parametrical values, and the second for the creation of a floor plan layout inside such envelopes by using graphs. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to integrate both stages (envelopes´ design and floor plan layout stage). This is possible by using a topdown and bottom-up approach. By using these approaches, architects can handle the shape of the building envelope and the interior layout design at the same time. The findings of this research show that the relationship between the variables of a building’s envelope (urban codes, clients’ needs, and architectural practices) is strong. It also shows the predominance of urban codes in the final design of such envelopes. The detected variables from Urban Code have been synthesized and a concept for a new BIM (Building Information Modeling) tool has been created. This digital tool generates new parametric envelopes for a single plot and supports the faster simulation and evaluation of several scenarios (3dModels) for the use of the Zoning Planning regulations. Once this envelope is made, it is sliced (following the level definition) to get the boundaries of each floor, and finally, we apply the Graph and Topology strategy to create floor plan schemes with the participation of architects and their knowledge. 5. Conclusions and critics The results of this proposal show that the use of specific ICT (Information and Communication Technology) Tools in the early stages of a building’s design helps to reduce the working time. It also increases the confidence on the generated solution, and it contributes to the exploration of several alternatives in the short term. Experiments and new tools/concepts were made for Urban Codes and Space Layout Planning issues. They show that by going deep into the 17
architectural problem itself, it is possible to establish a new strategy based on Topological structures, Graphs, Space Program, and Building Regulations for specific cases. Then, we avoid using approaches from other fields that will lead us towards non-sense results. Useful concepts for tools in Space Layout Planning and Urban Codes have been achieved through a deep understanding of a specific case in architecture and its variables. Fifty years of research in Space Layout Planning have not had any impact on architectural practice. Every case in architecture is different, therefore software which tries to deduct some “common” rules for design have not been successful in the design of floor-plan layouts. As critics to our own work we can mention: Urban Codes in other countries are not described; therefore, the tools has been not tested by practitioners. Space Layout Planning concept is not demonstrated as a running software prototype. Some more flexibility to adapt working methods of different architects is also missing. The election of well-known BIM software and commercial Programming Environments can affect the scientific neutrality of our research. 6. Future work For the future, it is expected to continue with our research (in a post-doctoral research) and teach these concepts at universities. About the prototype, it is expected to include more aspects from sustainable design (sun, wind, thermal, etc.). It will be implemented as a plug-in for BIM software to be used in daily practice. On the other hand, this concept can be extended to other types of buildings such as schools, hotels or hospitals. The use of Graph and Topology techniques allows the handling of highly complex information and relationships. In architectural design it is often given that one has to handle large set of objects with constraints. This approach can also support many other daily tasks.
18
1
Technical Features
19
1.1 Where We Are The creation of buildings’ envelopes and floor-plan layouts are very specific problems of the architectural practice. They are situated during the early stages of the architectural design (see orange lines in Figure 1), and in order to observe and inquire about this phenomenon, a very specific type of building (high-rise residential buildings), in a specific place (the centre of the district of Providencia in Santiago), and in a specific period of time (2005-2008) is studied.
Figure 1 The complete design process and the specific stage for research. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010, from Lyon 2002 and Patten, 2003.
Therefore, our work is not about the complete design process of a building, or about all types of buildings (hotels, schools, hospitals). Neither about buildings located anywhere in the world, or built in the 70s, or the 90s. Nevertheless, at the end of this research, it is expected to provide a method and a series of results applicable toward the research in a wide range of building types. 1.2 Research Design The technical features (research design) for both parts of our research (Buildings´ Envelopes and Space Layout Planning) are described below. 1.2.1 Research Methods The following descriptions, and the subsequent research structure, are based primarily on the books “Metodologías de la Investigación” (Research Methodologies, translation by the author) by Hernandez, Fernandez and Baptista1 and “Architectural Research Methods” by Groat and Wang2. This research was originally designed having a practical and empirical nature whose aim is to give solutions to daily problems of the architectural practice such as the appropriated envelope design for a residential building; it is also quantitative since it considers the analysis of the variables involved in the creation of the envelope. The proposed research design is shown in Figure 2. This was planned at the very beginning of this research. Nevertheless, after some years of research and an in-depth study of our subject, we have concluded that the research design may, or must, change during the process since reality is too complex to be explained under one paradigm. There are too many variables and behaviours, and therefore, one research model is not enough to explain some parts of the phenomenon. Exploring more than one method was a real gain for our scientific background. Finally, both qualitative and quantitative approaches were utilized in different stages; this dialectic process enriches our background and allows us to
1 Hernandez et all, 1998 [Books supervised by an editorial committee] 2 Groat and Wang, 2000 [Books supervised by an editorial committee]
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face other research problems in the future as well as share strategies with other research fields. The final research design is shown in Figure 3. This was revealed at the very end of this research after many discussions with colleagues.
Figure 2 Original Scheme for research design. Self-elaboration Lobos 2007
Figure 3 Final Scheme for research design. Selfelaboration Lobos 2010.
For the first part exploratory, descriptive, correlational and data modeling research techniques have been used. Simulation & Evaluation strategies for the Space Layout Planning stage, including the creation of simulation models and experiments, have been also applied. It is a well-known fact that choosing methods and techniques for a research depends on the problem and our inquiries about it. The same single problem can be faced with two “antagonistic” strategies, and both ways will give valid results. Some other classical research categories based on dichotomies such as Longitudinal / Transversal studies, Practical / Theoretical research, Inductive / Deductive reasoning, etc. are also utilized in some parts of this research. 1.2.2 Research: Theory v/s Case Study Most of the content of this research focuses on theoretical and scientific aspects of the inquired problem (the relationship between building envelope and floorplan layout). Only 10% of the Dissertation’s contents are related to the case study (Chilean case). The remaining data concerning the case study is presented in the Appendix. 1.3 Research Ideas These ideas come from the analytical observation of the shape and sizes of the building as well as the Real Estate market, as seen from the perspective of a common citizen. Later, analytical observations of the architectural practice in offices have been made, specifically focusing on the task of designing high-rise residential buildings. These ideas refer to the possible relationship between building envelope and interior layout. It also proposes the possibility of synthesizing these relations into design rules that could be handled through a CAAD software program that generates a new parametric envelope and supports the creation of the floor plan layout. 1.4 Sources for the Generation of Ideas The ideas for this research come from: (1) Architectural Practice: observation of the projects’ design phases in architectural offices, (2) A wide as well as deep knowledge and experience with CAAD software programs and their possibilities and constraints, (3) Reading of scientific literature (books, congress papers, journals).
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1.5 Research Questions What is the relation between the client´s needs, the urban codes and the architectural practices? Does this relation have an influence on the final shape and size of the building envelope? Does the envelope of a building determine the interior layout? Is there any connection between the envelope´s design and the interior layout? 1.6 Innovation Both parts are investigated, but with different emphasis. The subject of this first part of the research (Urban Codes) has been previously studied in a less structured and formal way. For this reason, and although some written documents do exist, the knowledge of the topic has dispersed. The second part (Space Layout Planning) has been researched extensively and constantly since the 1950s. Our contribution is to integrate the exterior and interior variables that influence the design of a building.
Figure 4 The most common floor shape section in Providencia. From DAU 2007.
1.7 Research Limits 1.7.1 Profile of the Research Unit / Object of Study The object of study is a detached high-rise residential building with over nine stories, rectangular floor shape, and plots of less than 5000 m2, designed between 2005 and 2008 in the centre of the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. As seen in Figure 4, rectangular floor shape is the most common in this district3. 1.7.2 Location of the Study Object Although the observed phenomenon appears strongly in other disctricts of Santiago (Ñuñoa, Santiago and Recoleta)4, the case of Providencia is more stable because the phenomenon repeats under regular conditions (all of them were designed under the same conditions, as discussed in chapter 2.3.5 Variable: Client and the Space Program). For this reason, detached residential buildings in the centre of Providencia will be analyzed. Some other features in Providencia are: (1) there is a low rate of house construction. Most construction is high-rise residential buildings (5-8 stories, 9 and more stories)5, (2) good personal evaluation of the quality of life reached by this district and of the urban quality given by this type of detached buildings, thanks to their green areas and panoramic views of, and to, the city. Image 1 shows an example in Santiago de Chile, (3) this district also has an organized and accessible system of registration of Building Permissions that makes the right management and workflow of the information and data needed for making possible this research.
3 DAU, 2007 [Government Official Laws and Reports] 4 CChC, 2006. [Government Official Laws and Reports] 5 Ibid.
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1.7.3 Period It will be limited to the buildings designed between years 2005 and 2007. In 2005 the last great reforms to the Plan Regulador Comunal de Providencia (Zoning Planning of Providencia, translation by the author) were made; these reforms made possible the shape and size of the current buildings’ envelopes6. The plots with over 5000 m2 are regulated by different urban codes (Grupo Harmónico7), and they generate different type of buildings (not included in our research). It has been decided to consider the issue of designing houses of one or two stories as partially resolved (or researched enough), due to the large amount of successful research done in different years under the approach of CAAD systems. More discussion about this field will be made on the Space Layout Planning part.
Image 1 An example of the green areas obtained by using high-rise residential buildings in Santiago de Chile.
1.8 Potential of This Research 1. What is it Useful for? It is useful for the design of building envelopes and floor plan layouts for detached high-rise residential buildings. 2. Social Importance It allows architects to analyse the envelope and interior layout for their building more quickly and rationally. Citizens could know the potential of their plots, and the government could promote the participatory creation and discussion of planning regulations. In general terms, it optimizes the land use; reduces the efforts, and reduces the mistakes. Finally, it reduces the costs and the urbansocial impact of the building, consequently improving the quality of the city. 3. Methodological Unit This research will contribute to the creation of a new concept for the analysis and visualization of data and variables: BIM PARAMETRIC ENVELOPE. This defines the optimal relation between different variables in this stage of the planning process (client - urban codes – architect). It also provides the architect with appropriate information during this process. Thanks to this information, the developed solution will be “plausible, reasonable and understandable”8. Concepts from Rittel have also been considered, in that the planning process must be comprehensible, communicative and transparent9.
6 DAU, 2007 [Government Official Laws and Reports] 7 MINVU, 2007. [Government Official Laws and Reports] Translation of author 8 Donath, Lömker and Richter, 2002 [Congresses Proceeding’s Papers] 9 Rittel, 1972 [Books]
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4. Theoretical Value The results of the research can be generalized to the design of other buildings such as schools, offices, hospitals, and cultural buildings (cinemas, theatres, universities, etc.). Moreover, it will encourage good architectural practices through the rationalization of the criteria for the quality of design. 5. Target Audience The nature of the process and the results makes them useful for the following areas: Academic (Architecture and Urbanism), Professional (Architecture Offices and Urban Planning practitioners), Government (Building Office and Councils), and Research (Architectural Design, Urban Modeling, Constraint Based Design, Parametric Programming, Space Layout Planning). 6. Possible Negative Consequences It can result in an excessive rationalization of the architects’ formal response to the client’s orders (according to the ethics of each architect regarding the use of the tool). Management of excessive information in behalf of the clients about the potentials of their plot. The use of this new information may cause an excessive amount of opinions or interference from other specialists (contractors, engineers, urbanists, etc). 7. Feasibility of the Object of Study Most of the information concerning this type of building (Residential buildings) is in the public domain (folders for Building Permission containing plans, areas, facades, site views, fiscal prices of the plots, etc.). The other variables can be measured by scientific procedures from these files. 8. Feasibility of the researcher Danny Lobos is a gradueted and registered architect with experience in design and construction, and he has a wide experience and knowledge in the use and teaching of CAAD/BIM software programs, he also has easy access to existing literature and primary resources (books, journals, papers) in three languages (Spanish, English and German). He also has formal links with Chilean universities, Architectural Offices and Municipalities, which makes the gathering of information easier. 9. Feasibility of the study centre InfAR (Informatik in der Architektur) chair at the Bauhaus University Weimar. This chair has a wide experience in research and creation of scientific CAAD experimental prototypes in the area of Computer Science in Architecture. The study centre is also constantly participating in funded Research Projects and Scientific Congresses around the world. It is guided by Prof. Dr-Ing. Dirk Donath, a German architect and engineer. - Of the financial support: The researcher has a scholarship for four years, given by the main scientific agency of the Chilean government, CONICYT (Spanish acronyms for National Board for Scientific and Technological Research). 1.9 Theoretical Framework 1.9.1 Literature Review Following Eco10, who divides the sources into two categories, the following source categories have been used: “Primary”, when they come directly from the object of study, and “Secondary”, when they come from people who research the object of study. The existing literature to be reviewed for this research belongs to Primary resources such as: Bibliography (books, journals, congress papers, lecture notes as congress attendee, and articles in CAAD web sites, specialized in the following areas: Constraint Based Design, Parametric Programming, Urban Modeling, Optimization, and Architectural Design), Statistics (from Government, Districts and Specific Builders Associations, related to High10 Eco, 1973 [Books supervised by an editorial committee]
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Rise Residential Building areas), Official Documents / Laws (from the Building Permissions, Zoning Plans Guides, and Government Reports), Software knowledge (expert use of some existing prototype CAAD tools and commercial CAAD software), Interviews, and personal communications. 1.9.2 Adoption of a Theory and Development of a Theoretical Approach The first part of our research relates to a research subject that has not been widely researched, and therefore the revision of literature, until this stage, has revealed the following: “there are pieces and extracts of theory with moderate or limited empirical support”11. The second part (Space Layout Planning) has been widely researched and approaches that fit our specific problem have been used. Due to the characteristics of the observed phenomenon, and according to the reviewed literature, we will use the following approaches to handle this complex problem: Architectural Design Theory for the general frame of the problem. PLAUSIBILITY12 for the general formulation of the problem, CSP (Constraint Satisfaction Problem13) paradigm for building’s envelope creation, Parametric Modeling for three-dimensional visualization of building’s envelope, Simulation and Evaluation for interior layout, Top-Down and Bottom-Up to integrate exterior and interior design in a single strategy, and Graph Theory and Topology as a support for a new Space Layout Planning solution approach.
11 OpCit Hernandez et all, 1998 [Books supervised by an editorial committee] 12 OpCit Donath, Lömker and Richter, 2002 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 13 Donath and Gonzalez, 2006 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
25
26
2
Buildings´ Envelopes
27
Image 2. HUBACHER, S., Normalization - The welfare promise. From “Holcim Forum for Sustainable Construction”, Shanghai 2007. “…architects from every place have recognized the need of…a tool that can be put in the shape creator’s hands, with the single intention…of to make difficult the bad thing and easy the good thing” Le Corbusier (The Modulor, Prologue to 2nd edition, 1951)
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Introduction In Chile most of high-rise buildings built in the last years correspond to residential buildings (apartments/flats) with over nine stories14 (see Graph1). These buildings are concentrated (over 40%) in the Metropolitan Region of Chile15, the most inhabited region of the country16. The design and construction of new residential buildings show an increasing tendency towards high-rise construction17-18(see Graph2). Though, houses up to one or two stories are the most populated type of construction, this is not the focus of our research. Before the design of one of this type of buildings, Chilean architects must design a theoretical volume as a visual reference of the “default” Zoning Planning and Building Code applied to the plot. After this they are allow to design a different volume that fulfills the more “specific” Building Codes, and also satisfies their own practice’s and the clients’ needs. Finding the optimum volume in a reasonable time is a complex task. The phenomenon observed here is the “variety of possible shapes and sizes for the building envelopes versus one theoretical volume in a plot”. Several variables have been detected, such as the client´s needs (space program); the zoning regulations (urban codes) and the architectural design (best architectural practices). The first part of this research focuses on why do these different volumes exist, how are they, and waht is the shape and size of these new volumes. We will also identify and describe the variables of the process in order to establish a hypothesis about the relationship between them, and we will synthesize them in a prototype software program (a digital tool) that will support the creation of new optimal building envelopes in BUILDING a plot using these relations. PERMISSIONS PER SECTORS IN CHILE (2000-2007) TOTAL BUILT AREA PER SECTORS IN CHILE (2004)
500000 e
ies
9o rm or
ies
tor 8S
tor 7S
6S
tor
ies
ies
ies
tor
tor 4S
5S
3s tor ies
y 1s tor
2s tor ies
0
Number of Stories (St.) Housing
Industry, Commerce
Housing Services
Graph 1. Total Built Area per Sectors in Chile (2004). Self elaboration from INE, 2005.
Industry, Commerce
2007
1000000
2006
1500000
2005
2000000
2004
2500000
2003
3000000
2002
3500000
1.000.000 900.000 800.000 700.000 600.000 500.000 400.000 300.000 200.000 100.000 0 2001
Square meters (m2)
4000000
2000
Square meters (m2)
4500000
Services
Graph 2. Building Permissions per Sectors in Chile (2000-2007). Self elaboration from INE, 2005.
The case to be analyzed is the “detached high-rise residential building with over nine stories, rectangular floor shape, and a plot of less than 5000 m², located in the centre of the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile and designed between 2005 and 2008”. The analysis will be carried out through four stages: 1. Exploratory Stage This stage describes and poses the research problem, the first observations about the phenomenon and its variables, how it has been resolved in other countries and how it is actually resolved in the Chilean context. 2. Descriptive Stage Once variables of the problem are announced, a detailed description of all of them will be made, with their corresponding classification and hierarchical structuring (taxonomies and order), case analysis will be described.
14 INE, 2005 [Government Official Laws and Reports] 15 Opcit INE, 2005 16 MIDEPLAN, 2003 [Government Official Laws and Reports] 17 Opcit INE, 2005 18 Opcit CChC, 2006
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3. Correlational Stage Once the data are obtained, several hypotheses will be made, which will attempt to explain the possible relation between these variables and their values, which will, in turn, be translated into design rules. 4. Prototype Stage Once the relationship between the variables is determined, a survey of international scientific researches, approaches and solutions will be presented. The development of digital prototypes will be described. 2.1 Research’s Objectives Next, the objectives for the first part of this research (Urban Codes) will be described. They are related to the application of the Zoning Planning and the generation of buildings’ envelopes. Main Objectives - To determine and to quantify the factors that have an influence on the shape and size of the final building envelope of a detached high-rise residential building with over nine stories, rectangular floor shape, and with plots of less than 5000 m², located in the centre of the disctrict of Providencia in Santiago de Chile, and designed between 2005 and 2008. - To establish the possible relationship between the clients’ needs, the urban code and the architectural practices, and how they influence the early stages of the design of such buildings. - To synthesize the relationships mentioned above in a concept for a new digital tool able to support the creation of a new optimized and parametric building envelope on a given plot. Specific Objectives - To explore the phenomenon of the theoretical volume versus the problem of the design of the final building envelope for detached high-rise buildings with over nine stories, a rectangular floor shape, and a plot of less than 5000 m², located in the centre of the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile, and designed between 2005 and 2008. - To describe the variables and factors (the client, the Urban Code, the Architectural Practice) that explain the difference between the shape and size of the first theoretical volume and the final building envelope. - To establish relationships between these variables: Hypotheses and Theories. - To develop a scientific prototype software program that synthesizes these variables and their relationships and is able to create new theoretical volumes. 2.2 Exploratory Stage 2.2.1 The Problem of the Design of a Theoretical Volume. The creation (design and construction) of a residential building has been studied in different fields and approaches: architectural, social, economic, historical, structural, environmental, building techniques, etc. The current research contributes with a new approach because it analyses the building from a normative19 point of view, but also because it includes the variables of the client and the architect to find out the relationship between the client (Architectural Order), the building regulations’ law (Zoning Planning) and the architect (Architectural Practice). These are things which, according to our hypothesis, have an influence on the final shape and size of the building envelope.
19 Lobos, 2006 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
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In the urban practice of the last two centuries, we can identify two mains trends: those who favor the regulatory laws known as Normative Urbanism20, and those who favor the public interventions known as Constructive Urbanism21. Each country proposes a balance between them according to its development plans, and each country has a law that rules the use of the urban land (Germany: LandesBauordnung; US-Canada: International Building Code; Chile: Ley y Ordenanza General de Urbanismo y Construcciones; Argentina: Código de Planeamiento Urbano, etc.). Other names given to this official set of requirements are Land Development Code, Urban Regulations, Urban Codes, Building Regulations and Zoning Planning Tools. All of them must answer the following questions: Which uses are allowed in the city? Where will the different uses/functions of the city be? How many square meters are allowed to build in a plot…? In addition, they should give some degree of freedom in terms of HOW to build (the shape of the buildings). Once the use and location are decided, the client and architect must obey the urban regulations, which are norms that will affect the investment22 and the possible shapes of the building23.
Image 3: Theoretical Volume for a Building in Santiago de Chile. Self Elaboration from www.SkyscraperCity.com (visit: 01.jul.2007)
Building Massing Studies and Site Planning This process of the early and schematic definition of the shape and size of the building is included in the Urban Regulations of the different countries, which are known as “maximum building wrap” or “theoretical volume” as a part of the Building Massing studies and Site Planning stage. This is a 3-dimensional volume, similar to a parallelepiped (polyhedron with six faces), with additions or subtractions according to the application of different urban codes. In Image 3 the yellow lines show the plot, while the red lines draw the theoretical volume of it. This exercise has to be done as part of the folder for the Government Building Permission. In the chapter 2.3.6 all of the variables from the Urban Code and how they affect the shape and size will be described. 20 Grazziotin et all, 2004 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 21 Opcit DAU, 2007 22 Pogodzinski and Sass, 1991 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] 23 Op. Cit. MINVU, 2007
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2.2.2 Urban Code: History and Nowadays The origin of the use of theoretical volumes is completely linked to the existence of the Urban Planning, particularly of the Urban Regulations. Since examples such as the Athens Charter (1933), and the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, 1958), many other buildings were designed under these new concepts.
Image 4. Equitable Building and the Bank of Tokyo as viewed from Pine Street. From http://www.nyu.edu/classes/finear ts/nyc/wall/equitable_detail1.html (visited 01.07.2007)
Image 5 Architectural delineator Hugh Ferriss, perspectives demonstrating the architectural consequences of the zoning law in 1922. From the Columbia University Libraries Online Catalog (visit 28.07.2010)
The New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution was adopted primarily to prevent construction of massive buildings such as the Equitable Building (Manhattan) that prevents light and air from reaching the streets below. Image 4 illustrates the poor quality of the urban environment caused by tall buildings that rise without setbacks on very narrow streets. The new norm established limits on building massing at certain heights, usually interpreted as a series of setbacks and, while not imposing height limits, restricted towers to a percentage of the lot size. The 1961 Zoning Resolution coordinated use and bulk regulations, it incorporated parking requirements and emphasized the creation of open space. It introduced incentive zoning by adding a bonus of extra floor space encouraging developers of office buildings and apartment towers to incorporate public squares into their projects. In addition, DAU 2007 describes: “…Ever since, at the beginnings of the Industrial City (in the middle of century XIX), the tuberculosis epidemics were detected in Europe and they were associated with the overcrowding and the unhealthiness of urban the houses (studies of Ildefonso Cerda about the recurrence of these pathologies in the districts with high density in Barcelona). The architects and city planners began to revalue (because it was already written down in classic treaties of architecture, as the one of Vitruvius) the presence of the sun and ventilation in the buildings and districts” (Translation by the author).
In all of Europe, after World War I (1914-1918), the works of the architects of the Modern Movement began to establish parameters of orientation and spacing between the buildings to assure them the sun24. According to Walter Gropius, vertical cities built after modernist principles need new regulatory tools based on obstruction angles25. “…in the same way as Le Corbusier, Gropius saw in the high construction the possibility of reducing the congestion of the
24 Droste and Bauhaus Archiv, 2006 [Books] 25 Opcit Grazziotin et all, 2004, pp 54
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building density, of improving the hygienic conditions and of low-cost building.”26 (Translation by the author). In Chile, a spacing between buildings was established that guarantees at least two hours of minimum sun to the complete building in the winter solstice. Nevertheless, this requirement is suppressed over there in the 1960s, under the argument that the modern techniques of heating and air conditioning would make unnecessary their application. The Energy Crisis in the 1970s caused a revision of this tendency, valuing again the renewable energies and their passive applications, in special the one of the sunning. Finally, the regulation that forces the buildings to adopt spacing to the zero-lot-line of its site is created, based on the height of the own building: Sky Exposure Plane (a sloped cutting plane). This norm was calculated between buildings both faced, keeping the distance necessary to let pass the solar ray in the solstice of winter. In Germany we find the same norm but related to fire risk prevention; there is a distance between buildings, in case they fall down as a consequence of burns, so then they do not compromise the other buildings around.
Figure 5 Equitable Building NY: zoning and excess bulk limit. From http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/ima ge3.html
Figure 6. Some buildings using setbacks. From the New York’s Tallest Buildings.
Image 6 Walter Gropius design for the Chicago Tribune Tower competition in 1922. From Lupfer and Sigel, 2006.
Hugh Ferriss and the first mass studies In 1916, New York City had passed the landmark zoning laws that regulated and limited the mass of buildings according to a formula. The reason was to counteract the tendency for buildings to occupy their entire lot and go straight up as far as possible. Since many architects were not sure exactly what these laws meant for their designs, in 1922 architectural delineator Hugh Ferriss was committed to draw a series of four step-by-step perspectives demonstrating the architectural consequences of the zoning law. Then he popularized these new regulations in 1922 through a series of mass study drawings, clearly depicting the possible forms of buildings and how their volumes could be maximized, as seen in Image 5. 2.2.3 The Theoretical Volume in the World In order to learn about the theoretical volume in the international context, we will consider three cases, and we will give a brief description of the most used norms. Argentina is located next to Chile and helps us to compare two closer countries, Germany because the thesis will be developed there, and United States since the first known urban regulation was created there. 1. United States Historically speaking, it is the most famous urban regulation case. It was adopted to prevent excessive bulk (see Figure 5). The shapes of famous architects´ buildings appeared as a result of the application of the codes. Famous is the case of New York City, where the first American Zoning Law27 was written in 1916, it was called “New York City 1916 Zoning Resolution”. Many buildings were 26 Lupfer and Sigel, 2006 [Books supervised by an editorial committee] 27 Dolkart, 2003 [Academic Resources in Universities]
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designed under these new concepts (see Figure 6). A new version was released in 1961. The main variables to consider as a part of these Urban Codes are Setbacks, Coverage area, Open Area, Built Area, Floor to plot Area, Built to plot Area, etc. 2. Germany The Germany norm considers several aspects for evaluating the theoretical volume of a project. As with many countries, each district has its own Local Ordinance, but there is a General Urban Code for the entire country. The main variables to consider in this norm are Mindestabstände (Minimum distances), Regeln für verschiedene Dachformen (Rules for different roof forms), Grundflächenzahl (GRZ) (Surface area index), Geschossflächenzahl (GFZ) (Floor space index), Baulinien (Building lines), Baugrenzen und öffentliche Flächen (Building borders and public surfaces), Brandschutzbestimmungen (Fire protection regulations). Figure 7 shows some values for the German Zoning Planning tools applied to a single plot.
Figure 7 Bauliche Nutzung. From ISL Lehrmodul in Uni-Karlsruhe (dec2007)
Image 7. Edificio Kavanagh, Buenos Aires – Argentina (1936)28
Image 8. Edificio Alas, Buenos Aires – Argentina.
Germany
Chile
Argentina
Buildable coefficient (Built to plot Area, built area or Plot Area Ratio-PAR) Site coverage coefficient (Coverage area) Setback requirements Sky exposure plane Maximum Building height Story height Parking Shadows Number of Underground Levels Floor to Floor Distance Underground Max Depth Underground setbacks Symbols: √ used X not used O optional/on each case
USA
ZONING PLANING TOOLS IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES
√
√
√
√
√ √ √ √ x x x x x x O
√ √ x √ √ √ O x x x x
√ √ √ √ √ √ O x x x √
√ √ √ √ √ O O O O x √
Table 1 Zoning Planning Tools in Several Countries. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
3. Argentina Similar to the Chilean context, the land is strongly regulated by the Zoning Planning Tool, called Código de Planeamiento Urbano. The main variables to consider are Coeficiente de constructibilidad o aprovechamiento (Built to plot Area), Coeficiente de ocupación de suelo (Coverage Area), Distanciamientos (Setbacks), and Rasante (Sky Exposure Plane). All translations by the author. The Kavanagh Building (See Image 7 and Image 8), in Buenos Aires (1936), is the most well-known case about urban codes application in Argentina. It has a height of 120 m and 29 stories, and it was designed by architects Sanchez, Lagos and De la Torre. The area of the plot is 2400 m2 and the built area is 28000 m2. 28 From www.rascacielosbuenosaires.com.ar (visited: 01.jul.2007)
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Summary of Zoning Planning tools in the world There are some common rules such as PAR, Site coverage coefficient, Sky exposure plane that are mandatory in all these countries. Nevertheless there some other very specific rules such as underground setbacks, that apply only to half of them. Conclusion In this early stage of the design process, the final building function as well as shape and size are finished. This shape should fulfill all the client´s requirements, the normative aspects and the architectural practices. Later changes must affect only the 20% of the proposed built area. However, there are at least eighteen codes that influence the shape and size of building envelopes; they will be explained in detail further. Each norm has a different range in its measurement scale, that is, different values from which the user can choose. Overshadowing calculations allow architects to go beyond the theoretical volume, designing higher buildings. This new norm was promoted to avoid “uglily shaped” buildings whose shape was a direct consequence of the application of the values of the theoretical volume. This type of building, called lustrin (Chilean word, it refers to a Shoe Cleaning Box shape) was very common in the 80s in Chile (see Image 9, Image 10 and Image 11).
Image 9 An example of edificio lustrin. From www.skyscrapercity.com (visit 24.07.2010)
Image 10 Edificio Lustrin in Santiago de Chile.
Image 11 Edificio Lustrin in Santiago de Chile.
The single application of the urban codes could generate several shapes. Imagine what happens when we process the client´s needs and the architectural practices as well: this design task becomes more complex and can generate millions of solutions29. Our challenge is to reduce this infinite range of possibilities to one choice: the optimum30, understood as the best possible result that simultaneously satisfies the norm, the client, and the architect. For this, we propose an iterative process as it will be described in chapter 2.5.4 Parametric Model in Autodesk Revit.
29 Loemker, 2006 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 30 It is important to be clear at this point: this thesis does not deal with optimization (like in the Engineering point of view) since it this meaning and practice is seldom referred in Architectural Design.
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2.3 Descriptive Stage 2.3.1 The Early Stages of the Architectural Design Process Loemker states, “It is the nature of architectural design that it does not follow predetermined existing methodologies”31. In his paper he quotes a survey of 25 architects (Lorenz, 2004), where such author founded 25 methodologies. Loemker also quotes Schill-Fendl (2004) and her compilation of 130 different planning methods. There are some other individual methods described in books from time to time. Some examples of this are Vitruvius´s, and Le Corbusier´s, etc. Since there are many design methods, each architect, after graduating at the university, can create his own design methodology, which will be valid because at the end, the result is the same for all: a design. In a very pragmatic way, if the building design is accepted by the client and it is built, then the method is successful, valid and applicable for future buildings. This research is focused on the early stages of the architectural design process. In this stage the creation and analysis of the Theoretical Volume and the final building envelope take place. The decisions made in this stage are irreversible and they have the greatest impact in the future performance of the building in all aspects, and therefore it is the most important stage. 1. What it means to be an Architect First, the architect meets with a client who desires to construct a commercial project. The client tells the architect what he wants to construct. If the property is not properly zoned for the intended use, then the architect may assist the client in submitting a request for zoning change. This may include sketches and drawings of the proposed project. This is then submitted to the city or county (in some municipalities, Zoning Board and County Commissioners). If the zoning change is approved, then the architect may start with the design of the project. Usually, it includes preliminary site plans, floor plans, elevations and renderings. Part of this preliminary phase of work, is the verification of parking requirement, building setbacks from property lines and right of ways, building height limitations, floor area ratios, fire separations, number of required exits, handicap requirements, travel distances, preliminary specifications, etc. The preliminaries are reviewed by the client, and the Building Department. Once the preliminaries are approved, the architect will start working in the Construction Documents (Working Drawings) and the Specifications. Usually the architect contracts with the client to provide all the required services for the complete project. The architect then contracts with the Engineers to provide the required engineering services. Therefore, the architect, as the team leader, will schedule the time frame and work to be performed with each engineer. When the architect has completed sufficient drawings on the Floor Plans, Elevations and Sections, copies are sent to the Engineers, who develop different aspects. The Structural Engineer (for Structural Plans, sizing the beams, columns and footing, or any other structural components which need design), the Mechanical Engineer (for Plumbing and A/C Plans), the Sanitary Engineer, the Electrical Engineer (for Electrical Plans), the Civil Engineer (for Surface Water Management System) and the Landscape Architect (for Landscaping Plan). This is the ideal scenario and usually applies to large projects. The architect coordinates all of the engineering plans with the plans he/she has prepared. In this case, the architect is in charge of the project, and he/she acts as client's representative. The presented scenario is not the unique method of contracting. The client may contract with the architect and with each engineer separately, or another combination of arrangements can also be possible. For small projects, the architect or engineer may perform, in certain countries, all of the services outlined above. However, this is not our case.
31 Op. cit Loemker, 2006.
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2. The meaning of “early stages”… We will analyze some approaches to the definitions and tasks of these “early stages”. Following the IBC (International Building Code), Patten32 states that all of the services provided by an Architecture/Engineering office can be divided into five stages, as shown in Table 25. Nevertheless later, describing the tasks, the author re-groups the process in eight phases giving to each one a “Schedule of A/E services” to be followed by the architect, the client and a consultant. For each phase, he lists the tasks (see table in Appendix 9.1.1 Services provided by an Architecture/Engineering Office). SERVICES PROVIDED BY AN ARCHITECT / ENGINEERING OFFICE 1. Schematic design phase 15 % 2. Design Development 20 % 3. Construction Documents 40 % 4. BID/Negotiation 5% 5. Construction Administration 20 % TOTAL SERVICES 100 % Table 2 Services provided by an Architect/Engineering office. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007 from Patten, 2003.
The next author, Roger K. Lewis33, is quoted by Lyon, and represents a more complete schedule with the definition of the people involved in the whole process, the tasks, and their sequential order (see table in Appendix 9.1.2 The Building Construction Process). Lyon also states that “a look at the work organization from ten to twenty years ago, and a comparison with how current information technologies influence the situation of architecture firms, lead us to establish some of the consequences of technology implementation: 1) Increase in productivity associated to a decrease in costs. 2)Redistribution and decrease of the time dedicated to specific repetitive tasks. 3) An increase in the amount of available information for each project. 4)The necessity of a systematic approach to organize the different tasks. 5) Horizontal integration tendency. 6) A tendency towards a project development based on existing and new potentiality of applications”. Then, based in AIA documents, he describes the process34 as shown in Appendix 9.1.3 The Architectural Project Process.
Figure 8 Diagram for Schematic Design Phase. Self Elaboration © Lobos 2007.
Conclusions The complete design process is very complex; architects must handle the design concepts from the early stages until the use of the building. For us, the early stage will be called Schematic Design Phase and it will be the result of the analysis of the client´s needs, the Urban Codes, and the architectural practices
32 Patten, 2003 [Books supervised by an editorial committee] 33 Lewis, 1998 [Books supervised by an editorial committee] 34 Lyon, 2002 [PhD and MSc Thesis]
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in early stages (See Figure 8). The first part of this research will focus on the application of Zoning Planning tools to a single plot. 2.3.2 Case Study The Chilean case is presented here. In this case, information for creating the theoretical volume comes from two sources: Urban Planning Tools and Site Information Report. Although this case is very specific, we aim to demonstrate that the problem and variables are real. We attempt to present this case in an international context and to facilitate its translation and application in other countries. 1. Urban Planning Tools In traditional Urban Planning, tools have been divided into two groups, one related to Land Use (Zoning Planning Tools) and the other related to Building Construction (Building Code). A general scheme for the different level of impact of the zoning tools is presented in Table 3. These are the official sources to find which variables will be applied to a plot. Most of these norms are very large books and reports, yet they are the most used and legal sources of information. Summarizing, all of them define the variables included in the building envelope design. The most important one for our case is the Site Information Report. ZONING TOOLS IN CHILE Short-Cut
Name of the ZONNING TOOL
LGUC
Ley General de Urbanismo y Construcciones (General Law of Urbanism and Buildings) Plan Regional de Desarrollo Urbano A complete (Regional Plan of Urban Development) region/state Plan Regulador Intercomunal/Metropolitano Several disctricts (Inter-district or Metropolitan Zoning Plan) inside a region Plan Regulador Comunal y su Ordenanza One disctrict inside Local (Communal Zoning Plan and its Local a region. Ordinance) Site Information Report (an individual summary for a single plot of the Building Code and Local Ordinance) Table 3. Zoning Tools in Chile. Self elaboration from LGUC35
PRDU PRI/M PRC
Informaciones Previas
Level of application All of the country
Pages 400500pp 300400pp 100200pp 50150pp 1-5pp
2. Site Information Report The architect must ask for the Informaciones Previas (Site Information Report, translation by the author) and find out the specific codes required for a plot in a district; if a variable is not mentioned (i.e. setback, parking, etc.), it is assumed its default value from the LGUC (acronyms for the Chilean Building Code). In the Appendix, a detailed picture and its values for each code can be observed (9.2). In order to get to know the specific urban codes that rule a specific plot, architects must actually ask for the Site Information Report for each plot36, this is a brief and precise report (one to five pages long), prepared by each local government (district), that shows all the constraints for building in an individual plot. 2.3.3 The Theoretical Volume Generation In the Chilean case, the “maximum envelope of a building” is defined by the Ordenanza General de la Ley General de Urbanismo y Construcciones as follows: “Theoretical Volume: volume or maximum envelope, showed in cubic meters, and resulting from the application of norms, if they exist, about Sky Exposure Plane, setbacks, maximum heights, in a specific plot”.37
By using the information from the “Site Information Report”, architects must model the “Theoretical Volume”, in order to have a visual reference, and to analyze what the possible maximum to be built and what its shadows are (See Image 12). Then architects can model other possible scenarios (different shape 35 Opcit 13 MINVU, 2007. pp 121. 36 Opcit 13 MINVU, 2007, pp 295. 37 Opcit 13 MINVU, 2007, pp 9. Translation of the author.
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and sizes) allowed by the Local Ordinance38 (see Image 13). In a plot, there always exist several options for the shape and size of a building, and the theoretical volume is only a reference but not a constraint. This phenomenon was our first inspiration and starting point for researching. Techniques to create the new envelope will be explained in more detail in chapter 2.3.6.Variable: The Urban Code.
Image 12. A Theoretical Volume for a detached high-rise residential building with fifteen stories in the center of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. Source: Architecture Office Badia & Soffia Arquitectos, 2004.
Image 13 Architects can model other possible scenarios (different shape and sizes) allowed by the Local Ordinance. Source: Architecture Office Badia & Soffia Arquitectos, 2004.
By using rules about overshadowing on neighbouring sites, architects can propose another volume, higher than the theoretical one. They need to demonstrate that the shadow area of the new volume is not “too much” more than the shadow of the theoretical volume. This is shown in Image 12 and Image 13. Now, we know that this theoretical volume is not mandatory. It allows architects to propose other options and to begin the paperwork for the Government Building Permission in early stages of the design (without finishing all the building drawings and details) in a process called Anteproyecto (Blue-print Project, translation by the author). In the district of Providencia, it is mandatory to use a blue-print project before applying for a full Government Building Permission39. This blue-print project shows the “bulk/mass study” and contains40: 1) The theoretical volume (schematic elevations and floor plans, shadows, areas). 2) The architect´s proposal (schematic elevations and floor plans, shadows, areas). 3) Comparison of shadows between original Theoretical Volume and the new proposal. 4) Area Schedules. 5) Paperwork (Previous Information, Forms, costs, other reports). A complete example with detailed drawings for full Government Building Permission is shown in Appendix (9.6 Edificio Cumbres de Providencia). 2.3.4 Analysis of Cases and Extraction of Data Next, we present the source for our case study and the study object located in the city of Santiago in Chile (see Image 14). The district of Providencia is one of the 32 districts of the city of Santiago de Chile. It is located in the north-center part of the city (see Image 16) and next to the following districts: Las Condes, Ñuñoa, Santiago; all of them with the highest rates of price per plot. Features are (DAC, 2007): Residential areas and Urban Center: main investments are Housing 65% and Offices 25%. Flat surface. Rivers: Rio Mapocho, Canal San Carlos. Hills: Cerro San Cristobal. Mediterranean weather (7°-21°). Big tree-lined avenues. Farm origin (years 18001900). Wide avenues, parks and squares. Metropolitan Subway. Inhabitants: 120.000
38 Opcit 13 MINVU, 2007, Art. 2.6.11, pp 175 39 Opcit 5 DAU, 2007 40 Opcit 13 MINVU, 2007, Art. 5.1.5, pp 294
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Image 14 The type of building to be analyzed. Self-elaboration from several sources Lobos © 2007.
The group is a non-random sample; each case has been selected and analyzed under the parameters described in previous chapters: High-rise residential building in the center of the district of Providencia.Plot of less than 2500 m². Detached and with over nine stories. Rectangular floor plan shape. Designed between 2005 and 2007.
Image 15 Chile and Santiago de Chile. Self elaboration from www.wpclipart.com (visit: 04.09.2007
Image 17 Real Estate Projects for High-Rise Residential Buildings in the Commune of Providencia. From http://www.portalinmobiliario.com (visited: 01.ago.2007)
Image 16 City of Santiago de Chile and Providencia. From Google Earth (visit: 01.08.2007)
Image 18. The area where the cases of study are located (green streets). Self-elaboration from www.planos.cl (visit: 01.09.07)
The survey In Appendix (9.1.4 Current Real Estate Companies financing high-rise residential building) are listed the current 36 high-rise residential buildings in construction phase in the district of Providencia up to August 2007. They are sorted by Architectural Offices, the red ones belonging to a special area of analysis (the centre of the district of Providencia). In this area, the phenomenon is most stable. In this specific group of streets (see Image 18) it can be assured that the buildings have being designed under the same conditions and rules (without variations in Local Ordinance and the same period of time: 2005-2007). Image 17 40
shows the distribution of these buildings within the territory. Finally, Table 4 shows a summary of the features of this selected group of buildings that belongs to the profile and location.
FEATURES OF HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN PROVIDENCIA
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Building’s Name (Ed. = Edificio, building) Ed. Ámbar Ed. Ego Ed. Lyon & Once Ed. Pop Ed. Amatista Ed. Jazz Living Urbano Silvina Plaza Ed. Cumbres Ed. Campanario Ed. Biarritz Ed. Román Díaz 300 Ed. Bilbao 800 Ed. Doña Matilde Ed. Infante 7 Las Palmas de Suecia Bellet Loft Ed. Amazonía Ed. Jardín Oriente Ed. La Concepción Ed. Plaza Las Violetas Ed. 1810 Ed. Adagio Ed. Federico Froebel Ed. Boulevard Lyon Ed. Chagall Ed. Classic Plaza Sucre Ed. Darío Urzúa Ed. Darío Urzúa 1990 Ed. Europa 2121 Ed. Huáscar 1400 Ed. Manuel Montt Ed. Miguel Claro 1457 Ed. Neo Froebel Ed. Parque Las Violetas Ed. Plaza Matilde
Stories
12 11 18 16 11 15 17 13 15 14 10 15 12 13 14 18 12 11 14 19 15 12 18 13 19 14 10 15 11 11 12 13 11 12 11 14
Rectangular shape of site √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ ? √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ ?
Rectangular shape floorplan section √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ x √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Balconies out from boundaries x x x x x √ x x √ x x √ √ √ x x √ x x x √ √ √ √ √ √ x x x √ ? ? √ x x √
Table 4 Features of high-rise residential building in Providencia. Self elaboration from Urb@2006 41, MAPSA 2005 42, El Mercurio 2006 43, Site www.Portal Inmobiliario.cl and records of the Building Office of the Commune of Providencia
Conclusions Several and strong efforts have been made to demonstrate that this type of building exists and that it is special. We, as researchers must be impartial and objective; that is why our opinion about this type of building (if we think they are good or bad, or necessary for the city) is not important. This thesis is not about styles in architecture or modern beauty. This research is focusing on how these buildings are designed and conceived. One can see that this type of building is very common, even when we have selected only a small sample from a very specific part of the city, designed in a very specific period of time. They are similar in height and shape. Most of them have a rectangular shape section for the floors, and they are placed in rectangular sites. Most of the differences lie in the volume division (sometimes the volume is divided and displaced some meters to avoid flat surfaces on sides), façade design (balconies and windows length), colors and corner solution (rounded or right-angled). 41 Publimetro, 2006 [Magazines/Reviews] 42 Inmobiliaria MAPSA S.A., 2006 [Magazines/Reviews] 43 El Mercurio, 2007 [Websites / Newspapers]
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2.3.5
Variable: Client and the Space Program
The Architectural Order and the architect Heidegger defines Architecture as “the way of inhabiting the land that man has.” Human beings are different nevertheless, so their ways of inhabiting are also different. In our case, future users have some minimum common features: they want/accept/like living in community, living in a high-rise residential building, living without their own garden (or piece of land), living in typological apartments, etc. However, it is curious since they will be the final users (the ones who will live there several years) but they are not the ones who make the order of a building design to an architecture office. 1. Profitability v/s Urban Codes Normally, high-rise residential buildings are financed by real estate companies or banks (as seen in 9.1.4 Current Real Estate Companies financing high-rise residential building from Appendix). These private institutions, motivated by the gain and the profitability, decide to build a building and to sell it44. Generally, they have one or several site(s) already bought, or they have ready paperwork to buy one. The Government supports the construction of Social Housing up to four stories. It is a trend to suppose that they would like to use the maximum allowed in each site. Nevertheless, recent studies have demonstrated that a “greater height does not imply more square meters built and more profitability”45. The maximum Plot Area Ratio (PAR) possible value is reached between 8-10-11 stories (depending on the typology). When the building height grows over 8-10-11 stories, then the PAR decreases (see Image 19). The purple peak points represent the maximum PAR value reached for every type of building. Wurman (2006) also gives some graphic analysis of this phenomenon (see Image 20).
Image 20 Representation of possible scenarios for a site, with different heights. From Wurman,2006. Image 19 Comparison between Plot Area Ratio coefficient and heights. From DAU 2007.
2. The Architect Once the investment is decided, there must be a “designer architect” and an “independent reviewer” that support and sponsor the project, as stated by the law to get the Building Permission46. As a general rule there is no open competition for the design of high-rise residential buildings, maybe because they are private investments instead of being related to public projects and open competitions. It is made a direct order, that is, real estate companies call a wellknown, famous or recommended architect office, and then they put them in charge of the design, paperwork and supervision of the building until the end of process. From the artistic point of view, this charge will not be a big challenge, but technical aspects and efficiency are important. It depends on the clients, whether they accept experiments or not. Most offices fulfill a kind of existing formula for the design: “this is a conceptual mechanism defined by consumers of 44 Opcit 5 DAU, 2007, pp 91. 45 Opcit 5 DAU, 2007, pp 75 46 Opcit MINVU, 2007. Art. 5.1.6, pp. 295.
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the product, and it defines shapes, sizes, place, materials and colors. Analyzing plot prices and market offer determine exactly the sqm for each flat and the rest of products to be offered (swimming pool, barbeque, etc.) two years later, when the building is ready to be sold” 47. 3. The Space Program (SP) This program is a transcription or a translation of the client´s needs into an architectural programmatic language; this refers to words and numbers that can be interpreted by the architect into rooms, sizes and relationships. This listing of rooms is known under several names: Project Program, Project Summary, Architectural Order, etc. However, the term space program (SP) will be adopted because it refers to the use and size of these spatial requirements. Here the spaces (names) and their sizes (areas) must be named and listed. In this moment, the architectural design phenomenon begins: to add functionality and orientation means to establish a specific adjacency relationship and location of the room with respect to the sun path and season, and it even means to establish spiritual meanings for the users. This will be analyzed in detail in Space Layout Planning chapter. To support this spatial task, many applications and tools have been developed under the category of Functional Planning, Plant Design, or Floor Layout Planning. They generate floor layout plan designs (Hsu 2000, Li-FrazerThang 2000, Krawzyck 2004, Loemker 2006) starting from certain sizes and relationships. Nevertheless, our goal in this Space Program stage is to get the total area needed for the project. This total area is obtained adding all of the rooms’ areas identified in the Space Program schedule, which is shown next as a self-elaborated exhaustive description of the rooms and spaces applicable to our case of high-rise residential buildings. Table 30 in the Appendix shows all the variables of the space program for a detached high-rise residential building in the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. Elaboration from Building Permission files and public drawings in the district of Providencia. It describes the completely functional features of high-rise residential building such as plot size, types of flats, parking, building services, green surfaces, undergrounds, etc. in detail. The use of a Digital Database is proposed. This will be represented by Dynamic Shared Table (developed in Microsoft Excel) to store, edit and exchange the required data from the building quickly. Another extra survey for flats, storerooms, and parking lots in high-rise detached residential buildings in the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile is included (see in the Appendix). Here we see the number and distribution of the various types of flats (flat with 2 rooms, flat with 3 rooms, studio flat, etc.) according to the level (level1, level2, etc.) of each building. These two surveys help us to determine the objects and some relationships to be handled in the Space Layout Planning stage. Conclusions Data provided in the stage of SP will be used in the SLP (Space Layout Planning) stage to feed the digital tools with feasible information about rooms, areas, quantity and sizes to be distributed in a level of the building. The information generated is vast (hundreds of objects and relationships) and must be handled by architects from the beginning of the project. Space Program elaboration is useful to understand the internal structure of the building. All the information showed there must appear later in the design. Real information so as to be closer to practice is provided in this research. In the following chapter about Space Layout Planning it will be observed, that researchers on this field tend to imagine and create a fictitious type of Space Program, and then they use it in the digital applications. 2.3.6 Variable: The Urban Code Next, we present a set of universal rules commonly utilized in Urban Codes and Zoning Planning. Details about our case study (the Chilean case) are presented in 47 Assadi, 2008 pp 50 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] Translation of the author.
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the Appendix. In order to understand the complex nature of the phenomenon observed (the shape and size of the building envelope and its variations); we have to keep in mind that there are: fixed regulations (no values), dynamic regulations (different values to choose from), text codes, and number codes. Consequently, the resulting shapes can be different as some codes are used or not, and they depend also on the value used in each of these applied codes. We will explain in detail the nature, possible values and application of each code. As discussed in chapter 2.3.2 Case Study, the norms to be applied in a site must be obtained from three sources: Previous Information Report, Local Ordinance and Building Code. The drawings and full sets of planning regulations to be considered during this Schematic Design Phase of a high-rise detached residential building, and presented with details in a research for the very first time, are shown below. 2.3.6.1
Rules and Variables From “Site Information Report” And “Local Ordinance”
1. Use Health, Residential, Culture, Industry, Education, Offices, Commerce, Military, and Government. 2. Grouping Mode They refer to the modality in which the buildings will be placed with respect to the existing buildings of the adjacent sites. Four modalities are possible: a) Detached Building: the building is completely detached from the neighborhood. b) Continuous Building: both sides of the building are attached to the right and left building. This type considers: Maximum length of Continuity (measured from the zero-lot line to the interior of the plot) and Maximum Height of Continuity. c) Semi-detached Building: one side is attached to the next building. d) Mixed Building: here we find two options: continuous and detached (tower-plate, semidetached) and continuous (with a percentage of the “parallel deep plane” distance).
Image 21: Detached Building. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Image 22 Continuous Building. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Image 23: Semidetached. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2007.
Image 24: Mixed Building. The towerplate case. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2007.
3. Buildable coefficient (built area) It is a non-negative real value, that multiplied by the total area of the plot determines the maximum gross floor area (square meters) allowed for the abovementioned plot (value from 1 to 10, increasing in ten decimal range: 1.1 – 1.2 etc), regardless of its shape. In the example below (see Image 25): a site = 10.000m²surface, Buildable Coefficient = 2.0; then after calculation (multiplication of values) the Total Possible Area allowed to build = 20.000 m² (adding surfaces and areas of all the stories). This code is also known in other countries as PAR (Plot/Area Ratio) and PAC (Plot/Area Coefficient). In some countries, it is possible to change this value with extra argument and techniques48 that invalidate the original value. Several theoretical discussions related to this point and the buildings that result of the new values have taken place49. However, these special cases are out of the target buildings of our research.
48 Opcit MINVU, 2007. Art. 2.1.13, pp 132 49 Torres, 2005 [On-line Articles]
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4. Site coverage coefficient It is a non-negative real value, that multiplied by the total site area, determines the maximum ground floor area of the Ground Level of the building allowed for the above-mentioned site. The value ranges in tens from 0 to 1 (0.1, 0.2, 0.5, etc.) or in percentages ranging in tens (10%, 20%, 60%, etc.). In Image 26, several ground floor shapes are presented, and all of them are 5000 m². 5. Setback requirements They determine the minimum horizontal distance allowed between each lot line of the plot and the nearest point of the building. There are different codes for this requirement: a) Front-garden line: a setback applied to the building only in the front part of the plot. It generates a free area for the garden. The aim is to guarantee a “non-digging area” to allow the absorption of rainwater and a treemass for the stabilization of the weather as well as for privacy of the ground floor. b) Expropriation line: in some plots, the government demands and buys a piece of land for public areas; this area is reduced from the plot. c) Construction Line: line in the front part of the site that determines the external boundary of the building. Many times, it is the same as the front-garden line. d) Sky exposure plane (Rasante, translation of author): imaginary plane that cuts the theoretical volume. It starts from each lot-line following a defined angle upwards and inside the site, 60° - 70° - 80° are the common values (see Table 33 in Appendix). It can be also considered as a relation between the possible height of the building and the distance to the lot-line (as the tangent of such given angle). In some countries, like Germany, the value for this variable is expressed as a correlation between height and distance: the higher the building the greater the distance to neighbouring buildings (see Image 31). e) Semi-detached setback: if one side is attached to the next building, this value determines the minimum horizontal distance allowed between a selected lot line and the nearest point of a building. There are three intervals depending on height and on whether the involved façade has fenestrations (windows or openings) or not: from 0 to 3,5 m, from 3,5 to 7,0 and from 7,0 and higher. These norms do not apply to detached buildings.
Image 25: Built Area. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Image 27 Setback requirements. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Image 26: Site coverage coefficient. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Image 28 Undergrounds and Chamfer in the corner. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
6. Building height It determines the maximum vertical distance allowed between the natural ground level and the highest point of the building.
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7. Story height It determines the minimum allowable vertical distance between the finished floor and the ceiling of an inhabitable room (i.e. Chile h=2.35 m).
Image 29 Sky exposure plan (Rasante), view from the front of the plot. Self Elaboration.
Image 30 Sky exposure plane (Rasante), view from the side of the plot. Self Elaboration.
Image 32 Shadows of a theoretical volume over the neighbourhood. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Image 31 Sky Exposure Plane in Germany. Self elaboration 2010
Image 33 New volume shape and its shadows over neighbourhood. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
8. Parking Every building must be designed with a minimum quantity of parking places, determined by the Local Ordinance. The law requires one parking per apartment (or one each 80 m2)50, 15% in addition to visitors. Minimum Size: 2.50 x 5.00 m. All of parking spaces must be distributed in the undergrounds, except some visitor parking and one extra for handicapped persons (min 3.30m wide). Moreover, depending on the building size, truck-parking places are required (see Table 34 in Appendix). 9. Underground levels These new levels located in the underground result from the parking distribution (see Image 28). In addition, road surfaces must be considered for the floor layout. 10. Chamfer A chamfer distance is required in some sites located in any corner of the block. Values of chamfer are given as length and depth. For our case, it is applied to the site’s garden and not to the building. It creates a public space (see Image 28). 2.3.6.2
Rules from the “Building Code”
1. Shadows A detached building could exceed the height of Sky exposure plane if the shadows´ area of the new proposed building shape projected over adjacent plots does not exceed the shadow of the theoretical volume projected over the same adjacent plots51. Ensuring the degree of overshadowing on neighbouring plots is minimized (see Image 32). If the building has over five stories, the new shadows’ 50 Opcit DAU2007, Cap 8.1, Normas sobre Estacionamientos, pp 74 51 Opcit MINVU, 2007. Art. 2.6.11, pp175
46
area could exceed in 200m² or in 1/6 the shadow area of the theoretical volume. Image 33 shows the new volume shape and size and its shadows over the neighbourhood. 2. Combination of plots When two or more plots are combined into a new one, this new plot could have an extra 20% for the built area. 3. Social Housing When the apartment does not exceed the area of 140 m², it will be considered as Social (Low-Cost) Housing. If the common quoted area of each apartment is less than the 20% of its area, and, consequently, the total common quoted area of the building is less than the 20% of the total flats´ area, then this common quoted area will not be added to the built area coefficient (Plot/Area Ratio). 4. Elevators There must be at least two elevators (minimum size: 1.40 x 1.10 m). 5. Corridor Minimum of 1.10 m, and adding 5 mm for each person according to the Occupational Load table. 6. Occupational Load Relational number that determines the maximum number of persons per square meter of surface, it is used to calculate later the evacuation systems. See Table 37 in Appendix. 7. Harmonic Group Special conditions of some building plots that allow exceeding several norms in order to get a bigger building, plot size must be at least 5000m2. Out of the range of this research. 8. Stairwells The quantity and minimum width of stairs is determined according to the number of inhabitants of the building, as seen in Table 36. 9. Staircases Quantity and minimum Width of staircases according to the number of inhabitants, showed in the Appendix. Table 5 shows in red colour the variables to be considered in this first part of the research. Conclusions Only in the early stages of the architectural design of a high-rise building (in the Chilean case) are there eighteen rules to apply (see Image 34). These rules come from three main resources: the Building Code of the country, the Local Ordinance and the Site Information Report. We have shown that other countries have similar packages of rules to stop massive building in a plot. By using some specific rules, it is possible to design a different shape higher and larger (sometimes) than the “theoretical volume”. Each rule has a variable to be handled by the architects; the variables are different in nature and values (as seen in Table 5). This process is a complex task, because any decision in one variable produces changes in another (co-relationship between variables). We believe it is possible to synthesize them in an IT (Information Technologies) tool to accelerate the processing of them and to support architects in this stage. Table 5 shows in red colour the most important variables that influences the shape of the envelope. The full Building Permission process takes at least, without critiques and corrections, thirty-seven days to be ready. Therefore it is necessary to support architects to make the optimal decisions about the 47
buildings´ envelope in this stage with less effort. Currently, there is no commercial ICT application (Information and Communications Technology) to support this stage and these complex constraints. We can deduce that this process is made through manual methods (2D drawings, scale models, even 3D CAD models) as seen in Image 35 and Image 36. In the chapter 2.5 CAAD Prototypes we will present some details and references about the current available IT tools for this stage. In the Appendix, a complete set of drawings for a real high-rise building permission can be found (9.6 Edificio Cumbres de Providencia).
VARIABLES FROM URBAN CODE A. RULES AND VARIABLES FROM “SITE INFORMATION REPORT” AND “LOCAL ORDINANCE” Rule/Law/Ordinance name
Type of Variable
Possible Values / Units
1. Use
Qualitative Ordinal
Health, Residential, Culture, Industry, Education, Offices, etc.
Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic non-negative real value. 1 to 10, increasing in ten decimal range: 1.1 – 1.2 - etc) non-negative real value. In tens from 0 to 1 (0.1, 0.2, 0.5, etc.) or in percentages ranging in tens (10%, 20%, 60%, etc.).
Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No 1 to 5
Yes No No No 1.6
%
20%
5. Setback requirements a. Front-garden line b. Expropriation line: c. Construction Line: d. Sky exposure plane e. Semi-detached setback: 6. Building height 7. Story height
Quantitative and continue Quantitative and continue Quantitative and continue Quantitative and continue Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Quantitative and continue Quantitative and continue
Meter Meter Meter Meter Yes/No Meter Meter
8. Parking
Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic
1 each Flat
9. Underground levels 10. Chamfer
Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Quantitative and continue
Yes/No Meter
5 --70° No Free Min 2,15m 1 x Number of Flats Yes Min 4m
2. Grouping Mode a.Detached Building b.Continuous Building c.Semi-detached Building d.Mixed Building 3. Buildable coefficient (built area) 4. Site coverage coefficient
Values for this case Residenti al
B. RULES FROM THE “BUILDING CODE” Rule/Law/Ordinance name
Type of Variable
Possible Values / Units
11. Shadows 12. Combination of plots 13. Social Housing 14. Elevators 15. Corridor 16. Occupational Load 17. Harmonic Group 18. Stairwells
Quantitative and continue Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Quantitative and continue Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic Qualitative Nominal Dicotomic
Ratio Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No 1-30 Yes/No Yes/No
Values for this case 1/6 No Yes Yes Yes 15 No Yes
Table 5 Variables From Urban Code. Self-elaboration from LGUC and Site Report Information show in Appendix 10.2, Lobos © 2011.
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Image 34 The 18 Building Regulation Rules. Self Elaboration © Lobos 2007.
Image 35 Mass/Bulk Study and architectural concept with hand drawings for a building in Santiago de Chile. From Enrique Browne y Asociados Arquitectos (Chile), website www.ebrowne.cl (visit: 30.08.07)
Image 36 Mass Study for Bellevue Hotel. No. 23 Manning Street, Tuncurry, Maryland (USA). Oct2003. From Steven Jennings (Senior Assessment Planner) website (visit: 30.08.07).
2.3.7
Variable: The Architectural Practices in the Early Stages Despite the possibility of creating a rational and functional building envelope starting from the information discussed before (Space Program and Building Regulations), we believe that “the good architecture not only comes from laws and numbers”. The concept of Architectural Practices in Early Stages refers to those operations and processes that are not mandatory but are executed as part of the artistic creation of a building, and those that can influence the quality of the building (see Image 37). Next, a self-elaborated schedule of the names and descriptions of architectural practices in early stages, measurable and quantifiable, that is, possible to be transformed into variables. This list has been created based on the analytic observation of the selected buildings, and they may have an influence on the creation of the building envelopes. In the Appendix, table 9.1.5 Variables of the Architectural Practices shows all the 36 variables of the architectural practices in the early stages of a high-rise detached residential building. Here a summary: 49
1. Mass Surrounding Grouping Mode: Detached. Distance between neighboring buildings: to the main opposite building, as well as backside, left side and right side building. Gap of the Building Centroid from the plot´s centre. 2. Environmental Orientation according to sun and wind. Shadows over the neighbouring. Green surfaces of the project (in Ground Level, Rooftop Terrace or other levels). Net Areas of North/South/East/West Facades. Balconies: Orientation, number, sizes and area.
Image 37 Variables for the Architectural Practices in Early Stages. Self elaboration © Lobos 2007.
3. Aesthetic Proportion of the volume: Width/length in floor plan, width/length/height of the volume, width/height in Façade, width/depth in the volume. Width circulations/corridors: proposed v/s minimum allowed by Urban Code. Interior Voids: Void in pedestrian entrance, inner courtyard (light shaft/light well), Double height in Ground floor, Higher Ground Floor. Structural Modules: use of Structural Modules (Size 1, Size 2). Use of non-regular modules. Conclusions for Architectural Practices in the Early Stages The variables in the Architectural Practice field are too many. Attempts to include them all in a digital tool may fail. Because of their nature, it is extremely complex to handle them all. This type of schedule can support the checking process of each one of them. It is expected that future research about this type of building can consider some of these aspects. It is important to notice that even when there 36 variables that can be handled by the architect the final result (building shape and style) is very similar. This led us to think that the other variables (Urban Code and Space Program) are more important and crucial for this type of building.
50
Conclusions of Descriptive Stage The variables used to describe our object of study have been defined, as well as the techniques used to measure them in a scientific way. Further research will use these techniques to analyse buildings. These variables are related to three main areas: the Space Program, the Urban Codes and the Architectural Practices. These, according to us, determine the shape and size of the final envelope of a high-rise residential building in the early stages of the design. Despite the possibility of describing and analysing buildings from an architectonic approach, we have demonstrated that it is possible to create variables to measure the decisions made by architects in this specific type of building.
Graph 3 Diagram for the paperwork after the full Government Building Permission. Self-Elaboration © Lobos 2007.
2.4 Correlational Stage In this section, we develop our hypothesis based on the information and data obtained through the techniques proposed previously: Analytical, qualitative and quantitative review of the Government Permission Folders. Survey Schedules to collect the variables of each building (measures, data, number, etc.). Organization of the data in statistical format for analysis. 1. Qualification of the Variables Due to the nature of each variable, these will be grouped and handled under two categories: Qualitative (Nominal-Ordinal) and Quantitative (Continuous-Discrete). 2. Correlational Hypothesis (or Simultaneous Relation) As mentioned in the introduction, the observed phenomenon is the “the difference between the shape and size of the first default theoretical volume and the final building envelop in a plot”. Our hypothesis (Hi) is the following: The difference between the shape and size of the first default theoretical volume and the final building envelope in a plot is determined by the relationship between the “Space Program” (x) given by the client, the “Urban Code” (y) applied to that site and the “Architectural Practices” (z) done by the Architect. Any variation in one of them (x,y,z) determines a variation in the shape and size of the final building envelopment: Hi: Rxyz ≠ 0, Ho: Rxyz = 0, Ha: Rxy ≠ 0 ^ Rxy = 0 ^ Ryz = 0
51
This expression means that there is a Hypothesis (Hi), which says that x, y and z are related. The Null Hypothesis (Ho) is utilized to refute the Hi. Ha represents an alternative hypothesis about the relationship a pair of variables. 3. Causal Multivariate Hypothesis “The shape (y1) and size (y2) of the final building envelope in a plot is determined by three variables: x1 (the Space Program, given by the client), x2 (the Urban Codes applied to that site), and x3 (the Architectural Practices done by the Architect)” (Figure 9). In addition, each variable is a compound of several sub variables. The meaning of each one of the sub-variables is: z1 (Site), z2 (Order), z3 (Space Program rooms’ list), z4 (Site Information Report), z5 (Local Ordinance), z6 (Urban Code), z7 (Aesthetic), z8 (Mass & Surrounding), z9 (Sustainable Design), zn (others).
Figure 9 Causal Multivariate Hypothesis and sub-variables. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Conclusions for Correlational Stage By using a Simultaneous Relation System for the hypothesis, it is possible to group variables, understand their relationships and reduce the complexity of the problem by visualizing its structure. It is clear that there are too many variables (here we show only some of them). A great effort to enumerate them has been made, but it makes no sense to try to computerize all of them. Our interest is to support the creation of a building envelope and the subsequent creation of floor layouts; therefore, we take the variables from the Urban Codes as well as from the Space Program. From this scheme, it is possible to identify the variables to be utilized in a future prototype (red colour in Figure 9). 2.5 CAAD Prototypes 2.5.1 Introduction to a Computer Science Solution Strategy An unsolved problem has been revealed: the creation of several scenarios to evaluate the relationship between Space Program, Urban Codes and Architectural Practices. Following the reviewed literature and their approaches, our strategy should include 1) Space Program: it is a container of information for rooms and areas, with the possibility to add sizes and calculate totals. This information must be shareable with other players and accessible. 2) Urban Codes: a tool that allows modelling a 3D volume considering the numbers and sizes of the different Zoning Planning’s. Although nowadays it is possible to make a 3D model in any 3D software, the use of the Urban Codes within them is not easy and/or allowed. 3) Architectural Practices: the tool must provide the architect with the possibility to handle the shape of the building in an easy and friendly way. Taking into account these requirements, our proposal for a computer science solution strategy, for the first part of this research, will be based on the combination of two tools: Database and 3D modelling. Database will provide an environment to describe the Space Program numerically; on the other hand, the 3D modelling will provide an environment to create different building shapes, following several and complex variables, and to evaluate them. Since the Database approach is a widely explored field and the Architectural Practice is not our focus, we will concentrate on the requirements of the Urban Codes in this stage. 52
SURVEY FOR COMMERCIAL SOFTWARE IN ARCHITECTURE Year 1.Client Program Design SOFTWARE for Architects AUTOCAD 3D 2007 AutoLISP and Dynamic Blocks
2. Urban Code
3. Architectural Practices
AutoLISP
MAYA
2005
--
--
FORMZ
2006
--
--
SKETCHUP
2006
--
MAXXON FORM
2005
--
RHINOCEROS PARACLOUD
2007 2007
---
Google Earth + Ruby Console Some constraints in 3d modeling + Archicad ---
Primitives-Booleans, Extrusion, Lisp. New Features for 3d modeling Solids-Booleans, Extrusion Solids-Booleans, Extrusion Solids-Booleans, Extrusion Solids-Booleans
GENERATIVE COMPONENTS
2006
--
ECOTECT
2006
AUTOCAD 2D
2007
Trelligence AFFINITY R5.0
2007
environmental Analysis AutoLISP, Excel and Dynamic Blocks Full options
BIM/AEC SOFTWARE REVIT BUILDING 2007
Object Editor for Parametric Programming and Script Energy Costs and programming AutoLISP and Excel
Setbacks in 2d allowed
AEC Objects full Complex Modeling and data exported from Excel Object Editor for Parametric Programming and Script Extrusions and Booleans Primitives-Booleans, Extrusion, Lisp. Parametric 3d modeling Functional design and floor layout available
Parametric Families for Space Program Only roomreports after finish BIM model Receiving text Data for rooms Connection to Date Base, Space boundary tool, AutoLISP. --
Family Editor for Parametric Programming
Mass Elements and BIM elements
GDL-Script for Archicad
BIM elements full and Primitives
--
Primitives and Booleans, BIM elements full Mass Elements and AEC full, 3d Objects full
integration with Excel --
Under programming
AEC Objects full and 3d modeling 3d modeling
--
3d modeling
3D MODEL& ANIMATION SOFTWARE 3DSMAX 2006 MaxScript
MaxScript and Booleans
CINEMA4D
2007
Xpress editor
Xpress editor
QUEST3D SOFTIMAGE
2007 1997
Under API --
Under API --
AUTODESK VIZ
2006
Script
Script and Booleans
Primitives, Solid Booleans, Extrusion Primitives, Solid Booleans Primitives and API Primitives, Solid Booleans, Extrusion Primitives, Solid Booleans, Extrusion
ARCHICAD
2006
MICROSTATION
2006
ARCHITECTURAL DESKTOP
2006
ALLPLAN
2006
CATIA / DESIGNER VECTORWORKS
2006 2006
Model Explorer + Mass Elements, AutoLISP, Parametric Solids --
Table 6. Survey of Existing Commercial Software Programs in Architecture. Self elaboration based on interviews with experts and teachers, our own knowledge of Software, Manual, Tutorials, Specialized Magazines and Web Sites reviews.
SUMMARY OF THE SURVEY FOR EXISTING COMMERCIAL SOFTWARE PROGRAMS Software
Program of Client
Urban Code
Architectural Practices AUTOCAD 3D X X X AUTOCAD 2D X X X REVIT BUILDING X X ARCHITECTURAL DESKTOP X X X 3DSMAX X X Table 7 Summary of the results of the survey. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
53
2.5.2 Survey of the Existing Commercial Software Programs For this survey (see Table 6) of software programs in Architecture, we will consider the most well-known and used applications and tools for drawing and design called CAAD software (formerly Computer Aided Drafting, and nowadays Computer-Aided Architectural Design or simply Computer-Aided Design) used in offices between 2005 - 200752, running under a Windows platform (2000-NT, XP, ME, Vista) 53. We have elaborated a table to identify some potential tools useful for handling our variables (space program, urban code, architectural practices). Moreover, we do not want to repeat and waste efforts trying to create a tool that already exists. The evaluation criteria are a self-made ranking assessing the potential performance of each software in each group of variables (Program of Client, Urban Code and Architectural Practices). The ranking is numbered 1 (not useful), 2 (useful), 3 (very useful). Of course, there is no actual digital application that resolves our problem. This overview will guide us in the right direction to make our own application by showing us, which tools and approaches are closer to the solution of our problem. EVALUATION FOR EXISTING COMMERCIAL SOFTWARE PROGRAMS Stage Software / Company
1. Program of Client
Design SOFTWARE for Architects AUTOCAD 3D 3 MAYA 1 FORMZ 1 SKETCHUP 1 MAXXON FORM 1 RHINOCEROS 1 PARACLOUD 1 GENERATIVE 1 COMPONENTS ECOTECT 1 AUTOCAD 2D 3 AFFINITY R5.0 3 BIM/AEC SOFTWARE REVIT BUILDING ARCHICAD MICROSTATION ARCHITECTURAL DESKTOP ALLPLAN CATIA / DESIGNER VECTORWORKS
2. Urban Code
3. Architectural Practices
Total
Conclusions
3 1 1 2 3 1 1 2
3 2 2 3 2 2 2 3
9 4 4 6 6 4 4 6
Very Useful Not Useful Not Useful Useful Useful Not Useful Not Useful Useful
1 3 1
2 3 2
4 9 6
Not Useful Very Useful Useful
2 1 2 3
3 2 1 3
3 2 3 3
8 5 6 9
Very Useful Not Useful Useful Very Useful
1 2 1
1 2 1
2 2 2
4 6 4
Not Useful Useful Not Useful
3 2 2 2
3 3 2 2 2
8 7 6 2 6
Very Useful Useful Useful -Useful
3d MODEL& ANIMATION SOFTWARE 3DSMAX 2 CINEMA4D 2 QUEST3D 2 SOFTIMAGE AUTODESK VIZ 2
SYMBOLS and Scores: Every software has been evaluated according to its performance and functions. Score for every one: 1 not useful, 2 useful, 3 very useful. Average score 3-5 not useful, 6-7 useful, 8-9 very useful. Table 8 Evaluation and Scores for Each Software Program. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
Conclusions for commercial CAAD software In the commercial CAAD software program (built-in packages: without programming, nor add-ons, nor plugins), we have only a few specialized tools to fulfill both the Client´s Needs and Urban Code, but many to satisfy the Architectural Practices (mainly related to modelling capabilities of the software programs), as seen in Table 8. Then we can conclude that the architectural offices in the district of Providencia must actually model the theoretical volume and the final building envelope manually by using 3D solid and Boolean tools, or 52 Dokonal and Knight, 2007 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 53 There are other software programs running under MAC (Apple Macintosh), Linux, even Open Source, but most of our target software programs for this survey run under Windows.
54
2D drawing and manual calculations for areas and shadows. It is necessary to create new solutions for these tasks by developing plug-ins for the existing software or by creating new ones in a programming language. In the CAAD Research’s Area, that amounts to making our own prototype. Table 7 shows the closest software programs to the solution of our problem. 2.5.3
Survey of Existing Prototype Software Programs
Next, we present the current state-of-the-art prototype tools for the urban code tasks. We will divide the works into two categories: those that work over several plots (Urban Planning in areas), and those that work in one plot (Architectural Design in one plot). There are some useful tools for both cases. 2.5.3.1 For Several Plots. Recent researches, mainly in Latin America, tend to support, though partially, this process by using some new ICT Tools, obtaining the following results:
Image 38 CITYZOOM screenshot. From Grazziotin et all, 2007.
Image 39 CITYZOOM screenshot. From Grazziotin et all, 2007.
1. Cityzoom (Grazziotin et all, 2004-2007) A Decision Support System for urban planning, with a specific built-in city model tool, where data is represented in an object-oriented model representing the urban structure. It allows the simulation of the impact of alternative urban regulations for a large number of plots. It allows the correlation between given parts like buildings, plots or blocks. Graphical editor for Urban Structures. It develops several modules (Block Magic, Solar Envelope, Numerical Viewer, Mosaic, and 3d viewing tool for shadows). The results can be displayed as tables, graphs, and in a 3D preview. It does not consider some specific codes for a single plot.
Image 40 Kaisersrot + KCAP, 2007.
Image 41 NORMATIVA 3D. From Wurman, 2006.
2. Neuplanung Umfeld Hauptbahnhof Zürich Kaisersrot in collaboration with KCAP, Rotterdam 2007. It uses the visualization of Zoning Planning regulations to support the design ideas. The image below shows the use of maximum building heights and sky exposure planes.
55
C-Code 1.0 (Labarca and Culawgosky, 2005) 54 It is a Parametric Urban Simulation and Digital Modeling System for Building Codes. Through basic Auto CAD Programming, it allows the automatic generation of guided-style theoretical volumes (it uses a ratio for floor shape) and finished building envelopes for several blocks. It allows the creation of several scenarios using different values of the Zoning Planning. It works in a well-known environment: Autocad+Lisp. It does not allow the architect´s intervention, only text data. It does not have any specifications about implementation or used algorithms. 3.
Image 42 C-CODE 1.0. From Labarca and Culawgosky, 2006.
Image 43 Building Code from GIS linked to Internet. From Frassia, 1999.
4. Normativa 3D (Wurman, 2006) 55 It allows the evaluation of the Zoning Planning Tools through their tridimensional modeling, representing in graphic and visible way the target-image or the urban shape for the city. It analyses several Chilean floor layout designs under rational criteria, and it creates a new architectural concept called “highrise houses”. It demonstrates the relationship between the Zoning Planning values as a group of data (Metacity Datatown), and it shows an important connection between the CAAD field and Architecture.
Image 44 A CITY SIMULATOR. From Raposo et All, 2001.
Image 45 Parametric Envelope. From Mellantoni, 2006.
5. A City Simulator (Raposo et all, 2001) 56
It allows the simulation and the analysis of cities where tall buildings are emerging on pre-existing urban schemes with irregular shapes. It focuses on plots of urban blocks, buildings and rates of Urban Code. It uses solar obstruction and maximum profitability values for each plot. Optimal buildings are developed, tabulated and analyzed. It demonstrates that the higher PAR (Plot Area Ratio) does not always belong to the biggest plot. It demonstrates that the relationship between the shape and size of the building is stronger with the geometry of the block than with the size of it. It applies the same codes to several blocks and makes only regular buildings (i.e. tower-plate not allowed).
54 Labarca and Culagovsky, 2005 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 55 Wurman, 2006 [PhD and MSc Thesis] 56 Raposo et all, 2001 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
56
2.5.3.2
For One Plot
1. Building Code + GIS + Internet Several pieces of research (Erba and Uribe57, 2005; Marambio and Garcia58, 2005); Frassia59, 1999: it stores, updates and transmits the Zoning Planning regulation values of a city and its districts. It has a client-server approach to queries: relational Databases or GIS (Geographic Information System). Information given: Zoning Plans, Land Use schedules, Urban Codes for a single plot. It allows to get the site information required for creating several scenarios from the Web and saves time in the early stages. It does not have a user-friendly interface, and it is not possible to export data. The application is no longer available.
Image 46 IM TOOL. From Yang and Li, 2001.
Figure 10 PROFI [BÜRO]. From INFAR, Anders and Hald, 2002
2. Parametric Envelope It allows the creation of a prototype for geometrical constraints applied to Boolean Operations in Revit. The Urban Code is turned to a computable data (input) and the tool shows an automatic theoretical volume (output) in real time (Melantoni, 2006)60. The engine of the software allows the addition of new parameters related to the building shape.
Image 47 Screenshots of SPACEplan. From Tonn and Lömker, 2002.
Image 48 SIMULADOR PRU_DATOS. From SOLNET S.A.
3. IM Tool (Yang and Li, 2001) It is an automated procedure. It is based on the object-oriented (OO) representation for both building design and building code. It allows OO representation support for the execution of automatic building compliance checking. There is a prototype developed in Java on Windows NT. 4. Profi [Büro] It was made by Anders and Hald, 2002 in INFAR (Informatik in der Architektur), Bauhaus-Uni Weimar as Diplomarbeit (Master Thesis). It allows the finding of the optimum shape in Office Buildings taking into consideration several building codes like Plot/Area ratio, maximum height, stairwells, etc. 57 Erba and Uribe, 2005 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 58 Marambio and Garcia, 2005 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 59 Frassia, 1999 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 60 Mellantoni, 2006 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
57
5. SPACEplan (Bauhaus-Uni Weimar) 61. A tool for the planning and optimization of building regulations in urban plots. The input used is plot size, setbacks, Plot Area Ratio, and Maximum Occupation. The output is a 3D volume optimized by Total Area or Total Stories. 6. Simulador PRU_Datos It is useful for economic simulation and profitability of the plots in a district or district. It works only in text format (not with 2d-3d drawings). It helps planners and owners to simulate in real time the values of the plot prices under different Zoning Planning scenarios. It was developed by a software company SOLNET S.A. (2005). 7. Constraint-Based Building Bulk Design “BDS: Building Bulk Design Support Tool” (Gonzalez, 2005)62 and “A constraintbased Building Bulk Design Support” (Donath and Gonzalez, 2006)63. It allows the support of the participatory residential planning processes. It is concerned with the synthesis of the boundary geometry from the volume, shape and allocation of the building and any part thereof located inside of a given zoning lot (see Image 49). It applies the method of CSP (Constraint Satisfaction Problem) from AI (Artificial Intelligence) to classify the variables involved in the additive method. Up to 2007 it has not demonstrated to be a solution for the architectural design practice, and it has not been tested by non-professional software users. Recent versions, such Donath and Gonzalez 200764, have made improvements to the Cinema4d prototype, and have added new two-dimensional solutions using ILOG´s optimization modeling system called OPL Studio (used formerly by Loemcker in 2006 in reallocation problems, and by Van Hentenryck in 1999, in his work about Constraint and Integer Programming in Optimization Programming Language). The built-in solver of OPL is able to find and display the complete sequence of solutions for a given constrained optimization problem automatically.
Image 49 Donath and Gonzalez, 2006
Image 50 Building Shadow Calculation, from Global Solution Assist, Inc., 2009
8. BSC: Building Shadow Calculation It is a plug-in software program for Revit Architecture (Autodesk). BSC supports the study of building volumes from the initial step of volume design by mass model to the last stage of sun shadow calculation; BSC continuously refines the building model data (Image 50). Developed by Global Solution Assist, Inc., 2009. Conclusions about CAAD prototypes Most researchers have created useful tools to support larger Urban Design/Planning decisions. Our main points, namely the relation between Space Program, Urban Code and Architectural Practices, is not covered entirely in these prototypes. Applying the same codes to all plots is a common method (Grazziotin et all, 2007; Raposo et All, 2001). Although they interpret in a right way the process of visualization of regulations, specific codes applied over the plot (heights, distances, Number of floors, etc.) are not covered. Most of them do not 61 Tonn, C and Loemker, T: 2002 [Academic Resources in Universities] 62 Gonzalez, 2005 [PhD and MSc Thesis] 63 Opcit 13 Donath and Gonzalez, 2006 64 Donath and González, 2007 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
58
consider all of the codes for an individual plot, or the shape of a building with specific intentions, or the space program, i.e. underground parking by Local Ordinance or others. They also do not consider either the specific Space Program (Except Gonzalez and Donath, 2006), or the architectural practices (except Labarca and Culagovsky, 2005 and Wurman, 2006). Most of them do not consider that the interior codes have an influence on the exterior shape and size as described in chapter 2.3.6 Variable: The Urban Code. In order to prove our ideas about the relationships between different variables that influence the shape and size of the building´s envelope, it will be necessary to develop our own prototype. 2.5.4
Parametric Model in Autodesk Revit
We introduce a new tool for creating interactive and parametric building envelopes based on Zoning Planning variables, called “Prototype for Urban Code Constraints” and developed in Autodesk Revit by Danny Lobos in 2007 and 2008, based on the previous attempts made by Mellantoni in 2006. Attempting to answer one of the questions of our research we consider the required variables for the design of a theoretical volume of a building (described in chapter 2.3.6 Variable: The Urban Code), and we introduce them as constraints in a complex 3d model. Techical Implementation The software program “Autodesk ® Revit Building 2008” was chosen because of its simple and powerful 3D visualization and the possibility to work with parametric constraints for the urban code by using the Parametric Families function (Melantoni65, 2006). The implementation required Windows XP, CPU Intel Core Duo 1.66 GHz, and memory 1 GB.
Image 51 Revit Prototype. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Once the total area for the building in the Space Program Database (developed in Microsoft Excel, see Table 9.1.7 Full Space Program for Edificio Cumbres on Appendix) is calculated, one is ready to model several scenarios in a plot in an iterative process searching for the optimal solution. We write the values of the plot (front/depth). Starting from an existing generic box volume that represents the full extrusion of the plot (completely built), constraints are added and they act as Boolean operators (see Image 52), mainly subtracting mass to the original volume, as described in Donath and González, 2005.
65 Opcit Mellantoni, 2006
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Once the architect has the “Site Information Report” (described in chapter 2.3.2), he can write on a dialogue box the values of the codes: plot sides, setbacks, sky exposure angle, maximum building height, number of stories, undergrounds depth and setbacks, etc. These can be added by the architect in a text format with a user-friendly interface, and he can see the changes of the shape and size of volume in real time (about one minute for creating each scenario). Then he can get several reports on each scenario automatically: a 3D model of the building and underground parking, 3D views, 2D drawings (floor/section/elevations), total area of the building (m2), volume of the building (m3) and area per story (m2), perimeters (m), complex schedules for costs, ODBC databases, IFC models. Image 53 shows the effects of Sky Exposure Plane on the volume. Values used for the parameters in the Revit Prototype are shown in Table 10. On each iteration, it is possible to compare our constraints and requirements (the PAR value v/s each scenario) and to evaluate if the current proposal fits with the target PAR or if it is necessary refine it.
Image 52 the planes acting as Boolean on the volume. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008.
Image 53 the effects of sky exposure plane on the volume. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008.
INPUT / OUTPUTS IN BIM PROTOTYPE INPUT 1. Plot front 2. Plot depth 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Maximum Building Height Number of Stories Floor to Floor Distance Underground Max Depth Number of Underground Levels
8. Sky Exposure Angle Left 9. Sky Exposure Angle Right 10. Sky Exposure Angle Front 11. Sky Exposure Angle Back 12. 13. 14. 15.
UG_setback_right UG_setback_left UG_setback_front UG_setback_back
16. 17. 18. 19.
Height high setback LEFT Height high setback RIGHT Height high setback BACK Height high setback FRONT
20. 21. 22. 23.
High Setback FRONT side High Setback BACK side High Setback LEFT side High Setback RIGHT side
24. 25. 26. 27.
Base Setback BACK Base Setback LEFT Base Setback FRONT side Base Setback RIGHT
28. Street Axis
OUTPUTS 1. 3d model of the building 2. 3d model of underground levels 3. Plot Area Ratio comparison Schedule: Current/ Allowed 3d views: 4. Isometric with Mass Model 5. Isometric with Floors/Slab of each story 6. Isometric with dimensions 2d drawings: 7. Floor plans for each story 8. Cross-Section 9. Longitudinal Section 10. Front Elevation 11. Back Elevation 12. Right Elevation 13. Left Elevation Complex Cost schedules: 14. Levels label 15. Total building area (m2) 16. Building Volume (m3) 17. Schedule story area (m2) 18. Cost/story 19. Cost/m2 20. Story perimeter (m) 21. Totals for each field Others: 22. ODBC databases 23. IFC models 24. DWG 2d drawings 25. DWG/DXF/DGN 3d model 26. Images: Jpg/Bmp/Png/Tiff
Table 9 INPUT / OUTPUTS in BIM Prototype. Self elaboration © Lobos 2007
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Advantages of this approach The prototype delivers a lot of useful information to architects, Real Estate companies and Government. It takes advantage of some existing features in the BIM package, like Group Command tool, Sheet Views, Building Maker tool, Schedules and filters, Shadows, Export formats, and Section-Elevation creation. Architects can easily interact by typing the code they want to try, since there are not too many variations for this type of building (it will be always an extruded rectangular floor shape); however, the performance of the architects’ decision is improved. Building Surfaces and Volume values can be used for building performance analysis in the early stages. Disadvantages of this approach A license of Autodesk Revit must be purchased. The prototype does not include any optimization algorithm that can generate a shape; this can be useful to generate new scenarios automatically. Even when we have considered all the constraints for our case, adding new constraints for other types of buildings (schools, hotels, etc.) requires an advanced knowledge of Parametric Modeling techniques. Sky Exposure Angles are not translated in the same scale of values (here 100° means no cutting) because of the position of planes in Boolean operations. VALUES FOR THE PARAMETERS IN PROTOTYPE Parameter
Values for Envelope 1 40 36 60 15 3 -9 3
Values for Envelope 2 40 36 60 16 3 -12 4
3 4
3 4
100° 100° 107° --
100° 107° 110° --
UG_setback_right UG_setback_left UG_setback_front UG_setback_back
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
Height high setback LEFT Height high setback RIGHT Height high setback BACK Height high setback FRONT
27 12 -21
27 12 -21
High Setback FRONT side High Setback BACK side High Setback LEFT side High Setback RIGHT side
12 -15 9
12 -15 9
Base Setback BACK Base Setback LEFT Base Setback FRONT side Base Setback RIGHT
15 6 6 9
15 6 8 6
Plot front Plot depth Maximum Building Height Number of Stories Floor to Floor Distance Underground Max Depth Number of Underground Levels Underground height Ground Floor Height Sky Exposure Angle Left Sky Exposure Angle Right Sky Exposure Angle Front Sky Exposure Angle Back
Street Axis 7° 7° Table 10 Values used for the parameters in the Revit Prototype. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009
Conclusions for Revit Prototype We have synthesized specific variables from the Zoning Planning in a 3D Modeling environment. By using cutting-edge Parametric Modelling techniques, we have created a prototype able to be fully controlled by architects. This prototype uses the same language that architects use in their offices (setbacks, sky exposure 61
plane, etc.) as well as the same values (m, m 2 o angles). By using existing BIM software, we can provide architects with diverse and useful information in real time. We have introduced the concept of “BIM Parametric Envelope” driven by Zoning Planning code values; this means that the building envelope can be created parametrically within BIM software using the possible range of values of zoning planning codes (setbacks, sky exposure plane, etc.). This allows architects to create quickly and to evaluate several scenarios before deciding a final shape for the building. The use of BIM takes advantage of existing powerful tools within the package, but, on the other hand, it has many restrictions about environment, about naming and about operating with constraints. The user must buy a software license, and deal with other variables from Autodesk Revit software that do not participate directly in the envelope design process. Some examples include modeling approach, new interface, title blocks and sheet layout, missing layers for single objects, etc. The creation of similar prototypes in an open source programming environment for the future may be considered.´ COMPARISON BETWEEN BIM AND NEW APPROACH BIM
This research
1. Primitives/FreeModelling 2. Dimensional Constraints 3. PAR value not included
1. Free Modelling 2. Text input constraints 3. PAR as a visible value 4. Building Maker option for Urban Code volumes.
4. Building Maker option for AEC objects
RESULTS FOR ENVELOPES Parameter Surface Floor (bruto) Surface of Volume (bruto) Volume of envelopes
Envelope 1 7719,00 m2 6402,00 m2
Envelope 2 6993,22 m2 6414,66 m2
23157,00 m3
23981,69 m3
Table 11 Comparison between BIM and the new approach. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Outlook for Urban Codes Prototype Further development must be considered by integrating the API features to this prototype with the purpose of integrating the other detected variables. The Autodesk Revit Advanced Programming Interface (API) can be accessed fully by any language compatible with the Microsoft .NET Framework 2.0 (Visual Basic .NET or Visual C#). In next chapters about Space Layout Planning, we discuss some experiences in C#. Due to the reviewed literature and the current available software knowledge, the capabilities of other languages for these complex tasks must be also considered: Programming with AutoLISP (for AutoCAD or Architectural Desktop/Autodesk Architecture), Programming in JAVA, Iconic Programming (Quest3d/Cinema4d), and Script for (3dsMax/Rhino). Once the shape and size for the building´s envelope are ready, we can evaluate them, and then we can apply the rest of the design process proposed by Lobos66 2006 to get the final Floor Layout Plan Design of each story of the building. Such paper stands as the foundation for distributing and arranging the space program inside the boundary of each story. This research develops this novel concept. The second part of this PhD thesis will deeply cover these aspects. Some images from the proposal are shown below. Computerized Optimization Techniques are not included in this prototype since the focus is the freedom of handling parameters for non-expert users such as architects. However, optimization techniques would support the search for an optimal envelope and this can clearly be a contribution for future researches. 2.6 Conclusions for Urban Codes Stage The phenomenon of the design of the building´s envelope and the theoretical volume for rectangular floor shape buildings has been revealed. We suggested as hypothesis that the shape and size of a building was the result of the interaction of three variables: the urban codes, the clients’ needs and the architectural practices. Using traditional scientific methods, we have demonstrated the existence of such variables and their influence on the shape. The main reason of the differences between both envelopes (the one from theoretical volume and the one from the final mass study) is the existence of some special zoning 66 Lobos, 2006 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
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planning tools (Overshadowing calculations) that allow the designing of a different shape and size for such envelopes. The reason why these shapes tend to be the same in each building is a matter of balance between markets, architects and governmental intentions. We have synthesized the history and foundations of the Urban Codes, the first well-known case was USA (New York), and then we explained what happens in Germany, Chile and Argentina. This allowed us to have an overview of the situation in different countries and get some constants that validate the applicability of our concept in the whole world.
Image 54 Urban Codes and Slice Floor-plate techniques. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2006.
Image 55 Space Layout Planning and delivery to BIM. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2006.
We have concluded (for the Chilean case) that eighteen variables are needed to design an envelope. These variables come from Chilean Urban Code and Site Report Information. Other countries have similar variables to control the envelope design. Our hypothesis about the size and shape of the buildings´ envelopes was demonstrated by taking into account urban codes (18 variables), clients´ needs (3 variables) and architectural practices (36 variables). Even when there are 36 variables that can be handled by the architect the final result (building shape and style) is very similar. This demonstrates that the other variables (Urban Code and Space Program) are more important and crucial for this type of building. A survey of prototypes software programs, both focused in block or single plots, was made. A missing tool for the application of specific zoning planning variables was detected. We have synthesized these variables and we have created a concept for a tool that generates new optimized envelopes for a plot. In this stage, we have resolved the problem of the Space Program and the creation of several scenarios for the use of the Zoning Planning regulations. We hope to add the Architectural Practices in the future. The results of this proposal show that the use of specific ICT Tools in the early stages of a building design helps to reduce the working time, increases the confidence in the generated solution, and contributes to the exploration of several alternatives in the short term. We have provided the basis for the creation of a new concept: Plausible BIM Parametric Envelope, which defines the optimal relationship between the different variables present at this stage of the planning process (client - urban codes – architect). In none of the sub-phases of the research, we have moved away from neither the architectural issue, nor the architectural design, nor the real factors. The support for the architect starts by asking the client’s needs, and ends with the generation of a plausible, rational and confident building envelope. The possibility of using IFC codes in each stage must be mentioned because it helps to exchange information among all software platforms and applications used in each stage and among all of the players involved in the building process. The use of commercial packages for the creation of prototypes has the advantage of using many existing working tools that do not need to be created again. However, it requires to have a commercial license and some other important restrictions. We also think that BIM software programs are the right solution for an architecture office that works with this type of buildings, so we promote its use. Processes and methods utilized in this research could be extended to other type of buildings like health, education, commerce, etc. Some others restrictions like View Right, and Shadows Cast (prohibition over protected zones such as parks) may be included.
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3
Floor Plan Layout in Architecture
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“A design problem is not an optimization problem.” Christopher Alexander Notes on the Synthesis of Form, 1964
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Automated Floor Layout Planning, A Utopia? One of the most important tasks of architects is the creation of a floor plan layout for a building. The automation of the creation of floor plan layouts deals with the use of computers to generate designs, and it is called Space Layout Planning. The research in this field started around 50 years ago67. Many solutions have been presented and discussed: prototypes, tests, depth computer programming, and optimization formulas embedded into the architectural field, as well as hundreds of publications with big promises for the future. After all that work (and invested/spent money and resources), we, the architects, have nothing in our desk to support our daily task in the office: a tool that generates a useful architectural floor plan layout. Is it not possible for any digital tool to create a good floor plan? Is it possible but the solution is not an “architectural” one? Are the researchers not architects? Do they know the problem as we, the architects, know it? Have they designed a real floor plan for anybody? This research gives some clues to answer these and other questions. One of the main reasons for this divergence between engineering and architectural points of view relies on the aims, background and research environment. The researcher, who has an Engineering or Architectural background, will tend to bring the problem into his/her field of knowledge, because of obvious reasons, and in this step a lot of information, variables, and know-how from both fields are lost. So we can hope at the end, like it happens now, the solution to be “adequate” to the possibilities of the new field, in this case we are talking about the move from an architectural design process, an illdefined task, to engineering process, a complete defined task (Del Río-Cidoncha et all, 2003). No matter how the solutions have been, fast, optimal, automated, or parameterized, architects do not use them. And it seems that these solutions will never satisfy the large list of architectural criteria: “composition and aesthetic factors in Architecture lead to goals as functionality, habitability, balance, beauty, etc., which are in many cases subjective and hard to turn into parameters” (Del Rio-Cidoncha et all, 2003). Why does this phenomenon happen? This second part of our research presents some clues, some answers, and some results. Moreover, it discusses strategies to face this problem within the BIM (Building Information Modeling) environment.
3.1 Hypothesis and Research Methodology for Space Layout Planning During the development of this second part of this research, we will put forward several hypotheses. In each upcoming chapter, supporting evidence for each of them is provided and discussed. The hypotheses are as follows: 1) There is a strong relationship between Space Layout Planning task, the building mass (envelope), and the Urban Codes. 2) Architects have to fit a wide space program (clients´ needs) into a shape (building´s envelope). 3) Architects must consider many variables when designing floor plan layouts. 4) At least thirteen variables influence the floor plan layout. 5) The result of this process is a drawing that contains an arrangement of rectangles. 6) The Space Layout Planning field has taken some of these variables and tried to automatically generate floor layouts. Four trends are identified. 7) The results from Space Layout Planning research / software have not been accepted in Architecture. 8) Useful Space Layout Planning can be achieved through a deep understanding of a specific case in architecture. 9) Buildings´ floor plan drawings provide in-depth information about floor layout configurations. 10) Approach and techniques from Graphs Theory can support the creation of floor plans. 11) A new concept, without automatic generation of floor plan layout and based on an Information Visualization approach for BIM, is a valid solution. The Simulation and Evaluation model will be our paradigm for researching. Experiments with prototypes will be carried out and results will be analyzed and discussed.
67 Del Rio-Cidoncha et all, 2006 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals]
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3.2 Floor Plan and Architectural Layout The design of a floor plan is a stage during the architectural design process that takes place between the “schematic design” phase and the “design development” phase (Lyon, 2002) (Patten, 2003). Image 56 shows a single house, its architectural floor plan layout, and the abstraction of relationships between spaces.
Image 56 Casa Poli in Coliumo, Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects (Chile, 2005). From personal communication with authors, 2008.
A floor plan shows the location of the different areas and rooms required by the client, as well as the sizes, names, walls, and floor limits in a drawing. This drawing must be made for each story of our building and it “should” meet the original Space Program of the clients (depends on the type of building: schools, hotels, sports, residential, etc.). This concept will be described in the following chapter. Under this criterion, it seems easy to run the design only by collecting the rooms in areas one next to each other, and then the areas together should “look” like a building. However, this process will probably generate amorphous shapes, orthogonal spaces, repetitive, boring, and ugly results, and we do not need to be architects to understand it. Therefore, we discard the way of placing the rooms next to each other and create a building as an irrational addition of spaces.
Image 57 Three most famous architects in history: Le Corbusier (1), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (2), and Frank Lloyd Wright (3)
Image 58 Works from Le Corbusier (1), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (2), and Frank Lloyd Wright (3)
There are hundreds of design methods (Loemker, 2006), nevertheless, the building as an “object that contains rooms and spaces” is and it has always been the trend in architecture. In one hand, the architect reads the Space Program of the client (keeping it in mind and processing it) and in the other hand, he/she desires to design a “beautiful” form, into which to put the rooms later. This trend can be observed in some examples of three of the most famous architects in the history (see Image 57). In Image 58, there are built projects from some of most famous architects in history: Le Corbusier (Switzerland/French, 1887-1965): Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp (French, 1954). Mies Van der Rohe (Germany, 1886-1969): Farnsworth House in Illinois, (USA, 1951). Frank Lloyd Wright (USA, 1867-1959): “Fallingwater” or Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence in Pennsylvania (USA, 1935). The following authors offer a wide overview and discussion about the work and contribution of these architects: Brooks, 2004 (about Frank Lloyd Wright); Cohen, 2006 (Le Corbusier); Lupfer and Sigel, 2006 (Gropius); Zimmerman, 2006 (Mies van der Rohe). 68
The phenomenon is also observed in the current results of big international competitions by Norman Foster, Zaha Hadid, Rem Koolhaas (OMA), and Frank Gehry (see Image 59). In all these works, we can see the predominance of an exterior shape/form that contains the rooms. Although these cases are very interesting for learning about current architecture, this research is not about these types of design, but about regular and simple shapes.
Image 59 Norman Foster (1), Frank Gehry (2), Zaha Hadid (3), Rem Koolhaas OMA (4), Renzo Piano (5) . From architects´ websites, visited on 21.06.2010.
The complexity of this process can be observed in this example by OMA Architects (see Figure 11), of the China Central Television Headquarters building in Beijing. Here the space program is “forced” to be inside the curious shape of the building (a geometric dialogue between two Z). One can see here, in color, how the different areas are located following complex functional requirements and constraints; nevertheless, they always fit the exterior form. Another example is the new Shard London Bridge by Renzo Piano (current construction, 2010) where all the areas and rooms of the building are fit inside an iceberg-like sculpture emerging from the River Thames (see Figure 12).
Figure 11 China Central Television Headquarters building in Beijing. From Architect’s website, visited on 21.06.2010
Figure 12 The London Bridge Tower by Renzo Piano. From www.plataformarquitectura.cl, visited on 25.06.2010.
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How to put rooms into a shape is something seldom described in architecture books, nor during the studies at the university. The teachers of Architectural Design courses at the universities react to a result of the students’ drawings or models, and the teachers make some suggestions (“…change the shape”, “…move this room”, “…delete this room”, “…make it bigger/smaller”, etc.) in a process known as “critique sessions” and at the end one can see mostly a final result, but not the process. A famous sentence in architecture from Louis H. Sullivan, “form follows function,” states that the shape of a building or object should be predicated by or based upon its intended function or purpose. Ching (1979) and Neufert have made big and famous efforts to explain some “techniques,” but not steps or rules, to distribute the rooms into a shape. Moelle (2006) offers a wide overview of methods and trends in the history of Architecture. We must conclude that this process is still a black box: the result appears suddenly, like magic. In the practice of Architecture a methodology of do-evaluate-do loop, or Trial-Error methodology, is also utilized. It is described as a process with intermediate design stages. These stages are represented by scale model (carton, foam, plastic, etc.), sketches, and architectural drawings (floor plans, sections and elevations). In the internal meetings (or with the clients) they are evaluated, the positive aspects are preserved, and the negative ones are discarded. A new project is generated using the best of the previous ones and adding some new features. Image 60 shows a summary of building shapes in different times of history. In some of them different floor-plan configurations can be observed. Here one can see that most of the time the shape is the most important part of the architectural design, the rest (space program, materials, etc.) follow the shape.
Image 60 Summary of building shapes. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009, from Neufert, 1935.
3.2.1 Foundations of Floor Plan Layout in Architectural Design The creation of an architectural floor layout has been labelled under different names, such as: functional planning, space planning, schematic layout, floor plan development, floor layout, arrangement of rooms, room distribution, etc. All of them attempt to assign relationships to a function, this means: from the space program of the client (rooms and sizes) architects must decide which functions are connected (or not) to others through a relationship. This process is not established in any book. If one wants to design a house in which every room is a separated small building and one has to move from one to another through an outer space, this would be completely senseless and uncomfortable, but it is not forbidden. There are a hundred types of buildings (see Table 12); only in some types, there are some “rules” for the relationships of some functions (hospitals, schools, etc.). Neufert (1935) has made a great effort trying to describe a wide range of cases and making suggestions to architects. When a client decides on a new house or building, he/she normally presents the site to the architect and declares what he/she needs there. This declaration of needs is called “Space Program”: a transcription or a translation of
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the needs (human activities) of the client into an architectural programmatic language, this means, words and numbers able to be interpreted by the architect into rooms, sizes, and some relationships between these rooms. This list of rooms is also known under several names: Project Program, Project Summary, Architectural Order, etc. However, the term SPACE PROGRAM will be adopted because it refers to the use and size of these spatial requirements. Since our research is not focused on the sizes of rooms, but the distribution of them, some standard sizes for the examples will be written. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUILDINGS (ABOUT USE) 1. Agricultural buildings 2. Commercial buildings
3. Residential Buildings 4. Educational buildings
5. Government buildings 6. Industrial buildings 7. Military buildings 8. Parking and storage 9. Religious buildings
Barn, Chicken coop or chickenhouse, Greenhouse, Silo, Stable, Storm cellar, Tide mill, Root cellar, Hayloft, Farmhouse, Well house, Shed, Grainery, Watermill, Wind mill, Horse mill Bank, Bar, Pub, Brothel, Casino, Coffee house, Convention center, Forum, Gas station, Hotel, Motel, Market, Nightclub, Jazz club, Office building, Restaurant, Skyscraper, Shop Retail store, Shopping mall, Stock exchange, Supermarket, Warehouse, Apartment block, Asylum, Condominium, Dormitory, Duplex, House, HighRise Residential Buildings College (Classroom Building, Dormitory, Gymnasium, Students' union), School, Library Museum (Art gallery) Theater (Amphitheater, Concert hall, Cinema, Opera house, Symphony) University Capitol, City hall, Consulate, Courthouse, Embassy, Fire station, Palace, Parliament, Police station, Post office, Prison Brewery, Factory, Foundry, Mining, Power plant, Refinery, Mill
Barracks, Bunker (Blockhouse), Castle, Citadel, City gate, Defensive wall, Fort, Fortification, Tower Aircraft hangar, Barn, Boathouse, Carport, Garage, Shed, Storage silo, Warehouse, Church, Basilica, Cathedral, Duomo, Chapel, Oratory, Martyrium, Mosque, Mihrab, Imambargah, Monastery, Mithraeum, Fire Temple, Pyramid, Shrine, Synagogue, Temple, Pagoda, Gurdwara 10. Transit Airport terminal, Bus station, Ferry slip, Metro (subway, underground) stations station, Train station 11. Sport Stadium (Arena), Swimming Pool 12. Health Hospital, Clinics, Sanatorium Table 12 Different types of buildings (about use). Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009
In the Space Proram the spaces (NAMES) and their sizes (AREAS) must be named, listed and grouped in areas. In this moment, the architectural layout design phenomenon begins. This is to put all these rooms into a 3D shape and to add functionality and orientation. It means a specific “adjacency” relationship and “location” of the room about any criteria: sun path, wind, views, optimal paths, or spiritual meanings (e.g.: FengShui). The whole functional features of the type of building has to be described in detail. This description will vary in accordance with the type of building. From this step a Total Area is obtained by adding all of the space sizes listed in the Space Program Schedule. Other names for “function” are related to the activities that will take place inside the room are: use, utility, functionality, space. other words for “relationship” are: order, structure, distribution, organization, scheme, arrangement, and orientation. 3.2.2 Criteria, Variables and Rules When the architect starts to refine and organize this Space Program, he/she has to fulfill some criteria. Depending on each case, one criterion could be more important than other. Based on our own experience as practitioners and several bibliographic resources (Neufert, Ching, Hsu, Elezkurtaj), next we describe the most common criteria grouped in rational criteria (possible to measure under rational procedures) and general design criteria (not possible to measure under rational or procedures). In order to explain this concept, we will use as an example the design of a small house that contains six rooms: toilette, access, bedroom, kitchen, living room and corridor.
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3.2.2.1
Rational Criteria for Architectural Floor Plan Layout
1. Solar The placing of rooms in the optimum place and orientation about the sun refers to the solar criteria. Objective: To assure natural illumination to the major quantity of rooms of long stay. Unit: vector. 2. Views The placing of spaces in the optimum place and orientation about the views to any desired target (landscape, building, etc) refers to the view criteria. Objective: To assure the best views from the long-stay rooms to the landscape (parks, hills, lake) or surroundings (buildings, street). Unit: vector. 3. Accessibility It is referred to the distance between the main street (street of access) and the building’s entrance. Objective: To minimize the distance to access the building. Unit: meters.
Image 61 Solar Criteria. From Ecotect software HELP documents © 2009.
Figure 13 Accesibility Criteria. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Image 62 View Criteria. From Website plataforma arquitectura visited on 01.03.2009.
Figure 14 Related Functions Criteria. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2009.
4. Functions and Related Functions The spaces have functions in order to fullfill the requirements of the Space Program (rooms to sleep, kitchen to cook, corridor to walk, etc.), and these functions are related in different levels. Sometimes the relationship is strong, while others are weak. Objective: to establish which rooms are high, medium or low related, and which room is desired NOT to be closer to any other. Unit: factor. 5. Minimum distance The objective here is to have a minimum distance between rooms for optimizing the length of circulation spaces. The picture shows that different layouts have different internal distances. Unit: meters.
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6. Efficiency (Circulation/ Usable Ratio - Circulation) It is the result of comparing the circulation’s area with the usable area. Objective: to keep the most areas for rooms and fewer areas for circulation. Unit: Percentage. 7. Efficiency (Volume/Usable) It is the result of comparing the volume of each space with the usable volume in it. Objective: to keep the most volume for use and less unusable volume. Other aspects like the sun and ventilation could have an influence over this variable. Unit: Percentage. 8. Size The size of the room (width x length x height) is referred to some size pattern or standards based on the building type (hotels, schools, Residential). Unit: sqm (m2).
Figure 15 Minimum distance Criteria. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Figure 16 Modulor by Le Corbusier. Schema about proportions based in the golden section.
Figure 17 Neufert and the standard sizes required in Architecture. From Neufert, 1935.
9. Sustainable criteria The space distribution should meet any optimum sustainable criteria: carbon footprint, water consumption, minimal surface in perimeter walls, energy consumption, solar gain in surfaces, material quantification, room light load, etc. Several units: meters, m2, %, etc. 3.2.2.2
General Design Criteria for Architectural Floor Plan Layout
1. Geometric Composition The room-layout must be inside a major geometric form (square, circle, arc, rectangles, etc.), as well as sized and grouped following aesthetic intentions. 2. The Divine Proportion / Golden ratio The floor-layout follows the sides of a special rectangle: the lengths of both sides of the rectangle obey a fixed numerical relationship (1.6180339887)68, and then 68 This means it is possible to be measured, but in general terms it belongs to the artistic emphasis of the Architecture.
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the subdivision process is iterated to get more spaces inside the main rectangle. In figure 16, the ratio between the distance of the head and navel to the ground is approximately Phi (1.618...). 3. 3d Shape to fill Ching (1975) defines the possible configurations in space distributions: “Linear, Central, Yard, U Shape, L Shape, Organic shape, and Religious shapes”. 4. Others The layout must follow other criteria: Economical, Structural features, spiritual meanings (FengShui-China, Mapuche-Chile), Construction techniques.
Figure 18 Geometric Composition. From http://images.artnet.com (21.06.2010).
Figure 19 Golden ratio image. From www.alyshawkins.co.uk (21.06.2010).
Figure 20 3D Shape to fill criteria. From Ching, 1975.
Figure 21 3D Shape to fill criteria. From Ching, 1975.
COMPARISON FOR Space Layout Planning CRITERIA Criteria
Unit
ARCH.
ENG.
Relevance in our case √ 1. Solar Vector High √ 2. Views Vector Flexible √ √ 3. Accessibility m High √ 4. Functions and Related Functions factor High √ 5. Minimum distance m High √ 6. Efficiency (Circulation) Percentage High √ 7. Efficiency (Volume) Percentage High √ √ 8. Size sq. High √ ? 9. Sustainable criteria several Not important √ 10. Geometric Composition -Not important √ 11. The Divine Proportion Ratio Not important √ 12. 3d Shape to fill -High √ √ 13. Others -Flexible Table 13 Comparison for Rational Criteria between Architecture and Engineering. Self Elaboration © Lobos 2009
Therefore, a table that compares Architecture and Engineering Rational Design Criteria is presented (see Table 13). Conclusions All these requirements should be considered during the architectural floor layout creation. Now our problem is to put the rooms together following at least some of these requirements. For this research, we will apply our concept to a specific type of building (High-Rise Residential Building) as described in chapter 3.3 Study Case. The creation of floor plan layouts in Architecture is a problem that, 74
because of its complexity, has no precise method to be resolved. In a floor-plan design, it is not possible to fulfill all of the criteria, only some of them. In current practice, at the end of the design process, architects may declare that the final design is optimized for any or more criteria (solar, views, etc.), but they lack tools to demonstrate it in a scientific way, and they do not have time (and tools) to explore more designs and evaluate them quickly. This stage can be represented through some abstract type of drawings or sketches called Matrix / Schemas (see Figure 22). Finally, the conversion from these abstract drawings to a real design (a final floor layout) is neither clear, nor established, and it remains in the “black box” paradigm (Lyon, 2007). Although the author does not agree totally with this sentence, there is no evidence against it.
Figure 22. Some abstract drawings or sketches called: Matrix / Schemas
3.3
Study Case
Following the same criteria utilized in the first part about Urban Codes, we present a case study to get to know the problem in a real context. We use the same type of high-rise residential buildings, and we inquire about space layout planning aspects in depth. High-Rise Residential Building vs. the World´s Top Architecture The design of a high-rise residential building is a very specific case of architectural design. Architects must find the equilibrium between beauty, comfort, and price under a lot of pressure from the clients, who wait for a high profitability, and the Government that rules the location and maximum sizes of such buildings. Architects must handle more than a thousand objects (See Table 31 on the Appendix) during the development of all floor plans; every object has a very clear relationship with the others and most of the time they have constraints (in different levels: desired position or closeness, adjacency and nonadjacency requirements, etc.). In this specific field, architects deal with neither the creativity of the exterior envelope and beautiful internal views, nor complex space connections, as it could be expected in other types of buildings such as museums, houses, universities, banks, or government buildings. In this case, the effectiveness of the solution and the ability to handle this large set of objects and put them into a building following several constraints is important. Since architects work under a time pressure, they do not always have time to explore more configurations or alternatives to an idea. For this reason, it is a motivation for us to improve this process with our research. 3.3.1 Process and Sequence for Designing High-Rise Residential Buildings An introduction to the process as well as the reason why we are doing this inquiry about this type of building were presented in 2.3.5 Variable: Client and the Space Program. Here it was described how clients plan their investment (site, building type, profitability) and what the architect´s role is (mass/bulk volume, Space Program schemas, Zoning Planning). The process is so regular, and it has been often mentioned and criticized as a Real Estate formula69. In this formula architects’ work should play a functional role rather than creative one, and it would be a part of a big system related to economical plans.
69 Assadi, 2008 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals]
75
There are two methods that run parallel: one following the Urban Codes70 that requires an official presentation of about ten items (Application Forms, 2d Plans, Area Schedules, Shadows Scheme, etc. An example can be seen in Annexes 9.6 Edificio Cumbres de Providencia), and the other is what happens during the design phase in the office (same contents but in different order), as discussed in Chapter 9.10 Notes on the Interviews . Here we present a scheme for the design of a high-rise residential building in Chile for Permission and its sequence for the practice in offices (see Table 14). It will help the reader to understand each step of the total process of design: from looking for a site till room-layout. Furthermore, we show that this process is not as simple as the researches in Space Layout Planning normally think. 1.COMMUNE OR DISTRICT
2. SECTOR
3. CLASS
4. MARKET STUDY
A. Site
A. Size of Flat - 0-60m2 - 60-140m2 - 140m2 above
A. Needs of Clients
B. Density of plot - 300 inhab /ha - 400 hab/ha - 800 hab/ha
C. Market Situation
B. Type - Health, Hotel, Education, Housing,Trade, - Military, - Etc
A plot in the city 6. URBAN CODES
C. Conditions - Density - Urban Codes - Site Report 7. FLOOR PLATES
C. Occupation Load - 0-60m2 -15 - 60-140m2 -20 - 140m2 above-30
D. Decision of - Type - Size - Content (1bedroom, 2br, 3br)
A. Relationships between rooms B. Possible sizes of rooms(Range of possibilities) C. Use of templates D. Use of Excel
E. Number of Parking Lots F. Services
8. VARIABLES FOR FLOOR-LAYOUT
A. Grouping modes - Isolated - Attached - Semi attached - Mix
A. Building Envelope (prototype)
B. Distances - Set backs - Sky exposure plane - Parking underground
B. Floor Plates
B. InternalRelationships - Distances - Efficiency
C. Technical Spaces - Corridors - Stairs - Elevations - Accesses
C. Context- Height in Building - Size - Cost
C. Areas - Plot area ratio - Floor area ratio
B. Competent (Nearest Buildings)
5.TYPOLOGY AND SIZES
9. LEVEL FLOOR-LAYOUT “Units + Services”
10. FLAT FLOOR-LAYOUT “ Rooms”
A. External - View - Sun - Access
A. Units - 1 bedroom - 2 bedrooms - 3 bedrooms B. Services - Laundry - Meeting room - lodge/hall
Rooms - Rooms - Kitchen - Corridors - Living - Terraces
Table 14 Process and Sequence for Designing High-Rise Residential Buildings in an office. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
3.3.2 Chosen Buildings The following buildings were chosen from a vast universe of candidates that fulfill the profile of study. The criterion was the quantity/quality of information that we have about them, mainly related to the availability of floor plans and pictures for a deep analysis. Floor-plan schemas and rooms will be analyzed to extract some schemas, based on graph and topology approach. Detailed information about drawing sources can be found in the Appendix. 1. Edificio Gen (24 stories, 298 flats) Located in Avda Portugal 415 (Santiago, Chile); site area: 1,535 m2; built area: 21,900 m2; built in 2007-2009; designed by Felipe Assadi, Francisca Pulido, Trinidad Schönthaler, and David Zapata; owner: Inmobiliaria Unco. 2. Edificio Cumbres de Providencia (15 stories, 93 Flats) Located in Galvarino Gallardo 1955 (Providencia, Chile); site area: 1,957 m2; built area: 7,455 m2; built in 2004-2005; designed by Badía & Soffia Architects; owner: Inmobiliaria V & P Ltda. 70 MINVU, 2007 pp294 [Government Official Laws and Reports]
76
3. Edificio Puerta del Golf (22 stories, 63 Flats, two towers) Located in Avenida El Golf esquina Presidente Riesco (Las Condes, Chile), site area: 2.951 m2; built area: 6,361 m2; built in 2005-2006; designed by Borja Huidobro, German Zegers, and Cristian Valdivieso; owner: Inmobiliaria F.F.V. Finally, from the analytic observations of drawings and using data scheduling techniques, a table is generated (see Table 15). Detailed information about drawing sources can be found in Appendix 9.4 Plans and Drawings for Buildings
Image 63 Abstract of data from Edificio Gen. From ARQ, 2008.
Image 64 Abstract of data from Edificio Cumbres. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Conclusions Chilean high-rise residential buildings from the samples given present the following common features. The site has a rectangular shape. The ground floor layout and height are different from the rest of the building levels. There is a “repetitive story” from 1st or 2nd floor and over. Every level has a kernel; this is a set of objects such as a lift, a corridor, a staircase, and shafts as a repetitive unit. Terraces and balconies may or may not be included within the level boundary. 77
Image 65 Abstract of data from Edificio Puerta del Golf. From ARQ, 2008
FEATURES
EDIFICIO EDIFICIO EDIFICIO GEN CUMBRES PUERTAGOLF Number of Stories 24 15 22 Rectangular shape of site Yes Yes Yes Ground Floor different to Levels Yes Yes Yes Repetitive story above Ground Level . Yes Yes Yes Kernel: lift, corridor, staircase and shaft Yes Yes Yes Terraces/ Balconies within boundary. Yes No No Table 15 Common features for Chilean High-Rise Residential buildings. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Image 66 Type of floor-plan layout used currently in Chile. Screenshot from Wurman (2006).
3.3.3 The Floor-Plan On previous chapters about urban codes and profile of study object, we have described the section of the floor plan as a simple rectangle. As described in Wurman (2006), we can observe that most of the configurations present a small projection out of the boundary. These elements are, in most of the cases, the terraces and balconies; if they are projected, then it is scheduled officially as half-surface in the Total Surface Schedule of the Chilean Urban Code71. This phenomenon must be considered like flexibility and user interaction requirements for our concept. About the type of floor-plan layout used currently in Chile, Wurman (2006) also researches the offer in the market and concludes: “…Se obtuvo así, como resultado inicial, 32 configuraciones únicas que se están utilizando actualmente en Chile en la construcción de vivienda en altura. De estas configuraciones, 4 son de un dormitorio, 6 de dos dormitorios, 4 de dos dormitorios con servicios, 10 de tres dormitorios y 8 de cuatro o más dormitorios o tres dormitorios con servicios…” 72
The result was 32 configurations (translation by the author): 4 of them have 1 bedroom, 6 of them have 2 bedrooms, 4 of them have 2 bedrooms + services, 10 of them have 3 bedrooms + services, 8 of them have 4 or more bedrooms + services. Moreover, he carried out an in-depth analysis of the 10 types (see Image 66) because it was the most complex and frequent case. The aim of the inquiry 71 LGUC, 2007 [Government Official Laws and Reports] 72 Wurman 2006, pp120 [PhD and MSc Thesis]
78
was to determine the optimal lengths of circulations by comparing the circulation area against the total area looking for the best configuration. It was found that the optimal was configuration number 77. Detailed images are shown in the Appendix (9.8 Wurman Floor Plans). Conclusions Most of the boundaries of the flats are a rectangle or come from a rectangular composition. All of the rooms have a rectangular shape. Rooms have functional relationships. A typical layout contains a kitchen, access, toilette, corridor, bedroom, living room, and terrace. An important observation is the presence of some constants in the topological structure, i.e.: access-corridor-living room, room1-room2-WC, corridor-living room-terrace, etc. This phenomenon supports our thesis that the configuration of floor plans can be explained through Graph and Topology approach. 3.3.4 Space Program The Space Program (SP) for our case study is very large: for a common and typical building, let us say fifteen stories, eight flats per level, six rooms each flat (access, corridor, kitchen, room, toilette, and terrace), there could be seven hundred objects/rooms to be distributed by the architect. Therefore, we need a way to group all this information; once it is grouped we can read it in an abstract way, and then it is easier to handle these abstractions: areas, levels, stories, public/private areas. Building number 2 Edificio Cumbres was chosen to extract SP information. The technique utilized for the extraction of information was the analysis of drawings of the building (floor plans, schedules) and generation of a Spread Sheet with rows and columns that contain all the Space Program data of the building, related to areas and rooms. The three main categories are: 1) Zoning Planning: Urban Codes and values applied for the design. 2) Private Space: Flats, storerooms, and parking lots located in the building. 3) Public Space: Kernel (Stair, Corridor, Lifts, etc.) and facilities (Lodge, Entrance, Engineering Rooms, Swimming Pool, etc.). Conclusions As we can see here, the amount of objects is very large and shows some common adjacencies (or topological relationships) like access-kitchen-toilette, toiletteroom-terrace, etc. One can consider this numerical result as a basic standard since it is always found in low- and middle-class buildings, and it increases in upper-class buildings. 3.3.5 Sizes for Spaces: a Discreet Universe Of course, there is no fixed table to rule the range of possible sizes of a room for a building in Chile. There are only books about general human dimensions and possible room sizes for all types of buildings, like Neufert´s book (1935), because each case is different. Nevertheless, we can say that each room in this type of building has a minimum and a maximum length and depth73. These will depend on the location of the building that determines type, cost, size, materials, etc. The location can be in upper-, middle- or working class areas. What is possible is to set a group of possible sizes for a specific type of building, in a specific part of the city, in a specific Architecture Office (like our case). This table should be like a “library”. Normally, this type of information is not written, and it resides only in the architects´ minds, and therefore it is not public information. However, in our case, we have interviewed architects (see Appendix), and we have analyzed the floor plans; the results follow these principles. There is a range of sizes for each kind of room. The range depends on the location of the building. This range is not infinite. It is a “discrete” range (not infinite). It is based on a Module by five cm (given by concrete formwork pieces). It starts with a minimum given by the standards in the Urban Code. It ends with a maximum determined by common sense following the location of the building.
73 Steinmann, 1997 gives a correct solution to this problem by assigning an objective function to these parameters, his prototype allows the users to go beyond the sizes but it warns about it.
79
Conclusions about the design process of a high-rise residential building It is complex to design. Hundreds of objects must be placed and they must meet many criteria. Diagrams and graphs can be used to deal with this complex information. There is no creativity on the shape, but there is creativity in the space distribution. There is a high demand on the goals and the satisfaction of constraints. Rectangular shapes for boundaries are used on each floor level. No CAAD tools for decision are used during the process, but they are used for visualization. Previous floor layouts are utilized as templates, and they are the base for a new design. 3.4 Automated Space Layout Planning In general, a Layout deals with objects and their relationships, no matter if these objects are rectangles, nodes, train stations, motherboard pieces, facilities, or rooms. For designers (in our case architects), the problem is as follows: given a set of objects and some relationships between them, make a layout that contains such objects and such relationships. This sounds easy, but normally this layout must also have some other meanings given by external requirements, that are not the same as the relationships. These requirements vary from one field to another, and can be considered as constraints. It is not easy to determine why these constraints cannot be included in the list of relationships, but experience and literature lead us to believe this. Then, designers must work with these three sets of resources: objects, relationships and constraints. In the case of Architecture, we add the term space since it works with rooms, and for our research, we included the term automated that represents the aid of computers in the generation of such layouts. Most of the research in this subject comes from fields such as Engineering, Mathematics and even Biology. One similar approach was found in the “Floor Planning” sub-field of Engineering and here one can find some areas that use these techniques and related concepts: 1) Computer Design: driven layout and floor planning of electronic devices and systems (motherboards, keyboards). 2) Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): automatic layout generators for I/O cells, VLSI (very large-scale integrated circuit) layout. 3) Vision systems - Computer vision-Sensor array: Automated camera layout to satisfy task-specific and floor plan-specific coverage requirements. 4) Facilities Layout, Plant Design, Engineering and Operations Research, etc. In Architectural Design, there is a lack of tools for space planning (as concluded in the state-of-the-art chapter). Therefore, to find approaches that support the solution of the problem they had to look to the other mentioned fields; the problem, as mentioned before, is: when we shift to other disciplines we lose some variables and we gain some new ones. 3.4.1 Brief History and Development of Space Layout Planning The oldest approach used to face the problem is called “Floor plan design for industry”. Del Río Cidoncha et al. (2007) describes it through the following stages: definition of products and production process, location of industrial plant, Industrial plant project, building and facilities. The study of methodologies was carried out intensively in the 50´s (Immer and Buffa). Then Space Layout Planning (Systematic Layout Planning) by Muther in 1961 in which the flow of material and works for every type of floor plan was included, no matter the type of building (offices, schools, etc.). After that, no other important researches were carried out in this field due to the wide acceptance of the Space Layout Planning method. The last years the researches have gone deeply into ´layout generation` and ´solution optimization`, only two steps of the complete process (Del Río-Cidoncha et al., 2003). Naturally, many other authors have tried to use this and other approaches. Table 16 shows a small list/history of authors that have researched the field of Space Planning. One can see here that the beginning of the studies in this field was more than fifty years ago. In addition, Mitchell and Dillon (1972) were the first researches that brought the problem to the architectural design field. Since then, they have been developed four main approaches. Therefore, 80
under the historic and architectural point of view, the four main trends and their precursors are: Expert Systems (Flemming, Coyne), Shape Grammar (Stiny, Mitchell, Duarte), Generative (Gero, Fraser), and Constraint-Based (Gross, Medjdoub and Yannou, Hsu). Nevertheless, some of them have no recent developments or they have new names. We use the current research for each trend in our state-of-the-art review. Author
Title
Buffa, E.S Buffa, E.S., Armour, G.L., Vollman, T.E. Johnson, T.E., Weinzapfel, G.E., Perkins, J. I., et al. Mitchell, W.J.:
Sequence analysis for functional layouts. Allocating Facilities with Craft
Miller, W.R. Eastman, C.E. Al Banna, S. and Spillers, W.R.: Mitchell, W.J. and Dillon, R.
IMAGE: An Interactive Graphics-Based Computer System for Multi-Constrained Spatial Synthesis. A Computer-Aided Approach to Complex Building Layout Problems Computer-Aided Space Planning A System for Computer Assisted Space Planning An Interactive Computer Graphics Space Allocation A Polynomial Assembly Procedure for Architectural Floor Planning
Stiny G, Gips J
"Shape Grammars and the Generative Specification of Painting and Sculpture"
Krawczyk, R.J.
SPACE PLAN: a User Oriented Package for the Evaluation and the Generation of Spatial Inter-Relationship A System for Computer-Aided Design in Architecture
Gero, J. S.
Teicholz, E.
The Computer in the Space Planning Process
Gero, J. S Weinzapfel, G., Negroponte, N. Fortin, G.
Computer Aids to Design And Architecture Architecture-by-yourself. An Experiment with Computer Graphics for House Design BUBBLE: Relationship Diagram using Iterative Vector Approximation
Ruch, J.
Publication / Reference J. Ind. Eng. Harvard Business Review M.I.T.
Year
EDRA2 Conference
1970
Workshop on Design Automation Workshop on Design Automation Workshop on Design Automation Third Environmental Design Research Association Conference C V Freiman (ed) Information Processing 71 10th Design Automation Workshop
1970
Principles of Computer-Aided Design 12thDesign Automation Conference N. Negroponte (ed.) Siggraph
1973
15th Design Automation Conference Conference on Design Automation CAAD Futures
1978
1955 1964 1970
1971 1972 1972
1972
1973
1975
1975 1976
Interactive Space Layout: A Graphic 1978 Theoretical Approach Shaviv, E. Automatic Generation of Optimal or 1985 Quasioptimal Building Layout Table 16 List of Authors in the Field of Space Planning. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008.
3.4.2 State-of-the-art Review There are three main categories to group the reviewed literature: prototypes and researches (related to academic activities), and commercial CAAD software (packages from companies available in the market, which we divide into BIM and non-BIM packages). Since it is a source of knowledge for us, we have decided to include in this state-of-the-art review some interviews with people related to Computer Science academic/research area and architects who are practitioners in this specific type of buildings. Finally, graph software programs are reviewed. Due to their ability to keep relationships between objects nodes and vertex, they will be used in the development of our own framework. 3.4.2.1 Prototypes and Research The last ten years of research have been reviewed. The first interesting point found here is that many names are given to this sub-field of research (See Table 17). We will use the term “Space Planning” because it brings more possibilities for the three-dimensional planning. The second is to present a descriptive survey of each approach. They will be described: Author (year), techniques utilized, procedures description, screenshots (see Figure 23); and finally an evaluation of each one (the pros and cons). They are sorted by year. 81
1. Arvin and House (1999). Physically Based Modeling Techniques 74 Forces and elastic band concepts are applied to a functional space program. Use of “Dynamic Physic Simulation”. Adjacency is modelled as a spring (elastic) connection. It transforms the designer's “intention” of “to move a space” into forces. Pros: Objective design vs. constrained design comparison. It allows users interaction like in the “real world”. Detailed description of the implementation is discussed. Cons: Complex definition for relationship between spaces/mass and vice-versa. Names Automated Layout Automated Floor Plan Generation Space Layout Planning Floor Layout problem Autonomous Layout Design Space Planning, Space Planning Methods Space Allocation, Floor Space Relocation Architectural Layout Design
Author (Year) Hassett, 1982 Chichian, 1996 Arvin and House, 1999 Li, Frazer and Tang, 2000 Epstein, 2001 Hsu, 2000 / Hsu and Krawczyck, 2003
Al and Spillers,1972 / Loemker, 2006 Michalek, Choudhary and Papalambros, 2002 / Nilkaew, 2006 / Keatruangkamala and Sinapiromsaran, 2005 Table 17 Other names given to this sub-field of research. Self Elaboration Lobos © 2008.
Image 67 Arvin and House (1999). Physically Based Modeling Techniques
Image 68 Hsu (2000). Constraint Based
Image 70 Elezkurtaj and Franck Image 69 Elezkurtaj and Franck. Generative Design
2. Hsu (2000). Constraint Based 75 It creates a Database with relationships between spaces and the surrounding (site, sun, light, wind). Features: AutoCAD + LISP. Generation of several options. Use of colors and 3D Diagrams. It generates a 3d wall model. Pros: It considers architectural input for the Database like relationships, site and natural conditions. The application follows these restrictions (constraints). It works in a well-known environment (AutoCAD). Cons: No description of implementation (just the language: AutoLISP + AutoCAD). No use of non-rectangular shapes. No accuracy in spatial orientation. Difficult to check spatial relationships.
74 Arvin and House, 1999 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 75 Hsu, 2000[Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
82
3. Elezkurtaj and Franck (1999-2002). Generative Design 76-77-78 It is a system that supports architectural floor plan design interactively. Approach: New AI (Artificial Intelligence), Evolutionary Strategy (ES) and Genetic Algorithm (GA). It deals with the definition of the function in architecture, allowing some proportions for the room and some topological relationship between them. When the solution is created automatically by GA. Then it allows the user to modify the results i.e. drag a side of the room, to fix (verankerung function) a room and process the others, and see the new solution in real time. It allows changing the outline (boundary) of the floor plan. Pros: Wide description of GA function and optimal, how to search for the optimum. Description of mathematical operations. Interface emulates architectural design environments, simple use, allows easy and intuitive interaction with the user with a fast answer in real time. Prototype is available. The result is very acceptable in terms of architectural design. Description and critics of AI, New AI, Shape grammars and GA are a contribution to the discussion and theory in this sub-field. Cons: No description of implementation. Images of samples in publications are not clear. No real case of study (only from students). There is no a fix room list. It does not consider specific cases (just standard cases). Missing links to web in papers. Use of an editable boundary to contain spaces is not clear.
Image 71 Li, Frazer and Thang (2000) Constraint Based Generative System.
Image 72 Michalek, Choudhary and Papalambros (2002). Gradient Based and Evolutionary Algorithms
Image 73 Hsu and Krawczyk (2003, 2004). Computer Aided Design In Space Planning Methods.
Image 74 Hsu and Krawczyk (2003, 2004). Computer Aided Design In Space Planning Methods
4. Li, Frazer and Thang (2000) Constraint Based Generative System 79 Non Linear Programming that provides multiple solutions inside a rectangular floor plate. It uses LINGO, a Non Linear Solver mixed with Space Layout Planning (Successive Linear Programming) and GRG (Generalized Reduce Gradient Alg.). Visual implementation in Microstation. 10 solutions in 4 minutes. Optimal and sub-optimal solutions for giving designers “other inspirations”. Pros: Constrained Based Approach similar to the architectural practice. It is a “real” solution using “real” data. Deep explanation of implementation and techniques (Space Layout Planning and GRG). Cons: irregular boundaries are not included. Complex mix of implementation solvers Space Layout Planning and GRG is hard to understand for non-experts users. 76 Elezkurtaj and Franck, 2000 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 77 Elezkurtaj and Franck, 2002 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 78 Elezkurtaj and Franck, 1999 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 79 Li, Frazer and Tang, 2000 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
83
5. Michalek, Choudhary and Papalambros (2002) Gradient Based and Evolutionary Algorithms 80-81-82 It shows an Optimization Model, and a method for integrating Mathematical Optimization and Subjective Decision during Conceptual design. Use of Gradient Based Algorithms and Evolutionary Algorithms for discrete decisions and global search. It defines the available space as a set of GRID squares and uses an Algorithm to allocate each square into a room activity. Pros: It takes into consideration the Aesthetic and other subjective aspects of design. Mathematical optimization allows the user to interact within the design process without worrying about the background complex operations through an “object-oriented representation”. Designers can change objects and constraints during the process. Cons: Very complex description of how each variable responds to one another. The language of the methodology and the process is not related to an architectural environment. 6. Hsu and Krawczyk (2003). CAD In Space Planning Methods 83-84 It presents the State-of-the-art of CAD in Space Planning, description of techniques: Neighbor Searching techniques, Switching techniques, Random techniques, Zoning Clustering, Virtual Grid Searching Methods, Bubble Diagram simulation, Interactive Space Layout, and Physically Based Space modification. Finally, it shows the novel SPDA tool: Space Planning Design Assistant (Hsu, 2003). Pros: Qualification of spatial character in residential, firms, banks, and theatre. Division between fragmental and solid forms. Cons: It doesn’t consider the volume or shape that the architects use. Complex description of how to use the application. It does not describe which is the input of the user.
Image 75 Keatruangkamala and Sinapiromsaram (2005) Mixed Integer Programming
Image 76 Duarte (2003) Discursive Grammar
7. Duarte (2003). Discursive Grammar 85 It shows a process for mass customized housing based on computer-aided design and production systems. Development of an interactive system for generating solutions on the Web based on a “discursive grammar” (programming grammar and a designing grammar). Provides the rules for generating designs in a particular style. Describes the design grammar using Alvaro Siza´s houses at Malagueira as a case study. Pros: The use of computer driven shape grammar came close to passing an architectural Turing test (Elezkurtaj and Frank, 2000). Cons: Plans are meaningful only if they are well formed, which means that the elements are defined in a clear-cut way and manipulated according to syntactical rules (Elezkurtaj and Frank, 2002). Architectural design cannot be reduced to producing graphics and imitating styles (Elezkurtaj and Frank, 2000). 8. Keatruangkamala and Sinapiromsaram (2005) Mixed Programming 86 Several houses design with 4,5,6,7 and 8 rooms. Use of solvers: GLPK, CPLEX, DICOPT. Definition of variables and parameters: functional, constraints dimension. Constraint and objective functions: minimize the distance among rooms and maximize room spaces. Use of GLPK (GNU Linear programming Kit) from Moscow Aviation Institute (Russia). Pros: Clear interface, fast and promise the optimal layout solution with multi-objectives. It continues the stream from [4]. Cons:
80 Michalek, Choudhary and Papalambros, 2002 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] 81 Michalek and Papalambros, 2002 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] 82 Choudhary and Michalek, 2005 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 83 Hsu and Krawczyk, 2004 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 84 Hsu and Krawczyk, 2003 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 85 Duarte, 2003 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 86 Keatruangkamala and Sinapiromsaram, 2005 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
84
Complex geometry description instead of goals and multi-objectives. No test with architects. Complex understanding of formulae for non-experts. 9. Loemker (2006). Operations Research: Allocation Techniques + Scheduling Algorithms Architectural Layout Planning is described in the form of mathematical rules. It demonstrates that “design” is in principle a combinatorial problem, i.e. a constraint-based search for an overall optimal solution of a design problem. Applied to the design of new buildings, as well as the revitalization of existing buildings. Planning task approach from Operations Research is taken to prepare optimal decisions by the use of mathematical methods, where the understanding of design is in terms of searching for solutions that fulfill specific criteria. It shows the use of scheduling algorithms. It allows Non-destructive optimization of existing floor plans. Pros: it allows distributing a space program into an existing building. The use of a non-rectangular boundary is allowed. Ten results are obtained in a few minutes. The “Non-destructive” approach contributes to create a “Sustainable Renovation of Buildings” concept. Cons: Adaptation of Operation Research approach to resolve the re-allocation is complex for non-expert users. Interface in progress and user interaction (input and constraints) is not described in this paper. No editable boundary is allowed87.
Image 77 Loemker (2006) Operations Research: Allocation Techniques + Scheduling Algorithms
Image 78 Nilkaew (2006) Genetic Algorithm
10.Nilkaew (2006). Genetic Algorithm 88 It studies the House Design problem. Analysis Process: Room Space to Room Relation. Qualitative: Topological (Architectural Space and Relations) and Quantitative: alternate schematic plan options. Made by GA process and computational optimization algorithms. Pros: Easy understanding of concepts: mix of qualitative and quantitative variables. It brings a real logical way of thinking like architects do. It captures information from architectural knowledge: function schemes, sizes, and relationships. Generates several solutions that fit this knowledge. Cons: No use of boundary. No more shapes (only rectangles). No more data about GA implementation and objective function. No description of time consumption. 11.Doulgerakis (2007). Genetic Programming + Unfolding Embryology 89 Implementation of computational methods for the generation and the optimization of floor plans, considering the spatial configuration and the assignment of activities. A Co-operative system was created, which is composed of a Genetic Programming (GP) algorithm and an agent-based unfolding embryology procedure that assigns activities to the spaces generated by the GP algorithm. Ranking Sum Fitness evaluation method is proposed and applied for the achievement of multi-objective optimization. Pros: It gives a complete literature review and classification of Space Layout Planning. A co-operative system (Genetic Programming algorithm + agent-based unfolding embryology procedure) assigns activities to the spaces generated by the GP algorithm in a natural way for designers. Cons: Arbitrary mix of the layout’s social and cultural 87 Founded resources do not show this function, nevertheless in personal communication with the author he confirmed this function in his prototype. 88 Nilkaew, 2006 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 89 Doulgerakis, 2007 [PhD and MSc Thesis]
85
generative forces with evolutionary systems. The Ranking Sum Fitness evaluation method and concepts are not closer to architectural practices. 12.Donath and Gonzalez (2007). Constraint-Based Design 90-91 A participatory housing planning process in Latin America supported by a constraint-based design strategy implemented in two different subdomains of the problem: a Maxon´s Xpresso prototype for the building bulk design problem that consideres variables (constraints) such as: Floor area of unit, lot coverage, constructability, building height and works in a semi-automated way giving the user the chance to intertact with volumens and write the input, it starts from a predefined set of objects and finally it shows a new 3d layout configuration. The second prototype, developed in OPL Studio, is able, after the input of constraints, to find and display a 2D sequence of solutions represented by combinations of rectangles. Pros: it allows the user to interact with the application and see the results in 3d mode in real-time. It considers the constraints of maximum lot coverage and constructability. It describes in deep the process of layout generation for the specific type of houses. Cons: both prototypes resolve different parts of the problem in different environments. The results of the first part are not proved to be applicable to real praxis (architects), or to the rest of the users (planning offices, dwellings, government) because of its complex definition behind and interface. The results of the second part do not prove to respect all the applicable building code of a site.
Image 79 Doulgerakis (2007) Genetic Programming + Unfolding Embryology
Image 81 Donath and Gonzalez. ConstraintBased Design in Participatory Housing Planning.
Image 80 Doulgerakis (2007)
Image 82 Medjoub and Yannou (2001) Topological Level and Heuristic Algorithms.
13.Medjoub and Yannou (2001). Topological Level and Heuristic Algorithms 92 It shows a space planning application that uses Topological solutions and graphs. It applies Heuristics Algorithms for Space Ordering and allows constraints. It resolves topological aspects without presuming dimensions. It is possible to define relationships, orientation, minimum sizes. Pros: concepts like Space Planning, Topological Solutions, Heuristics, Space Ordering and Constraint based are well described. It argues the validity of Constraint Programming. It argues that, in preliminary design, topology is more important than geometry (as a critic to shape grammars, expert systems and others). Clear explanation of variables and constraints. Complete description of searching mechanisms and results. Not 90 Donath and Gonzalez, 2008 [Peer Reviewed Journals] 91 Donath and Gonzalez, 2007 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 92 Medjoub and Yannou, 2001 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals]
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presuming dimensions at the beginning. The space program is handled in an “architectural” way. Cons: It mentions constraint and restriction equations, but doesn’t give names or descriptions. It is tested with architects and other users, but not tabulated. Long time of searching in first steps. Complex resolutions in terms of an architectural context but necessary for the expected solution. 14.Del Rio-Cidoncha (2002-2007). Facility Layout Design The goal of this research was to develop and implement a model for facility layout design and architecture. It takes approaches and definitions from both Architecture and Engineering fields. It mixed Expert System and Artificial Intelligence (AI). Constraints and needs are translated into several algorithms in three stages: Locating (slicing trees), Routing (expert systems based on rules for productions) and Orientation (Computer Assisted Numerical Method) following the FengShui method. It presents the CEF (Cut-Expert FengShui) Methodology that creates floor layouts. Solution based on a mix between three techniques: Slicing Trees, Expert Systems and FengShui. Pros: first approach near to Architecture and Engineering, using elements from both. Excellent state-of-the-art presentation and comparison between approaches, description of techniques in detail. The solution generated “looks like” an architectural floorplan layout. Cons: definitions of the theoretical background are taken from researchers and not from designers. The problem of routing is not an issue in architecture. The process is divided in three parts and it is not clear how the user jumps from one to another. The use of a random existing sample makes it difficult to know the parameters utilized in the original design.
Image 83 Del Rio (2002), Del Rio et all (2007).
Image 84 Multiobjective Optimization tool for Room Configuration
15.Multiobjective Optimization tool for Room Configuration Mathematica is a computational software program used in scientific, engineering, and mathematical fields and other areas of technical computing. It comes from C (a Programming Language). It was originally conceived by Stephen Wolfram; and it is developed by Wolfram Research of Champaign, Illinois. Because it is based on symbolic programming (re-writing of terms), it is also used as a programming language that supports functional and Procedural programming. This case shows a Multiobjective Optimization of a Room Configuration of a very simple building layout with two apartments (red and green), each having only two rooms (red: 1, 2; green: 3, 4) and a corridor. The layouts are ranked according to three criteria: the size of the corridor (the blue grid). The distance of room 3 from the southernmost edge of the layout. The geometrical complexity: the total number of unique coordinates of all the corners of each room. If two rooms share a corner, it is counted only once; for the corridor, the geometrical complexity is the number of unshared vertices. These three values are normalized, weighted, and combined into the aggregate objective function (AOF). The user can change the weights to alter the importance of a given parameter; for example, "It is very important that room 3 (for the green apartment) is on the south AND that the corridor (of the whole layout) is as small as possible". The values of these parameters are shown for each layout. There are 247 different room configurations, but only the 12 best (according to a given AOF) are shown. Pros: it allows one to watch and understand step by step the optimization process. It allows the user to change some parameters by using slide bars. Cons:
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it does not use boundary. Orientation of rooms is hard to understand. Input of graphical information not allowed. Comparison of Different Approaches Third, we made a classification schedule of these approaches (see Table 18). The criteria are Science (from which they do come from), Approach (trend or stream within a science field), Implementation (techniques used in the resolution of the problem) and Boundary use (to distribute the space program, yes or not).
SCIENCE Engineering Mathematics Physics Medicine Architecture
APPROACH Expert Systems Generative (GA and EA) Shape Grammars Constraint Based Graph Approach Mixed Approach Others (Agents, Physic) IMPLEMENTATION Linear Programming Non Linear Programming Gradient Based Algorithms Genetic Algorithms Integer Programming Differential Equations Mathematical Equations Drawing techniques
6
x
x
x
x
9
1 0
x
x
x
1 1
1 2
1 3
1 4
15
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x x x
x x
x
BOUNDARY USE Yes x x x x x x x x Not x x x x x x x Table 18 Comparison Table for different approaches. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Averague
8
Mathematica
7
5
Del Rio
4
Medjoub and Yannou
Duarte Keatruangkamala and Sinapiromsaram Loemker
3
Donath and Gonzalez
Li, Frazer and Thang Michalek, Choudhary and Papalambros Hsu and Krawczyk
2
Doulgerakis
Elezkurtaj and Franck
1
Nilkaew
Hsu
Approach Number
Arvin and House
COMPARISON TABLE FOR DIFFERENT SPACE LAYOUT PLANNING APPROACHES
1 1 3 1 1 1 0
4 6 1 9 1 2 2
4 2 3 3 2 1 3 2
8 7
Conclusions for Research and Prototypes In conclusion, (see Table 18) we can say that there are big efforts for solving this problem using approaches from several disciplines. Nevertheless, half of the approaches come from Engineering and the other half from Architecture. Most of them use the Constraint Based approach and Genetic Algorithms approach. In the implementation there are many methods. Half use boundary and the other half not. The use of Graphs is seldom seen. There is no strong evidence of using these technologies in practice. Only Medjoub&Jannou, and Duarte claim to use it for real architectural design, but no strong proofs are shown. Some of them are very close to architectural practice and others are not. This means that some are useful and others not. All of them produce a floor-plan design that consists of a border shape, which represents a flat, or a building story, that contains other interior shapes, which represents functions and sizes for human activities (rooms). Due to the type of building analyzed on this work (high-rise residential buildings), we will follow those which use a boundary. 88
Following Del Rio-Cidoncha (2007) the common stages in all the approaches are three. Analysis stage: consists of the preparation of the information, the listing of requisites, the definition of goals, the planning of needs. It is also known among authors as: architectonic design, intention, architectonic diagnoses, and functional level. Synthesis stage: the one in which solutions are generated (or simulated). Current authors call it: search for the architectonic object by graphic simulation, planning, layout schematic design, topological level. Evaluation stage: the different designs are compared and the appropriate one chosen, or a group of them.
Figure 23 Summary of Screenshots of Researches and Prototypes from the last ten years. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Figure 24. Alberti (AcadGraph, 1998). Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008.
3.4.2.2
Commercial (Non BIM) CAAD Software Review
Next, we present some digital tools from software companies that are/were available in the market. The review aims to complete previous works by Donath and Lobos (2008). The reviewed tools were Alberti (from AcadGraph, 1998), Vectorworks10 (from Nemetschek, 2004), Affinity 5.0 (from Trelligence, 20062007) and Onuma Planing Systems (Onuma, 2009). The review was made based on practical experience and knowledge about these software programs as well as on the support documentation provided by the companies. List includes version, company and year. 1. Alberti (AcadGraph, 1998) A German company developed a complete package solution for the automatic generation of architectural room layouts. It applies concept of Neuronal Networks to handle the relationships and constraints between spaces. It needs several “real” input such as building stories organization, name of the rooms, orientation of rooms (north, south, etc.), and relationships between them (strong, medium, week). Finally, the algorithm produces about one hundred solutions in some seconds and chooses the best that fits with the criteria. Pros: the definition of the rooms and variables to consider is similar to the real architectural practice in a very clear and simple interface. It works with a real boundary for the building (rectangular and non-rectangular). Cons: the solutions generated by the software were never accepted in practice because it gives a
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non-artistic floor plan design and it generates many new “empty” spaces to fulfill the complete boundary (see grey areas in images below). The final result is the creation of “non-sense” floor plans (see Figure 24). This could happen because of the inability of architects to specify clearly the space program at the beginning or maybe in real practice this happens but it is quickly fixed by hand drawing. 2. Vectorworks10 (Nemetscheck, 2004) The tool was included only in one version of Vectorworks under the name of “Space Planning Tools”. It consisted in three steps: Internal or External definition of the Space Program (rooms, names, sizes and relationship between them). Import schedule to the software. Automatic creation of space arrangements by the software. The result is a planar and non-overlapping distribution of the rooms on the screen (see Figure 25). Pros: the relationships between spaces are defined in a classical way, so every architect can understand the interface. It shows a small evaluation 2d band for space surface comparison. Cons: the creation of the schedule can be made inside or outside the software, but then the import step has some complications related to the extensions and versions of Microsoft Excel software. The architect must manually re-locate all the rooms following any criterion.
Figure 25. Vectorworks10 (Nemetscheck, 2004)
Image 85 Affinity 5.0 (Trelligence, 2006-2007)
3. Affinity 5.0-5.6 (Trelligence, 2006-2009) It was created to support the architectural business process of a building (plan, design, construction). It allows working in different teams in the early stages: programming and schematic design. It consists of different steps: capture of space program (within the software or outside using spreadsheets), project settings (building site, use, budget and costs to meet, rooms and areas settings: sizes, numbers, relationships), schematic design (manual distribution from browser to the screen of each room), 3D visualization (it enables a GDL technology for the real-time 3d views of the rooms as 3D blocks), evaluation and report (the generated solution is compared to the original requirements of the project and easy comparison can me made, red color when it is not met). Pros: it is possible 90
to set some variables of the spaces and areas in a digital format, it allows to reuse this information or bring it from other applications. The report is very accurate and refers to real needs data for the client and other players. It has a wide library of types of rooms and room stuff, as well as several templates for building types (house, offices, health, etc.). Cons: it doesn’t create a new solution. Architects must manually move and place the spaces along each story. The setting phase, previous to design, is very long and difficult (if we think about non-expert users) and is completely far from the “ 3D way” of thinking of architects. The 3d visualization is poor compared to the current tools used by architects (AutoCAD, 3dsmax, SketchUp, Archicad, etc.). Plugins for Revit and Archicad only evaluate layouts after the decisions are taken, but they do not generate solutions (see Image 85). Version 5.6 offers a Dynamic Relationship Modeling tool that translates adjacency requirements into relationships, but without generating a design. 4. Onuma Planning Systems (ONUMA, Inc., 2009) It offers a web based planning workflow and allows different teams to be connected and to design in a collaborative way. It allows one to group and visualize the spaces in areas and then share the result in different interfaces through IFC and XML files (SketchUp, Revit, Archicad, IFC Viewer). Onuma starts from Excel spread sheets with the room; it needs name, number (about story), level, area or sizes (not both). As a result, it shows all rooms grouped by level, in a single order: one room next to one room. Then one must manually move the rooms for creating a layout. Pros: easy transcription of Space Program requirements to the software, it allows teamwork, good quality and web performance of 3D views, it allows IFC format exchange. Cons: it does not create a floor layout.
Image 86 Onuma Planing Systems. From ONUMA, Inc., 2009.
Comparison of Commercial CAAD Software Third, we made a classification schedule for these software programs (see Table 20). The criteria are Boundary (to distribute the space program, yes or not), Spaces (for space objects), Areas (for area object), Topology (if topological relationships can be added), Sizes (if sizes for rooms are allowed), Options (if different design options are presented) and Automatic Generation (if automatic creation is made by software). Conclusions for commercial (non BIM) CAAD software There is no commercial application that supports the creation or automatic generation of an architectural floor plan layout. Only Alberti creates solutions, but they are not acceptable. Others like Affinity describe in detail the schematic layout but don´t generate one. Vectorworks is also a good approach because it generates a solution, but this is not a layout, here the spaces are together and we need to move them manually. Due to the type of building analyzed on this work, we will follow those which use a boundary. Some elements from the Alberti approach can be taken for our framework: relationship between spaces and their definition, its interface, building levels definition, and constraint definition.
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One can notice here that through the years, the idea of an automatic creation of a final layout has been rejected by architects. And a new trend has emerged. This pretends clearly improving the performance of layout design process by only supporting the design, without automatic layout creation. This support can be made by handling complex information, giving easy access for non-experts to use this technology, and making plug-ins for other platforms (CAD and BIM). 3.4.2.3 Commercial BIM (Building Information Modeling) Software Review Due to the importance of BIM in the architectural practice, we have decided to include it in our review of the state-of-the-art. It seems to be the next standard for production in the AEC industry in the world93. We also believe this and we will support this way of working with our research. Names include version, company and year.
ALBERTI √ √ √ √ √ √ VECTORWORKS x √ x x √ x AFFINITY x √ x x √ x ONUMA √ √ √ x √ x Table 19 Comparison Table for commercial CAAD software
Automatic Generation
Options
Sizes
Topology
Areas
Spaces
Boundary
COMPARISON TABLE FOR COMMERCIAL CAAD SOFTWARE
√ √ x √
Image 87 The “zone” tool in Archicad 9.0. From Graphisoft 2007
1. Archicad 9.0 (Graphisoft 2007, now Nemetschek) The “zone” tool allows describing in a deep way the space contained within walls (name, number, story, area, perimeter, etc.). It allows colour and 3D visualization for the space (without walls and others). It must be done after the design of walls. 2. Autodesk Revit 2008 (Autodesk, 2007) The “Room/Area” tool allows automatic and real-time scheduling of the spaces within walls and creating a color legend for each story, this allows visualizing in a customizable way the spaces/rooms/areas in each floor plan and section. Easy creation of reports for each story. It must be done after the design of walls. Possibilities of placing mass objects and then turn them into rooms with different size possibilities. 3. Bentley Architecture-Microstation v8 (Bentley Systems, 2008) A tool called “Place Space” allows putting spaces in the workspace. Room and component schedules, quantity and cost calculation, specifications. It can be done after or before the design of walls. Spaces must be dragged manually for creating a composition layout.
93 Eastman et all, 2008 [Books supervised by an editorial committee]
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4. Allplan BIM 2008 (Nemetschek, 2008) It is possible to create a room element (using the Room tool to define its boundaries) or the Auto-Room tool, to create rooms automatically within a specified area (it will detect all the spatial enclosures and create individual rooms within them). It allows the creation of floor space calculations and colorfilled plans based on various criteria for space planning and facilities management. It must be done after the design of the walls.
Image 88 Room/ Area tool in Autodesk Revit 2008.From Autodesk © 2008.
Image 89 Place Space Tool in Bentley Architecture (Microstation v8). From Bentley © 2008
Image 90 Room tool in Allplan BIM 2008. From http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2008/AllplanBIMAr ch.html
Figure 26 Space and Room tool in Autodesk Architecture (formerly ADT). From Autodesk © 2007 .
5. Architectural Desktop 2007 (Autodesk, 2007) The software program is now called Autodesk Architecture. Here it is possible to create rooms or use templates with room standards (i.e.: ansi-boma). The rooms can be referred to an area and maintain some relationship (room-area, roomlevel). The rooms can be placed into walls, and then the user automatically gets a room-boundary. Or the room object can be placed, and the user generates walls from its boundaries. It generates precise schedules and lists with all the rooms of the project, and it calculates areas with deduction rules. 93
6. Digital Project Designer V1-R4 (Gehry Technologies, 2008) Digital Project Designer (Version 1, Release 4) is a comprehensive 3D modeler with an extensive set of tools for creating and managing building information throughout the building lifecycle. It was developed by Gehry Technologies (USA). The “Space” command allows creating room objects by clicking walls; it is possible to use an existing slab to define the bottom of such a room. It also allows one to create bounded spaces from either physical boundaries such as walls or virtual boundaries such as grid lines, curved surfaces, and the like. Once the spaces are made, the software calculates the Space Volume.
Figure 27 The Space command in Digital Project Designer V1,R4. From http://www.gtwiki.org (visited 03.06.2010)
Space creation from list of rooms
Space creation without walls
Automatic Generation
Options
Sizes parameters
Topology
Areas
Spaces
BOUNDARY
COMPARISON TABLE FOR COMMERCIAL BIM SOFTWARE
Archicad 9.0 √ √ x x x x x x Autodesk Revit 2008 √ √ x x √ √ x √ x Bentley Architecture √ x x √ x (Microstation v8) Allplan BIM 2008 √ x x x x Architectural Desktop 2007 √ √ √ x √ x x √ x Digital Project Designer √ √ x x x x √ (allowed), - (unknown), x (not allowed) Table 20 Comparison Table for commercial BIM software. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
7. Other BIM software programs Charles Eastman, in his last book94 mentions other commercial BIM software programs that do not support either the creation, or the selection of a solution, like: Visio Space Planner, Family Composer (Army Corps of Engineering), Solibri (Space Program Validation for GSA), ANSI-BOMA standard for Area Calculation (American National Standard Institute and Building Owners and Management Association). All these tools are related to the evaluation of existing decisions, and they do not create a floor layout automatically. Conclusions for Commercial BIM software After this deep inquiry and analysis of the possibilities of the commercial BIM software, we tabulate our observations (see Table 20) and we can conclude the following: None of them automatically generates a floor layout. The process of support to Space Planning tasks begins after the creation of the walls or spaces by the designer. They are useful to visualize and communicate decisions. It is necessary to provide tools for these kinds of tasks that work within a BIM solution. If a solution is made out from this environment, i.e. Open Source, then we must resolve how to import it to BIM. Moreover, IFC exchange format has not proved to 94 Opcit Eastman et all, 2008
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be a standard and a complete feasible format. BIM software seems to demonstrate to have a big advantage. It can save a lot of information/data like type, position, material, relationship, hierarchy, sizes, families, and story/height, and it has a powerful visualization. Missing bi-directional edition between 3D Mass view and 2D floor-layout view. Further attempts based on this technology will be shown in the next chapters.
Image 91 Microsoft VISIO template for Facility Management. From http://office.microsoft.com/enus/templates (visited 16.08.2010)
3.4.2.4
Image 92 Space Layout Editor for Microsoft Visio. From www.digitalalchemypro.com (visited 18.08.2010)
Other Software Programms
1. Microsoft VISIO (MV) The existing template provides a tool for facilities managers and space planners to show high-level views of building-space occupancy. The template uses the concepts of stacking and blocking to represent visually how much space is both used and unused in a particular building (Image 91). 2. Space Layout Editor for Microsoft Visio (MV) It is a plugin for MV. It has an automatic space object generation, based on client´s space program in Excel. It generates an IFC-BIM spaces model. See Image 92. Conclusions for Space Layout Planning (SLP) There are three fields to evaluate SLP: Research, BIM software, and Commercial software. Fifty years of research in Space Layout Planning have not had any impact on architectural practice. Four trends have been developed and generated interesting solutions, the most of them were implemented by using complex mathematical models; therefore, every case in architectural design is different (houses, schools, hotels, etc.); therefore software/research prototypes which try to deduct some “common” rules for the automatic creation design have not been successful to design floor-plan layouts in practice. BIM software does not create layouts, while only some of them support the creation. Commercial software also supports the creation with methods more closely related to architectural practice (i.e.: using rooms and Space Program lists), but Commercial software is not spread enough up to now in architectural practice. New tools should only consider the basic aspects of this early stage (schematic design) by supporting the user with information instead of making decisions (i.e. generating a layout). This information should provide data for making decisions and then evaluate the quality of the decisions.
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3.5 Graph Theory and Topology Introduction Graph Theory has been widely used for dealing with complex information. It has been demonstrated that it is a useful approach for handling relationships between objects by minimizing their complexity. In many fields, objects and their relationships are very complex; by using Graph Theory, the objects are called NODES and the relationships are called EDGES. Starting from this simple definition, this approach has been utilized continuously and successfully in fields such as: Social Sciences (Networks, Hierarchy), Mathematics, Transport Engineering (Logistic, Operations Research), Biology (Molecular Design, Parental Relationships, and Genealogy), Computer Science (XML relationship, Net Design, Web Browsers, Data Structures), State-transition Diagrams, Electrical Engineering (VLSI Design, Circuits). This demonstrates the advantages of using graphs for visualization of complex information: many objects and many relationships.
Figure 28 A “mixed Graph” used for a model of a roadmap. Vertices represent landmarks and the directed and undirected edges represent the one and two-way streets. From Gross and Yellen, 2005.
Figure 30 A floor plan graph with dual graph. From (Grason, 1971).
Figure 29 The digraph represents the hierarchy of decision-making within a company. It shows the use of graphs to model social relationships. From Gross and Yellen, 2005.
Figure 31 Interconnection graph turned into rectangular drawing through dual-like graph techniques. From Rahman et all, 2002.
1. Graphs in Architecture Several pieces of research during the 1970s and 1980s have set the theoretical foundations for applying Graph Theory in Architecture (March and Earl, 197795, 197996; Baglivo and Graver97, 1983; Roth and Hashimshony, 198898; Grason, 197199). However, the efforts did not have an impact on the practice, and there were no new approaches until the beginning of the XXI century. Nowadays, only a few authors such as Ligget (2000)100, Medjoub und Jannou (2000), and Kraft and Nagl (2003)101 have recently tried to apply this approach to architectural floor plans, even when the techniques are enough to represent (and eventually create) an architectural floor plan102 (see Figure 31). 95 March, L and Earl, C: 1977 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] 96 Earl, C and March, L: 1979 [Book Chapters] 97 Baglivo, J and Graver, G Incidence and Symmetry in Design and Architecture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 98 Roth, J and Hashimshony, R: 1988 “Algorithms in graph theory and their use for solving problems in architectural design” Computer-Aided Design 20(7) 373-381 99 Grason, J: 1971 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers] 100 Liggett, R: 2000 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] 101 Kraft, B and Nagl, M: 2003 Semantic Tool Support for Conceptual Design in ITCE-2003 - 4th Joint Symposium on Information Technology in Civil Engineering; ed Flood, I, ASCE, Nashville, USA. 1-12. 102 Rahman et all: 2002 "Rectangular drawings of plane graphs without designated corners" Computational Geometry 21(3): 121-138
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2. Topology Topology deals with the properties of objects that remain after constant transformations103. In Figure 32, the object is transformed but its properties remain. The common origin given to Topology and Graph Theory by Königsberg Bridges Problem, resolved by Euler in 1735, is the reason why both concepts had a similar development (see Figure 33). Although Topology is a Mathematical and Qualitative104 discipline concerned with topological spaces and continuous functions, the term is also normally used to refer to the persistency of a relationship between objects in a constrained way, i.e.: “two rooms will be together regardless their sizes, and the entrance will be next to kitchen regardless the orientation of the kitchen”. In our case, the topology of a floor plan will be a set of constant relationships (or constraints) between the spaces of such floor plan. Sometimes in architecture the term “topology” is also referred to as “typology” (even when they are not the same) when describing different objects that have similar properties, i.e.: if we have three flats from different buildings and the layout is similar (number of rooms, orientation, adjacencies, etc.), one may say that these flats are the same “type” of flat. Nevertheless, we know that the topology is the same. In this research, the term topology will be used to describe the phenomena of persistent adjacency of spaces in a floor layout. In previous chapters, it has been demonstrated that architects must handle hundreds of objects and their relationships to design a single floor plan for a high-rise residential building. Therefore, our main contribution in this research will be to link these Graph/Topology techniques with Space Layout Planning for Architectural design without using the automatic generation of floor plans.
Figure 32 A classic example for a Topological Transformation in four steps. From MachoStadler, 2008
3.5.1
Figure 33 Königsberg Bridges Problem picture. From Wilson and James, 1999
Basics of Graph Theory
An Information Visualization Support approach will be used; the objective is not to describe Graph Theory in depth. There are relevant sources for comprehending the concepts related to Graph Theory (Wilson and James, 1999105) (Earl and March, 1979). To demonstrate their efficiency in the Architectural Design, the basic aspects will be considered. Finally, a search will be carried out, looking for a right software program to manipulate our “Graphs” (spaces and relationships) and to support the design of a floor layout. Definition Since they cover a large amount of different topics, definitions in Graph Theory vary. Some of them are focused on the geometrical aspects, while others are focused on the mathematical aspect; for example, Groos and Yellen (2003) said:
103 Macho-Stadler, M: 2002 “Que es la Topología”, Apunte Académico, Depto Matemáticas, Universidad del Pais Vasco, España. Translation of author. [Academic Resources in Universities] 104 Macho-Stadler, M: 2008 “Topología de Espacios Métricos”, Apunte Académico, Depto Matemáticas, Universidad del Pais Vasco, España. Translation of author. [Academic Resources in Universities] 105 Wilson, R: 1999 [Book Chapters]
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“ Any mathematical object involving points and connections between them may be called a graph.” 106
Rather, this definition for a graph will be used: “A graph G=(V(G),E(G)) consists of two finite sets: V(G), the vertex set of the graph, often denoted by just V, which is a nonempty set of elements called vertices and E(G), the edge set of the graph, often denoted by just E, which is a possibly empty set of elements called edges, such that each edge e in E is assigned an unordered pair of vertices (u,v) called vertices of e (Clark and Holton, 1991).”107
From this basic concept, many problems arise when dealing with graphs: Enumeration; Subgraphs, Induced Subgraphs, and Minors; Graph Coloring; Route problems; Network Flow; Visibility Graph Problems; Covering Problems and Graph Classes. There are different types of graphs: Undirected Graph, Directed Graph, Mixed Graph, Multigraph, Simple Graph, Weighted Graph, Half-edges and Loose Edges. In the following sections, the type of graph to be used in our research, which is quite simple, will be described in more detail. One special type of Graph is a Tree108, an undirected simple graph, also defined as a connected graph without cycles109. The image (see Figure 35) shows a simple unordered tree; in this diagram, the node labeled 7 has two children, labeled 2 and 6, and one parent, labeled 2. The root node (2), at the top, has no parent.
Figure 34 A drawing of a labeled graph on 5 vertices and 6 edges. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
Figure 35 A simple unordered tree. From Derrick Coetzee © 2009.
Image 93 The Floor plan, Flat, and the Graph. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
3.5.2
Proof for Graphs in Floor Layout
For a single flat Floor layouts can be also represented as graphs and constitute a proof that our concept can be applied to this type of building. The graph for a single flat from Edificio GEN is shown in Image 93.
106 Gross, J and Yellen, J (Ed) 2003 [Books supervised by an editorial committee] 107 Clark, J and Holton, D: 1991 A first look at graph theory (World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapure) 108 Martinez, 2004 [Books] 109 Opcit Gross and Yellen, 2003.
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For a complete story Some examples that prove the applicability of graphs in floor layout design for Chilean buildings are presented below. A simple connected graph was used to synthesize the relationships in two levels: between flats and corridors, and between rooms and flats (see Figure 36). This allows the visualization of complex information (hundreds of rooms and connections) in an abstract way. Conclusions With this analysis and samples, one demonstrates that it is possible to reduce the complexity of information of a building by using graphs. The graphs show the names and dependencies among hundreds of objects in a floor-plan layout in different levels of detail, even before they are realized. This allow architect to use abstract information leaving the complexity of geometry (size and position of the rooms) for the end. By using adjacency relationships one can get a perfect tree structure.
Figure 36 Graphs in floor plans from different buildings. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
3.5.3
Graph Theory / Topology Approach for Buildings
As described in the introduction to this chapter, the SP for a high-rise Residential building is very large and complex. Based on the SP description from chapter 3.3.4 Space Program, handling the large set of objects by grouping them into graphs will be attempted. Testing different ways of ordering this information is expected, and three models that show a possible way of representing this complexity in a graph are made. One has to divide the representation into two levels: the first is a graph that shows all the objects of the entire building (all levels), and then there is a graph for each level. Each image below shows a different way of ordering the same information. There are 536 objects in each graph (Table 31in Appendix) Every graph describes all objects of the building. One starts from the Space Program (SP) of Building 2 Edificio Cumbres and then the relationships, that is to say, the grouping of the spaces in areas and functions, are shown. There is a unique database for creating the graphs (adjacency matrix), and then one can visualize this huge amount of information in several ways (i.e. trees):
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Graph by Areas It shows the complete SP sorted by areas. Rooms are at the final level of tree. This criteria is mandatory for economic evaluation and fiscal/tax assessment of the building.
Figure 37 Graphs by Areas. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
Graph by Levels: It shows the contents of each level, then Public and/or Private spaces, and finally rooms are at the last level of tree. This criteria is useful for architects because they can organize the floor-plan’s contents by levels.
Figure 38 Graphs by Levels. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
100
Graph by Objects SP objects are grouped by type (facilities, lift, stairwell, flats, etc.) and then displayed. It is not a clear way of showing the content of a building, at least under design terms, but it is useful for describing objects in the space programming phase.
Figure 39 Graphs by Objects. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
After this type of representation is finished, architects may have a complete and detailed overview of the spaces to be located into the building, and the relationships (adjacencies) between these spaces. 3.5.4 Graph Software Review Since this research is oriented towards practice, it focuses on approaches of Graph Theory that have been translated and implemented into software applications. This will allow the results to be utilized in an architecture office. Presented here is a list of current available software for graph representation and manipulation. Most of the descriptions are extracted and summarized from the official documentation provided by the companies. Some additional information and conclusions related to our own tests have been added. 1. Birdeye It is a Declarative Visual Analytic Language (DVAL). BirdEye is a community project to advance the design and development of a comprehensive open source information visualization and visual analytics library for Adobe Flex. The actionscript-based library enables users to create multi-dimensional data visualization interfaces for the analysis and presentation of information. The project is based on the development and integration/adoption of related open source libraries. DVAL is a XML-based syntax language for specifying visual representations. The approach is based on the concepts of Leland Wilkinson's book The Grammar of Graphics. 2. Graph Gear Graph Gear is an open platform for graph visualization. It allows the user to create an interactive graph with force directed layout that has a good interactive user experience. It works independently from Internet connection under JavaScript. Pictures can be added to nodes, and sizes and colors can be customized. 3. SpringGraph SpringGraph is an Adobe Flex 2.0 component that displays a set of items that are linked to each other. The component calculates the layout for the items using an organic-looking annealing algorithm based on the size and links of each item, and it draws lines to represent the links. The component allows the user to drag and/or interact with individual items. Data can be provided in XML or as Actionscript objects.
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4. Flexvizgraph It is a Flex Visual Graph Library. It was former name for BirdEye application. More details are shown on BirdEye description. 5. AiSee It allows data to be entered via XLS. It has a plugin that converts XLS to GDL and then it can be read by the application and draw a graph. 6. yFiles Organic Layout The organic layout style is based on the force-directed layout paradigm. When calculating a layout, the nodes are considered to be physical objects with mutually repulsive forces, like, e.g., protons or electrons. The connections between nodes also follow the physical analogy and they are considered as springs attached to the pair of nodes. These springs produce repulsive or attractive forces between their ends if they are too short or too long. The layout algorithm simulates these physical forces and rearranges the positions of the nodes in such a way that the sum of the forces emitted by the nodes and the edges reaches a (local) minimum. Resulting layouts often expose the inherent symmetric and clustered structure of a graph. They show a well-balanced distribution of nodes and have few edge crossings.
Figure 40 Screenshot of Birdeye. From Birdeye © 2010.
Figure 43 Screenshot of Flexigraph. From Flexigraph Library © 2010
Figure 41 Screenshot of Grap Gear. From Creative Syntesis group © 2010.
Figure 44 Screenshot of aiSee. From aiSee © 2010
Figure 42 A sample of a graph made with SpringGraph. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2010.
Figure 45 A sample of a graph made with yFiles tool. From yFiles sample © 2010
7. Tulip A research done by the information visualization community that clearly shows that using a visual representation of data-sets enables faster analysis by the end users. Tulip, created by David Auber, is a contribution for the area of information visualization, “InfoViz”. The Tulip framework allows the visualization, drawing, and editing of small graphs. All the parts of the framework have been built in order to be able to visualize graphs having more than 1.000.000 elements. Such a visualization system must draw and display huge graphs, and it allows the navigation through geometric operations as well as the extraction of subgraphs and the enhancement of the results obtained by filtering. The Tulip architecture provides the following features: 3D visualizations, 3D modifications, plug-in support for easy evolution, building of clusters and navigation into it, automatic drawing of graphs, automatic clustering of graphs, automatic selection of elements, and automatic metric coloration of graphs. It allows editing of the database to create a new graph and to represent it following different algorithms.
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8. Grafos Grafos is a software program for the construction, editing and analysis of graphs. It is utilized in academic and learning topics related to Graph Theory, as well as other fields such as Organizational Industry Engineering, Logistics and Transportation, Operations Research, Net Design. Users can draw the graph easily without taking care of the algorithms and analysis that will be applied later. 9. uDraw(Graph) uDraw is an interactive tool used to modify an existing graph or to build a new graph from scratch. With the editor, the user is able to create new nodes and edges, delete existing nodes and edges, modify the attributes of nodes and edges, and so on. uDraw(Graph) creates flow charts, diagrams, hierarchies, or structure visualizations using an automatic layout. With the API, uDraw(Graph) can even be embedded into one’s own programs as a visualization component. It was developed at the University of Bremen (Germany). 10.Tom Sawyer Perspectives, Java Edition The Tom Sawyer Perspectives’ integrators technology automates the process of linking data to a visualization application. One can interact with and change data from within the views, then commit the changes back to the originating data sources. Tom Sawyer Perspectives’ integrators can access data from one or more of these sources: Databases, Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, Plain text files, XML files. The Tom Sawyer Perspectives has a database wizard that allows the user to set up a database integrator by inspecting how the data is organized in the database.
Figure 46 A sample of a graph made with Tulip tool. From Tulip tools sample © 2010.
Figure 47 A sample of a graph made with Grafos. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2010.
Figure 49 A graph made with Tom Sawyer Perspectives. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2010.
/Figure 50 Cricketschirping screenshot. From Cricketschirping website on 01.12.2009
Figure 48 Screenshot of uDraw(Graph). From uDraw(Graph) © 2010
httpFigure 51 Graph Browser. From © 2010 Wolfram Project
11.Cricketschirping Cricketschirping is a force-directed graph layout developed by using Processing Programming Language. 12.Graph Browser Graph Browser was developed by Michael Schreiber for “The Wolfram Demonstrations Project”. Here users can select a graph from one of several classes’ options to see it. The name of a graph is shown in all the classification popups that apply. Users are not allowed to enter more information, but they can visualize many possibilities for graph types: bipartite, connected, nonplanar, tree, eulerian, polyhedral, etc.
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13.GraphSharp GraphSharp is a graph layout framework developed by the Codeplex developers community (hosted by Microsoft). It contains some layout algorithms and a GraphLayout control for WPF applications. Supported layout algorithms are: Fruchterman – Reingold, Kamada – Kawai, ISOM, LinLog, Simple Tree layout, Simple Circle layout, Sugiyama layout (Use the Efficient Sugiyama layout algorithm), and Compound graph layout (CompoundFDP algorithm). Supported overlap removal algorithms are: Force-Scan Algorithm. GraphLayout WPF control: it can use all kinds of algorithms (layout, overlap removal, edge, highlight), vertex dragging is supported, templates for vertices and edges are supported, mutable graph -> automatic re-layout after the graph changes, and Async layout (background thread) is supported. Position changes are animated. 14.Microsoft Automatic Graph Layout (MSAGL) Microsoft Automatic Graph Layout (MSAGL), formerly known as GLEE, is a .NET tool for laying out and visualizing directed graphs. MSAGL can be used to represent complex directed graphs, such as those found in business management, manufacturing, and network analysis, as well as phylogenetic trees, which are used in bioinformatics research. Automatic Graph Layout includes three integrated components: an automatic layout engine that simplifies the creation of aesthetically pleasing graphs with thousands of nodes that are easy to understand, a drawing layer that enables you to modify the attributes of the graphical components, such as the color of the nodes and the style of the edges and finally, a Windows-based viewer that uses the engine and drawing layer to create interactive graphs.
Figure 52 GraphSharp screenshot. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009
Figure 53 Microsoft Automatic Graph Layout screenshot. From website of Microsoft © 2009.
Figure 54 Algraf Project screenshot. From website of Algraf Project © 2010.
15.Algraf Project Algraf Project was developed by the Departmento de Matemáticas Aplicadas of the Universidad de Sevilla. Within other functions, the user´s interface and the manageability of the application allows the user to modify the visualization of the graphs with the zoom and central operations as well as configuring the size and colour of the vertexes and edges. Additionally, the application allows the user to generate documentation. In one way, one can save the graphs as images in different formats *.bmp, *.jpg, *.gif and *.png. One can also generate documentation in PDF format, where the graph and the set of edges and vertexes will appear. In the last version, new algorithms have been included to give solutions to a large amount of problems: related to routes or trajectories, related to situations, to compatibility or colorization, to minimization of costs, and matching. Conclusions about Graph Software Each one of the graph software programs has been reviewed. The applied method is as follow. 1) Searching in Graph Research directories and scientific papers. 2) Reading the description of the application. 3) Downloading and installing each software (if they are free). 4) Practicing with commands: open (try to open a file), import (import some of our files), manipulate the graph (move, select, delete/add node), visualization (zoom, pan) and layout options (depending on each application). 5) Entering our Space Program (SP) text information into the application. 6) Generating a Graph Layout for the visualization of the SP information. The results are displayed in the next table (see Table 21).In addition, our conclusions are: (1) most of them are free to use; (2) most of them 104
are easy to use during the first steps; (3) most of them are free but editing graph database is not allowed, that is to say, it was not possible to enter our Space Program (SP) text information. In any case, the creation of large graphs and their labeling is easy, and this is useful for our purposes; (4) all of them have a layout function based on different algorithms and approaches (routing, trees, direct, symmetry); (5) most of them are made for circuits, networks, industry, logistic, transport, operations research, network design, etc.; (6) most of them export an image instead of an editable file (except Algraf). COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT GRAPH SOFTWARE Clear description of the application √ √ √ x x √ √ √ √ √ x x √ x √
Open Import Space a file Program √ * x √ x x x x x x √ x √ x x x x x √ √ x x x x x x x x x x
Layout from SP x √ x x x x x x x √ x x x x x
Export to an editable file x x x x x √ x x x x x x x x x
1. Graph gear 2. aiSee 3. Birdeye 4. Flexvizgrap 5. SpringGraph 6. yFiles 7. Tulip 8. Grafos 9. uDraw(Graph) 10. Tom Sawyer Perspectives 11. Cricketschirping 12. Graph Browser 13. GraphSharp 14. MSAGL 15. Algraf project * not direct, but through XML file Table 21 Comparison of different graph software. Self elaboration Lobos © 2010
It is very important to mention that most of them can insert an image as background and then the user can create a graph based on the image. This will allow us to capture the spatial structure information from existing “successful” building configurations and then re-use them or edit them for new scenarios: more/less rooms, more/less areas. Under the point of view of the Space Layout Planning problem, all the software for Graphs is limited to creating and showing the graphs and different layout types (related to the mathematics field). They cannot export any other file for further manipulation of location, coordinates, names, or relationships, etc. There are of course some exceptions like GraphSharp and TomSawyer Perspectives. Some of them, like Graph Gear and Graph#, are closer to our Visualization Information for Space Program approach. In the following chapters, the experiments carried out with those software programs will be discussed in depth. An interesting concept for “layout” was observed in this field of Graphs, although different to Architecture. Many software programs implement what they called “Supported Layout Algorithms”, that is to say, algorithms that support the creation of layouts. It is been observed that there is a wide variety of possibilities, although they are not directly useful for architecture; however, this could be a starting point for future research. The most common algorithms implemented are: Layout algorithms (Fruchterman – Reingold, Kamada – Kawai, ISOM, LinLog, Simple Tree Layout, Radial Tree, Balloon Tree, Orthogonal Layout, Simple Circle Layout, Sugiyama Layout, Compound Graph Layout/CompoundFDP algorithm), Overlap removal algorithms (Force-Scan Algorithms), and Edge layout algorithms (Orthogonal Edge Layout). During this exhaustive search and inquiry, it has been also learned that there is a special emergent field called Information Visualization110 that includes Graphs and Topology and it covers major topics in this area and deals with unstructured and structured data. Moreover, most of the problems including data, and their relationships, would belong to it. This represents for us a new possibility since it does not deal with automatic generation of layouts but with providing useful information to operate objects and make decisions, like in the case of Space Layout Planning tasks. 110 Herman, I; Melançon, G and Marshall, MS: 2000 Graph Visualization and Navigation in Information Visualization: a Survey, IEEE, VOL. 6
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Integration
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Introduction Next, we describe the complete process of integration, that is to say, to put together both stages: building envelope and interior layout. At the end, a BIM (Building Information Modeling) implementation for an Information Visualization Support Approach based on Topology and Graphs techniques for Space Layout Planning in Architecture is presented and discussed. First, conclusions from the previous chapter about Space Layout Planning are discussed, and then the development of a new framework is presented. 4.1
Summary for Automated Space Layout Planning
The most important conclusion, from the state-of-the-art review, is that after 50 years of research in this field, architects in the practice do not have a right tool to support the “automatic” creation of floor layouts. Next, we present a summary of our findings and conclusions in this field. Next, the conclusions about CAAD Approaches: Commercial, Research and Prototypes.
DIFFERENCES IN SPACE LAYOUT PLANNING BETWEEN ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS APPROACHES Main goal of the discipline Strategy Goals
Parameterization
ARCHITECTS
ENGINEERS
Architecture is an art at the service of the man. Creativity Composition Aesthetic Functionality Habitability Balance / Beauty Difficult to parameterize goals such as beauty, comfort or functionality.
Engineering is the art of applying scientific knowledge to inventions. Numbers Efficiency Effectiveness Cost reduction
Number of solutions Current trends
Several: the architect chooses one.
Future trend
Less subjective architecture.
Architects have understood the importance of quantifying the quality of a design.
Easy to parameterize: flow of materials, covered distance, security, noise, etc. One: the optimal one Engineers have understood that the efficiency of a design also involves issues like working position, security, ergonomics, and beauty of the industrial facilities. More human industry.
Table 22 Differences in Space Layout Planning between architects and engineers approaches. Selfelaboration based on Del Rio 2003
1. Solutions for Architecture without Architecture? Even when most researchers in the field of Space Layout Planning attempt to support Architectural Design, it seems that they do not inquire about Architecture before doing research about Architecture. This sounds strange, but by reading the researches one can observe that none of them make references, nor quote paradigmatic architects such as Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, Frank Lloyd Wright, Walter Gropius, or any design methods utilized in a real Architecture Office; they do not mention resources for architectural design practice like the most recognized magazines (Summa+, Croquis, Domus, DETAIL, Architectural Review) or well-known theoretical/practical books for architects (Neufert, Ching, Benevolo) which are frequently used to teach Architecture. Therefore, it seems that they make their own idea of what floor plan layout design in Architecture is, and then they develop a solution for these ideas. This could lead to a misunderstanding of the architectural problem. Of course, they cannot be expected to read everything about Architecture, but at least they should have a reference of what architects call “good architecture”.
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2. Architects and Engineers Approaches The problem of floor plan design is a matter that concerns both architects and engineers, even though there are many differences and similarities111. Differences can be seen in Table 22. The similarities are: (1) input data is a contour, (2) there are some rooms or activities to be located (with certain dimensional requirements), (3) there are some relationships between rooms or activities (4) the results are the position or distribution of these activities or rooms. 3. Supporting or Generating? As seen in the state-of-the-art in Space Layout Planning, approaches can be divided into two main categories: Computer Supported Space Layout (related to commercial issues) and Computer Generated Space Layout (related to academic/research issues). Most of the commercial software programs only support the layout creation by manipulating rooms through manual methods (move, rotate, edit boundary), but only a few prototype applications generate layouts. 4. A Floor-plan: Mathematics or Arts? Now there are some points to enrich the future discussion about the problem of Space Layout Planning. (1) Under the Engineering point of view there are successful approaches in the field of Engineering; and they satisfy the criteria of this field. (2) Floor Planning can be seen as a Mathematical Problem, i.e. Rectangular Polynomial Arrangement (Gero, 1977). (3) Space Layout is an Engineering problem resolved and framed a long time ago (Sequence Analysis and Systematic Layout Planning by Buffa, 1955), and now, some sub-steps are being improved every year112. (4) Optimal or Sub-Optimal results have been achieved (Michalek, Choudhary and Papalambros, 2002) (Li, Frazer and Tang, 2000). They follow complex constraints and relationships. The approaches resolve the problem under engineers’ point of view. Under the architectes’ point of view: (1) They have failed. (2) Has any architect used them in a real design project? (3) Has any approach (Except Vectorworks10 and Alberti) been implemented in Architectural Practice? (4) What happens with the interfaces? (5) Bad Conception and Misunderstanding of the problem? (5) Are the researchers/authors architects? (6) Do architects use optimal or sub-optimal results? Of course the discussion between Architecture and Engineering is very old (and still valid), because the final result in both fields is the same, a building. Architects ask engineers to be more artistic and not so structured, and engineers ask architects to be less artistic and more concrete. However, this will not be discussed here. In our topic, one can blame neither engineers for not considering architectural variables in their problems, nor architects for not looking into engineering to resolve their problems. To go forward in this discussion, the best approaches of each discipline will be taken, and then it is attempted to give a possible solution. From Architecture, the definition of the problem and the solution will be taken, and from Engineering, the efficient and effective way of resolving will be taken. In our case, the profile of the studied object is high-rise residential buildings, which means that some features like aesthetic and composition are not the most important ones113. The main goals are functionality and habitability. A high degree of efficiency and effectiveness are required instead of artistic or creative skills. 5. A new strategy It has been demonstrated that approaches that automatically generate a floor layout are not useful for practice, so our approach will not pursue to develop a new strategy to create floor plans. On the contrary, our approach will pursue to support the process with emphasis on the visualization of the information that architects need during the floor layout creation. For this aim, it is proved also that the use of Graph/Topology approach is successful in maintaining 111 Del Rio-Cidoncha et all, 2007a [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] 112 Del Rio-Cidoncha et all, 2007b [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals] 113 Assadi, 2008 [Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals]
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relationships between large sets of rooms and spaces in a floor layout. The correlation between nodes and spaces as well as edges and relationships will be the basis to develop our concept. 4.2
A New Framework for Space Layout Planning in Architecture
4.2.1 Theses Then, based on the results of the review stage, our background achieved during the Architecture studies and our own practical experience as architects, a new strategy for the solution has been elaborated, and it is explained on the following theses (for housing example). 1. Functions/activities have relationships Some well-known relationships are: cooking & eating (a kitchen next to the dining room), staying & entering (a living room next to the entrance), sleep & urinate (the bedroom next to the toilette). The difference between functions and activities is than an activity pertains to any purposeful movement that one can do in a space (to cook, to walk, to sleep), whereas a function is an activity assigned to a space (kitchen, corridor, bedroom). 2. The Space Program is flexible The Space Program requires that a final sqm area (m2) is met, even though during the process, it is possible to work with min/max. There are only some specific cases where the final area is absolutely restricted (schools, hospitals). 3. The relationship between functions is not established in architecture In architectural design, the relationships are given by “common sense” instead of being defined by rules. For example it is not a good idea to put the main entrance in the back of the house or the toilette door in front of the living room. 4. The relation between room and function is not mandatory Functions in architecture are not defined as a rule (neither in the law, nor in the books); they are only suggested or intuitive knowledge. For example, a bedroom can be used to work or a kitchen can be used to sleep (after some changes). Only some specific cases have constraints in their room´s use (low-income houses, hospitals, etc.). 5. Fifty years of Space Layout Planning research has not had any impact on real practice for architects It is not possible to find the results of research in this field in the daily practice in architecture today. None of the four main approaches (Expert Systems, Shape Grammar, Evolutionary techniques, Constraint Based) has been successfully implemented for architects. 6. The optimal design of a floor layout is not always/necessarily the best for architects As explained in 3.2.2 Foundations of Floor Plan Layout in Architectural Design, architects usually choose one main criterion to resolve in their projects, and the concept of “optimum” or “optimization” is seldom used to explain/generate these floor layouts. This is because the most important issues are aesthetic and composition, and it is difficult to define an optimization for them. In the case of Elezkurtaj and Frank, even after the optimization process, they allow the architect to change the result manually. 7. Sketches and Algorithms While the architect designs with sketches, there is a constant conflict of nonrespected sizes (and that does not matter: only form, proportions, function, beauty are important), but in a defined algorithm, this cannot happen, because, the size restriction is never met during the process.
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8. Graphs and Topology These two approaches offer a new possibility since they are able to synthesize and keep the complex information of a floor layout. A floor layout (for this type of building) normally contains hundreds of objects and hundreds of relationships. The possibility of visualizing these objects and maintaining their relationships during design is a key issue in Architecture. 4.2.2 An Information Visualization Approach Next, a novel framework based on Simulation and Evaluation approach is presented, a paradigm adapted from Architectural Research Methods (Groat and Wang, 2002). In the future, it will allow us to develop several Computer Science Strategies for Space Planning tasks in Architecture. It mixes Graph and Topology techniques with CAD techniques for an Information Visualization approach that will support the Space Layout Planning in Architecture. This framework does not belong to any of the four main trends in Space Layout Planning: Generative Design, Constraint Based, Expert Systems, and Shape Grammars. It is totally novel and although it is restricted to High-Rise Residential Buildings, it can be extended and adapted to other kinds of buildings. Instead of presenting one solution to the problem, we find interesting, from the scientific point of view, to create a framework, and from here to develop diverse Computer Science strategies. This will allow other researchers and software developers to develop solutions based on this framework.
Figure 55 Graphic Sequence of the proposed Framework. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
4.2.3
Description of the Framework
1. Space program and m2 This stage deals with the evaluation/analysis of the client´s needs, the creation of a Space Program in a spreadsheet table, and adding all the spaces to get the total area of the building. Block Families for rooms are created with all the possible room sizes. Graphs from existing building can be used to extract information like quantity of rooms, and their relationships. 2. Mass/shape studies This stage deals with the simulation of the possible volumes allowed by the Zoning Planning in the site. Architects create 3D volumes and desired shapes within the mass by using Boolean operations. 3. Boundaries Creation In this stage takes place the evaluation/comparison of Space Program area versus Mass Study area. By using slice floor plate techniques (Lobos, 2006) boundaries for each story of the building can be created. 4. Visualization of the Space Program information and Semi-automatic room distribution Graph/Topology approach and techniques will allow the architect to visualize the Space Program information as rectangles with embedded relationships into each
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boundary/level of the building. By using manual operations, architects will manipulate these objects later to generate a floor plan. Figure 55 graphically shows the sequence: the Space Program must be done (automatic Graph creation) first; then architects explore building envelope alternatives. Once decided, the boundaries for each floor are created, architects put the graphs on each floor, and finally, they decide the location and rooms’ sizes by manipulating these rooms in a simple 2D environment. 4.2.4 Proposals and Prototypes The usefulness of graphs to describe spaces and complex relationships for an existing floor layout has been proven. Next, within our framework, five theoretical proposals and prototypes for a possible generation of new layouts are presented. The proposals are based on special qualitative conditions for this type of building: 1. Rectangle boundaries to represent each level There are rectangle boundaries (as a result of Zoning Planning) that represent each level. Each rectangle has a dynamic size, and it can vary with the time and design iterations. 2. Rectangular Shape for Boundaries Only at the end of the process, are they modified by the shapes of the balconies and terraces. 3. Corridors, lifts, and Stairwells Each building of this type must have by law a corridor, a lift, and a stairwell in each floor. It is called kernel and one must show it in each floor. 4. Corridors in the Middle Corridors are always in the middle of the boundary of each level. 5. Flats on the Internal Perimeter Flats are distributed on the internal perimeter of the boundary. 6. Flats’ Corridor Flats have a corridor in the middle area: not exactly in the centre, but closer to it. This corridor has a rectangle shape. 7. Rooms Around the Corridor Rooms in a flat are located around the corridor and inside the boundary (except balconies and terraces). 8. A finite Set of Sizes for Each Flat Rooms sizes are not infinite: it is possible to determine a finite set of sizes for each kind of Flat (F1=1 room; F2=2 rooms, F3=3 rooms) and Room (K=Kitchen, L=Living Room, A=Access, WC1, WC2, R1=Main bedroom, R2=Secondary bedroom, R3=Secondary bedroom, C=Corridor, T=Terrace 1/Terrace 2). This range is given by the commercial value of the site where the building is located. 9. A 5x5cm Grid The sizes of the rooms may vary based on a 5x5cm grid. 10. Fixed Relationships between Rooms There are fixed relationships between rooms: i.e. the kitchen is always adjacent to a toilet; the living room is always adjacent to a terrace, etc. 11. Access versus Bedrooms The access is opposite to the bedrooms: the maximum internal distance in a flat is between the rooms and entrance.
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12. Flats with Rectangular Boundary Each flat has a rectangular boundary; when they do not, it could be interpreted as a rectangular variation.114 4.2.5 Theoretical Proposals Next, a theoretical development of a Space Layout Planning solution within a BIM (Building Information Modeling) environment is described. Some of these proposals are expected to be turned later into software program prototypes. 4.2.5.1 Drag and Drop (Discrete Search) Advantages of the proposal are: the architect handles the constraint (sun, views, wind, etc.). The architect inputs the topology. Discrete Search techniques are easy to implement. BIM software can be used to store family sizes and interact with spreadsheet interfaces like Microsoft Excel. Disadvantages of the proposal are: Dragging each room is a long task. A definition for each floor must be made. There are some arbitrary decisions. It does not use the potential of BIM strategies.
Figure 56 Step1: Architects drag manually each room to the floor plate.
Figure 57 Step 2: Each object has several sizes included in the family.
Figure 58 Step3: Discrete Search algorithm finds a simple “non-overlapping” size (not optimal).
Figure 59 Step 4: Finally, a layout is presented. Then architects can manually change objects, like in Elezkurtaj.
4.2.5.2 Potential story Advantages of the proposal are: easy creation of families, automatic creation of story plan layout, one can fix a space, manual possibilities. Disadvantages of the proposal are: procedures and implementation are not so clear, there is no warranty of a feasible result, topology and “potential” objects must be always coincident. 4.2.5.3 Rectangles arrangement Advantages of the proposal are: aesthetically feasible, rectangle creation is similar to practice, interaction with architects, Shape Grammars´ techniques can be used, easy creation by using BIM parametric families. Disadvantages of the proposal are: it is not free-style, constraint implementation is not clear, Shape Grammars´ approach has been criticized and less developed, there are some remaining spaces and 2D Stretch techniques should be required. It is very important to notice that these remaining spaces also appear in the real practice. 4.2.5.4 From inside to outside This option was created after our interview with Architecture Offices (see 9.10 Notes on the Interviews ). What is proposed here is a Discrete Search115: (1) having a Space Program (room, size and areas) and topology (relationships 114 Wurman, 2006 pp 124-125 [PhD and MSc Thesis] 115 This idea was discussed in a talk given by the author to Profesor Charles Eastman in Georgia Tech University (USA) in 2008.
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between spaces), (2) boundary of each floor must contain a kernel, (3) Discrete Search for possible sizes and delivery of total m2 of each proposal, (4) architects can manipulate the process: stack flat/rooms, change size, add/delete rooms and add/delete flats, (5) automatic iterations are allowed as well as manual operations, (6) once the required area is met, architects can drag the flat into the boundary, (7) iteration for each kind of Flat (F1, F2, F3) and then propagation to all stories.
Figure 60 Step1: In theory, every floor plate has the potential of containing all the objects from SP: corridor, stairwells, lifts, flats, etc.
Figure 61 Step2: In addition, everything has the potential of being placed in any position within the floor plate. = Flats, =Elevator, = Corridor, = Stairs
Figure 62 Step3: A grid is created, and in each module, some “potential” objects wait to be used for the design. =stairs =Corridor =Flats =Elevator
Figure 63 Step4: The TOPOLOGY of the spaces is overlap, and the search into each module to find the object that will be located there is run.
Advantages of the proposal are: It emulates real practice. It focuses on the layout more than in envelope of the building. Fast search of alternatives. Similar to Elezkurtaj. It allows user interaction. Disadvantages of the proposal are: Computer implementation is not clear. It must be expanded to create a complete story layout. Search for target surface (i.e. 75m2 as maximum area of flat) is not controlled by user. It does not consider the concordance of flats´ layout with the layout of the underground parking lots.
Figure 64 Step1: There is an empty boundary of the story.
Figure 65 Step2: Architects must place the corridor, the stairwells, the lifts, the flats, etc. following the requirements of the Urban Codes.
Figure 66 Step3: The application creates the LARGEST possible rectangles in the remaining space, trying to emulate the architectural way of thinking and composing.
Figure 67 Step4: Inside these rectangles, the application distributes the SP following rules such as use the half point, start from corners, use attractors (sun, view, functions, etc.).
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Conclusions for Theoretical Proposals The creation and discussion of these proposals is an important previous step in the development of prototypes. Now it is clearer for us which kind of approach we will promote in the next stages, which will be a mix of proposals number two and four. From number two, the concept of topological organization of the floor is taken; and from number four, the creation of single units (flats) starting from the Space Program, and their relationships with the complete floor plan, are taken.
Figure 68 Step1: SP and Topology relationships are given.
Figure 70 Step3: Rectangle Creation; The search process gives a rectangle with the best possible sizes inside.
4.2.6
Figure 69 Step2: Discrete Search for possible sizes that met the target area of a flat (i.e. F2: 2 rooms flat, 75m2).
Figure 71 Step4: Implantation on boundary; the user can manually drag the created flat into the boundary and check. The user repeats the process for other flats.
Prototypes
Implementation Development of Proposals: New Prototypes Taking into consideration the conclusions and experiences discussed on the previous chapter about: (1) the results of floor layouts of academic and research Space Layout Planning prototypes have not demonstrated to be suitable for practice, (2) no implementation of Space Layout Planning prototypes (academic and research) into practice since 1955, (3) lack of Space Layout Planning tools in commercial CAAD and BIM software, (4) the design methods and processes utilized by architects in high-rise residential buildings, (5) the huge amount of information utilized in this design process, (6) the possibilities of Graph Theory to organize the information for this process. It has been decided to implement a prototype that supports the design of a floor plan for a high-rise residential building by organizing all the information of a floor using graphs. These graphs will contain all the rooms from the Space Program. Architects will handle manually the elements (nodes = rooms, edges = adjacencies) by moving and resizing them and will have feedback about the total surface generated to meet the needs/constraints of the project. The prototype will not generate any layout with geometry, but with topological relationships. Here some developments are presented, and finally, a detailed description of a software program concept. 4.2.6.1 BIM (Building Information Modeling) Approach It is known that most researchers have chosen “a scientific neutrality” in their implementations. Open Source software programs have been used to create prototypes, and they do not depend on commercial applications. In our case, our experience as architects, academics, and researchers let us assure that BIM will soon become the world standard in architectural design and construction, so we, as early adopters, promote its use.
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The complete process for an early stage of a building design is described in Lobos (2006). It starts from the application of the Zoning Planning to the site, and it finally provides an external boundary that represents the shape of each floor perimeter. The following BIM approach was developed in Autodesk Revit 2009 and takes advantage of several existing features of the software program. Our contribution in this case is the generation of a template that contains some predefined objects (spaces, names) and visualization methods (views, levels, schedules) to be immediately used by architects. The parameters of spaces are length and size, and this technique allows the creation of a single space that contains several sizes. Image 94 shows some possible sizes for a room. These sizes can be used later for laying out a floor plan. Architects can work in each level of the building, and by a simple drag & drop, they place a room in the floor plan (see Image 95). This room contains several sizes, so it is easy to change the size of the room by just clicking the list of possibilities. After placement, the evaluation comes automatically since the template delivers a full area schedule for the complete building, sorted by levels (see Image 96). This allows the improvement of efficiency and the exploration of faster alternatives in the very early stages of design.
Image 94 Possible sizes for a room in Autodesk Revit tm Prototype. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Image 95 drag & drop for placing a room in the floor plan. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Image 96 Prototype implemented on Autodesk Revit2009. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Image 97 Street view towards building. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2009.
The advantages of the prototype are: (1) customization of objects is open to all users, (2) it allows creating “room” objects from a Mass Model with several sizes (using parametric family’s techniques), (3) names can be added to rooms and relationships between rooms can be added by using “Group” techniques, (4) objects are easy to manipulate, architects can place the rooms into a desired location by using move and rotate options, (5) once located, architects can change the size by clicking a list of several sizes, (6) objects can be quickly distributed in levels by using “group” and “paste by levels” techniques, (7) evaluation of total area is made in real-time by using “schedule” techniques, (8) the complete report of the project (objects, areas) can be exported to Excel format, (9) users can create their own objects and enrich the template, (10) users can re-use the information from previous projects, (11) rooms can be exported in several known CAD formats (DWG, IFC, DXF). 116
Disadvantages of this prototype are: (1) it does not generate a new layout automatically, (2) relationships are neither flexible, nor easy to edit, because of restrictions in grouping tools, (3) change of size by list does not allow choosing the direction of the resizing (resize to up, resize to left, etc.), (4) it is restricted to be used within Autodesk Revit 2009 or later versions, (5) graph interaction is not supported directly (API efforts must be made). Conclusions for BIM Prototype A novel approach in BIM for the Space Layout Planning problem has been presented. This “support but not generation” approach is similar to what one may now find in Affinity Trelligence or Onuma Planning System, and it represents a new developing trend that recognizes the impossibility of applying “automatic creation” methods into practice in architectural design. Possibilities for the integration of graphs through API open a new trend for BIM+Space Layout Planning. 4.2.6.2 Alberti + Graph Gear: a Topological Layout Approach Following the approaches seen in Steinman (1997), Alberti software program and Graph Gear (described in 3.4.2 State-of-the-art Review), an improvement to Graph Gear platform, based on the Force-Directed Layout Paradigm, will be implemented. This will be called “Topological Layout” Approach, since it will allow manipulating the topological relationships of spaces instead of dealing with a classical room-based layout (rectangle arrangement). Force-based, or force-directed algorithms, are a class of algorithms for drawing graphs in an aesthetically pleasing way. Their purpose is “to position the nodes of a graph in two dimensional or three dimensional space so that all the edges are of more or less equal length and there are as few crossing edges as possible”116. Since free floating nodes do not work well, an undirected graph with nodes and edges is utilized by default in Graph Gear. The graphs generated here do not have any concept of direction (at least in rendering). The same criteria can be applied to architectural design: there is no need to specify the direction of the adjacency property, i.e.: if a bedroom is connected to a toilette, it is equivalent to say that the toilette is connected to the bedroom. In general terms, in Architecture, the adjacency has no specific direction, or it is bidirectional. Under our point of view, the nodes represent the rooms/spaces and the edges represent the relationships. The relationship used in this experience is the “adjacency” and it is translated into this application as “sourceNode” and “targetNode” instruction. An example of its description in the following code line: The translation from the Space Program to the application interface was possible by obtaining a XML file. This file was obtained from the HTML code embedded in the web-demo software. The user manipulation is provided just in simple HTML text interface with several restrictions (only one time-editing, no physical behavior parameters). Once obtained, it starts a long process of adapting all the nodes and vertex of the XML file to the space names and constraints. The edition of the XML file was made by using Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 Professional Edition (see Figure 72). The complete source is available in Appendix 9.12 XML Codes for Graph Gear. The physical features of the application (mass, resistance, repel-force, spring-force) provide a rich graphical interaction with the user because the objects seem to be “alive” and not static like most of the Architectural Design 2D software programs. The settings of the physical features create, after some milliseconds, an initial movement in the generation of edges and nodes; this configuration can be interpreted by architects as a “kick-off” initial layout. Without these physical features, objects would be displayed as a chaotic set of figures (they are located together and overlapped). A critical point in this experiment was to control the physical behavior of the objects. As explained before, the movement constitutes a graphical advantage, but after the initial arrangement, architects must manipulate the 116 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force-based_algorithms (01.03.2010)
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objects to allocate them in the right position within the limits of the story-level and to set the position within a flat. Therefore, aiming at controlling the movement of the spaces, several tests were carried out by changing the physical values (see Table 23); thus, trying to get a “state” of feasible manipulation for architects. Finally, “Test5” reached an “equilibrium state” and was easy to manipulate. This value was used for the next steps. An Excel sheet was created for improving the interaction with end-users (see Figure 73). The idea was to help architects to avoid the use of highly complex software programs such as Microsoft Visual Studio or any other XML editor. Some difficulties were found regarding the translation of this XLS file into an XML file, readable by Graph Gear HTML interface.
Table 23 Test showing different values for the physical features of the force-directed algorithm. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2009.
Figure 72 Edition of the XML file by using Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 Professional Edition. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Finally, names for rooms and colors were added to the edges via XML file, emulating the design visualization of a floor plan layout (see Figure 74). It automatically creates an initial random configuration on the screen that keeps all the relationships; in the figure we can see the corridor, then the Flats, and each Flat has some rooms. Then it allows end-users to move the spaces intuitively in real time by just clicking and moving them without breaking the topological relationships. The ease of movement allows architects to experiment different scenarios in real time without worrying about functional commands (like “move” command).
Figure 73 Excel sheet created for improving the interaction with end-users. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Advantages of the prototype are: (1) creation of fast arrangements, (2) fast and intuitive exploration of layout options/scenarios, (3) physical properties create a user-friendly and “fresh” interface for manipulating objects, (4) many rooms/adjacencies can be added, (5) initial random configuration can be seen as an alternative for the layout of the floor, (6) by using XML edition, the user can create and save several scenarios for the Space Program (number or rooms, names and relationships of rooms, color, labels, etc). Disadvantages of the prototype are: (1) the resulting layout cannot be directly exported to JPG/BMP files or to DXF/DWG format for further use and edition, (2) Excel files can handle the values, but not the graphical visualization.
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Architects must “imagine” what the result of typing values will be while writing them, (3) the Excel file cannot be easily translated into a XML file readable by GrapGear, even when Microsoft Excel can export/read XML files; this gives no chance to end users, (4) it is not possible to add non-rectangular shapes for external boundary, (5) once applied, the XML file does not save the relative/absolute position of the rooms, since it focuses on the adjacency constraints and physical behavior.
Figure 74 Final result example with rooms by editing the XML file from GrapGear application. Self-elaboration © Lobos 2010.
Conclusions for Topological Layout Approach Force-Directed Layout Paradigm Approach demonstrates that it is possible to assign some topological constraints to objects and to keep them in an interactive interface easily manipulable by non-expert users. The use of this type of XML files (focused mainly on physical forces and graphic interaction) for defining graph objects seem to be useful and accesible to non-experts. Nevertheless, it has a lot of restrictions for the space layout task, mainly due to the impossibility of saving the location of rooms once they are moved. By handling different software programs, it is easy to translate problems from architectural design to other fields like Graph Theory, or force-directed algorithm problems. Further improvements must be made to the prototype in order to include some useful drawing features: add/delete a rectangle to an edge, editing rectangles, summarize areas of rectangles, and import JPG/BMP files with sketches of layout. A deep knowledge of ActionScript and Javascript API is required to create these new features. 4.2.6.3 Graph Visualization Approach: Tom Sawyer and Spreadsheets Using the information gathered from Edificio Cumbres, a simulation of the Architectural order is run; it is made in a digital process by complementing some capabilities of Tom Sawyer Perspectives web software program and Microsoft Excel. Here the challenge was to find a link between architectural problems and these existing approaches. The aim was to re-produce the existing floor layout of the building by using computers. Procedure for Space Program translation The first step is to translate the information of the Space Program to a digital format. The description of the Order for architects is as follows: “…we need a building with fifteen stories + two undergrounds, about 5000 m 2, in a plot of about 2000 m2; the floor plan section is a rectangle of about 25x15m. Only the Ground Floor is different; stories two to fifteen are the same (Repetitive Story). Each story must contain a Kernel (Corridor, Stairwells, Lifts and Shafts) and seven Flats (apartments: four big and three small ones) with different sizes: “F2” for two bedrooms and “F1” for one bedroom. Each type of flat must contain some other rooms (R: bedrooms, WC: Toilette, K: Kitchen, etc.)...”. By the author.
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Now, to translate this text into a “digitally readable format” one should assign values to some variables, going from general topics to very specific details, similar to the bottom-up and top-down strategy. Since there are many objects with different meanings, one should attempt to group them following different criteria, and then to provide this feasible information to architects in a usable level. There are two levels of relationships and two types of relationships between the objects: Types, that show simple Adjacency and Adjacency with Connection (door or void), and Levels, which are storey level and flat level. Relationships between Flats (F1 next to F2, etc.) and between rooms of a Flat, i.e. Kitchen next to the toilette, terrace next to main room, etc.
Figure 75 A sample picture of the required building. From Baddia y Soffia (c) 2005.
Figure 76 A 4th grade Tree (Graph) showing all the rooms of a building sorted by levels. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010 by using y-Files graph software.
Figure 77 Scheme created to identify the ID of each room and its adjacency relationships. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
If one calculates the number of rooms of the whole building, then one can create a long list of rooms and connections, and then represent them in a 4th grade Tree (see Figure 76), a special type of Graph. To fulfill the requirements of the application interface, a schematic graph was created to get an ID (Identification number) of each room and its adjacency relationships (See Figure 77). After this ID assignment, several spreadsheets containing the adjacency relationships in three levels of complexity (by level, by flats, and by rooms) were delivered. By level: info about position such as left-right, upper-below (see Figure 78). By Flats: a sheet containing all the rooms in a flat, where each room has an ID (see Figure 79). This sheet defines also the containment relationships,
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such as “room 1 is inside Apartment 1”; the same sheet lists the apartments. By rooms: a sheet containing relationships between rooms (from – to) or connections (see Figure 80). Figure 81 shows the result of applying a simple Non-Overlapping and Routing algorithm to the objects in the spreadsheet. This graph contains about 7 Flats, 56 objects (rooms); and 80 adjacency relationships. Pros: (1) output is understandable to architects, (2) the XLS file allows an easy typing of the Space Program, (3) routing algorithms help to locate the entrance with respect to the corridor, (4) it allows re-using existing configurations, this links to CBR117 techniques, (5) select and Drag objects is intuitive.
Figure 78 Info about position: leftright, upper-below. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2009.
Figure 79 Sheet containing all rooms, where each room has an ID. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Figure 80 Sheet containing relationships between rooms. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009.
Figure 81 Result from TomSawyer Perspectives. Self-elaboration in collaboration with Uli Foesmeyer, 2009.
Cons: (1) assigning ID for each couple adjacency is a long and repetitive task, (2) the generated rectangles are not editable, (3) much input is required: flats, connections, rooms and relationships, info about position (left, right, etc.), (4) fold/unfold tool allows the grouping of objects within a rectangle, but they are automatically hidden. Conclusions for Graph Visualization Approach Our main contribution here was to provide an ID value to each phase of the process, which allows the software program to work from an abstract level (names of spaces) to a totally controlled level (adjacencies). It has been realized that it is not necessary to differentiate between 117 Case-Based Reasoning
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Simple Adjacency and Adjacency with Connection (door or void) since only adjacency is enough to describe the main relationship for this type of layout, that is to say, one next to each other. Further edition to obtained layout is restricted to software capabilities. Simple functions like move and resize are supported, even though they are not supported in architectural units (meters). Deep programming language knowledge and Computer´s Science Engineering background are required to extend the possibilities.
Figure 82 A brief history of programming languages. Image based on a digital file and created by using graphviz software program to generate graph layout automatically. From PIXEL118 .
4.2.6.4
A Prototype for an Information Visualization tool in .NET C#
1. The Selection of a Programming Language The task of programming will be thought of as the way of creating “prototypes”. In the field of CAAD, prototypes are commonly known as attempts of software developments that try to demonstrate a concept more than being proper software programs. Even when most of the CAAD prototypes are made by using programming languages, they do not follow all the steps for a regular software program, as seen in Table 24. In this table, the red color shows aspects from prototypes. 118 http://merd.sourceforge.net/pixel/language-study/diagram.html (visited 20.08.2010)
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Now it is clear that a CAAD prototype just follows some of these common specifications for software because they do not pretend to be software, even though some of them achieve a good level of development. Moreover, there are many definitions of what programming is, what a program is, and what software is. For us, a program is a sequence of instructions that specifies how to perform a computation. One of the most common problems in the development of a prototype is choosing the right language. It is also known that there is not a “better” language, since the choice depends on the problem - and there are / have been / will be thousands of problems. Figure 82 shows a brief history of programming languages. In orange color C# language appears. STEPS FOR A REGULAR SOFTWARE PROGRAM Quality requirements
Computer programmers Common software topics jobs usually involve: Efficiency/performance Coding Architecture Reliability Compilation Documentation Robustness Documentation Library Usability Integration Standard Portability Maintenance Execution Maintainability Requirements analysis Quality and reliability Software architecture License Software testing Patents Specification Debugging Table 24 Steps for a regular software program. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
2. Programming in C# In this section, the development of prototype software made in C# (an Imperative/Procedural Object Oriented Programming Language) is described. In our case, the task of programming arises from the lack of a right tool to resolve our Space Layout Planning problem. Therefore, it is needed to create our own tool that takes advantage of the computers processor to run many tedious and common routines in Architectural Design, which are normally made by hand. 3. Development As described in the chapter about graph software, there are many applications that work with graphs, but none of them allows the user to type the space program (SP) directly, and then to get a layout. Therefore, efforts must be made in the direction of allowing users to enter SP information (rooms, adjacencies) and of trying to get a graph layout. With this aim, some existing libraries for the creation of nodes and edges (Image 98), as well as some routines that highlight the node while working on it, are used. The application was made within the WPF framework. The full code can be found in the Appendix (9.14 Programming Codes for C#). Below, a piece of code that creates the nodes, based on “string” definitions, is presented: //agrega vertices al Grafo string[] vertices = new string[7]; for (int i = 0; i < 7; i++)
Since one has begun from scratch, with no knowledge about programming, this task took a long time to be developed, and it still needs more development. Nevertheless, it is believed that the wide information about the process, as well as our proposal for a software concept, described in previous chapters, will be very useful to the collaboration between architects and computer science engineers. Some zoom functions that allow quick navigation in larger contexts have been added. Below, a piece of code that adds the relationships between nodes is presented:
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//agrega lados al Grafo g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[0], vertices[1])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[1], vertices[2])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[2], vertices[3])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[3], vertices[1])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[1], vertices[4]));
4. Results The result was a small application for creating graphs (see Image 98). In this prototype, architects can write the number of rooms they need and set up the relationship. Once finished and debugged, the application opens a small window in WPF format that shows a graph. This graph contains edges and vertices (nodes) that represent the SP information (rooms and relationships). Architects can move nodes manually and arrange them. By using the zoom option, the user can move closer or farther from the graph.
Image 98 Screenshot of graph application. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2010.
Image 99 Screenshot of graph application. Selfelaboration Lobos © 2010
Advantages of this prototype are: (1) it can be implemented in Revit, (2) architects can visualize all the objects of the Space Program quickly, (3) architects can move and arrange all the nodes as needed, (4) the Highlight option allows one to understand the relationships between objects clearly, (5) zoom functions allow one to move within the context and change the viewing scale. Disadvantages of this prototype are: (1) the variable for number of nodes is introduced as an integer; if one wants to create a node from a spread sheet source, more expert development is required, (2) the function for adding rectangles to nodes is missing, (3) the boundary that simulates the building floor limits of a level is missing, (4) users must interact with programming environment to enter the information. Conclusions for a Prototype in .NET C# Programming language C# allows one to create an application for graph visualization. By using some existing libraries, it is possible to quickly move forward in the development of software applications. For a researcher without a Computer Science Engineering background, programming tasks are very difficult. However, it is necessary to learn about the advantages and disadvantages of each language by practicing. This will allow one to have a fluid dialogue with programmers in future research projects. By using C#, it is possible to get a quick access to the Autodesk Revit API and to facilitate the implementation of this application into a BIM (Building Information Modeling) environment. We hope to provide the basis for the development of pertinent software for the architectural practice.
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4.3
Foundations for a New Digital Application
Based on the described framework and previous experiences with software program prototypes, a detailed description of the foundations and the concept for a new digital application is presented. The concept is intended to support the tasks, but not to generate an envelope, nor a layout. It has five stages organized in five modules, each with a separated a window assigned to each stage: Space Program, Topology, Urban Codes, IVS (Information Visualization Support) and Layout. Each window allows the user to enter information (INPUT) and to get some visual/text results (OUTPUT). 1. Module Space Program In this module the user can select the rooms and areas that the building will have as well as the numbers of instances for each item. Commands and explanations are shown on table below.
Image 100 Space Program Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. Sub-Menu
Command
Explanation
Description of the functions
Plot
Size
Building
Depth New
It determines the length and width of the plot It determines the depth the plot It creates a new object Building
User type the length and width of plot (in meters) User type the depth of plot (in meters) It brings a new rectangular mass object
Levels
Open New
It opens an existing building file It creates a new level
Delete Height New
It deletes a level It determines the height of each level It creates a new area
Delete
It deletes an area
New
It creates a new area
Delete
It deletes an area
3D View
It creates a 3D Isometric View
Area
Space
3D View
A level is a floor-section at certain height of the building, where rooms are located. It deletes a level from the building. It changes the eight of each level (floor to floor). An area is a set of spaces It deletes an area of the building program. A space is a rectangle that represents a room or a space It deletes a space of the building program. It is a view without perspective.
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2. Module Topology In this module the user can add topological relationships to the objects created in the previous stage (Module Space Program). Relationships can be added between areas or spaces. The user can import-export these relationships and visualize the results in 3D views. Commands and explanations are shown on table below.
Image 101 Topology Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
Sub-Menu
Command
Explanation
Description of the functions
Area
Show
It shows existing areas
An area is a group of spaces
Space
New Delete New
It creates a new area It deletes an area It creates a new space
A space is a graph node.
Delete New Delete Height
It deletes a space It creates a new level It deletes a level It determines the height of each level It connects two areas or spaces
Levels
Relationships
Connect Disconnect
Import/Export
Import
3D View
Export Isom Persp
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It disconnects two areas or spaces It imports a file that contains relationships It exports relationships to a file It creates a 3D Isometric View It creates a Perspective View
Already defined
An arrow that joins two nodes (spaces)
A graph format (graphML, MSAGL, VSG, etc.) Already defined.
3. Module Urban Codes In this module architects deal with the creation of envelope and boundary levels. Zoning Planning variables are typed into the application to get an envelope. Commands and explanations are shown on table below.
Image 102 Urban Codes + Architect Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
Sub-Menu
Command
Explanation
Description of the functions
Type Codes
Write
To write manually the values into the window form To get values from a file It creates a new Envelope from typed values It deletes the current Envelope It imports a Rhino file
Values of Building Codes
Generate Envelope Import 3d Model
Get Generates Delete Rhino GC 3DS SketchUp
It imports a Generative Components file It imports a 3dStudio Max file It imports a SketchUp file to be used as envelope It allows the user to operate with Booleans (add, subtract, intersect)
Operate
Boolean
Check
Report
It creates a spreadsheet data
Boundary
Level
To select level for working
Slice
To get the boundaries by slicing the volume
Draw
It draws 2D boundaries
From a excel or txt file A 3d mass object
It imports external 3d geometry to be used as envelope It imports external 3d geometry to be used as envelope It imports external 3d geometry to be used as envelope It imports external 3d geometry to be used as envelope Operations between created envelope and imported 3d geometry To evaluate total new area, and comparing desired surface v/s allowed surface. It activates a selected level for working. Slice floor plate operations allows one to get boundaries of each level. It allows one to draw the boundaries by 2D drawing
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4. Module IVS This stage is called IVS (Information Visualization Support). Here the user mixes the topological relationship of each floor with the boundary of each floor by following his/her own expertise and experience. Some visual aids like Sun, Views and wind are offered. Finally, an overlaying function allows fitting the graph into the boundary. Here the core of the building must be fixed. Commands and explanations are shown on table below.
Image 103 IVS Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. Sub-Menu
Command
Explanation
Description of the functions
Boundary
Show story Import
It shows a level for working
To select a level and work on it
It imports geometry to be used as boundary It shows a level for working
External geometry (DWG, DXF) The topology shows the adjacency relationships It imports the topology from a graph If designer wants to use the sun as a reference. If designer wants to use the view as a reference. If designer wants to use the access as a reference. If designer wants to use the wind as a reference. If designer wants to use another object as a reference. For changing the active story.
Topology
Visual Constraints
Show story Import Sun
It imports a topology to be used in the current level It shows a Sun object on the screen
View
It shows a View object on the screen.
Access
It shows an Access object on the screen. It shows a Wind object on the screen.
Wind Other Overlay
Go to story Fix Release
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It shows other custom objects on the screen. It goes to a specified story It fixes a graph to a boundary It releases a graph from a boundary
For visualizing the Graph on a level boundary For releasing a Graph from a boundary
5. Module Layout In this module architects can work in the layout creation having as a basis a graph containing all the room information and their relationships. Simple manual operations are allowed such as drawing (line, rectangle, trim, add vertex, add label, etc.) and editing (move, rotate, stretch, delete objects, etc.). Commands and explanations are shown on table below.
Image 104 Layout Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
Sub-Menu
Command
Explanation
Description of the functions
Story
Underground
to select a level from underground to select the ground level to select any other levels of the building It selects an existing layout algorithm It brings a new algorithm for layout It modifies the current layout algorithm It shows a graph and geometry inside a story
It allows to work on the underground levels It allows to work on the Ground level.
Ground level
Algorithm
Building level Select New Modify
Generate Layout
Show2D/3D
For story
For flat
It shows a graph and geometry inside a flat
2D
It shows a 2D view of the layout It shows a 3D isometric view of the layout It exports file to DWG format It exports file to JPG format It exports file to IFC format
3D Export
DWG JPG IFC
It allows to work on any required levels (2,3,etc). It allows to create design by using existing Graph Layout algortihms. It allows to bring new Graph Layout algorithm. It allows to modify the Graph Layout algorithm. It uses an algorithm to create a flatlayout from the Graph into the level boundary. It uses an algorithm to create a roomlayout from the Graph into the level boundary. It uses 2d lines to show a layout It uses 3d mass objects to show a layout To export the created layout to a digital drawing format. To export the created layout to a digital image format. To export the created layout to a digital 3d format.
Conclusions about the software concept The foundations for creating a software program that supports the Space Layout Planning process by providing feasible visual information instead of generating a
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layout was presented. It was very predictable that if one of the four main trends were taken, the results would not be used in practice. Most of the modules of this software concept have already been done in different ways: some of them are part of existing software program, others are software programs themselves, others are prototypes, and some others must be developed. The next image (Figure 83) shows that our findings cover some specific missing aspects of the early stages of the architectural design. The IVS (Information Visualization Support) Module, that mixes graphs (containing the spaces) and boundaries for each floor, is a novel contribution (since most of Space Layout Planning, even with Graphs, generate a solution; here architects generate the solution with the appropriate information). One can also observe in the same image the situation between the available technology and the missing tools in the BIM (Building Information Modeling) environment, the CAAD Research, and the Commercial CAD. The degree of development (low, mid or high, X means no development) for each step (Space Program, Topology, etc.) is also shown. This research is located in the BIM area. BIM
High Mid Low
CAAD Research
X
X
Space Layout Planning Research Adjacency Matrix
Low High Mid Low
X
Simple 3d modeling
High Mid
Commercial CAD
X
For big areas/blocks
X
Adjacency Graphs
X Affinity / Onuma
X Simple 3d modeling
2D Drawings
Space Topology Urban IVS Layout Program Codes Modeule Figure 83 Situation between the available technology and the missing tools in the BIM/CAD environment. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
Figure 84 Screenshot of the concept. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010.
In our approach (see Figure 84), objects are connected by the position (adjacency). The user can fix or move a room. The only variable is Adjacency (yes or not). It does not consider visual, acoustic, access, etc. The advantages are intuitive use, user interaction, failure reduction and maintenance of “a balance between art and technique” (like Walter Gropius famous sentence). Some stages have the same commands because one wants to be flexible and support the ease of use instead of imposing a work structure to users. The possibility of integrating BIM techniques to our strategy gives, in addition, several advantages for its use in Architecture. This process is cyclical; architects can return to previous steps in an iterative way of working. Outlook: BIM Integration for the Future This new methodology can be implemented, of course, in different languages. The aim for the future is to implement it fully in commercial BIM software (Autodesk Revit Architecture) for many reasons: its powerful interface, 3D modeling capabilities for the building envelope, the possibility of adding constraints to objects, the capability of storing several sizes within a family object, easy creation and edition of levels, and powerful and easy scheduling tools. In the chapter about prototypes for Space Layout Planning, some experiments with C# Programming language are presented. This is the same language to access the Autodesk Revit API, and one thinks it could be a starting point for developing plug-ins in the future. 130
5
Conclusions
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The integration between the design and the interior layout of a type of building has been demonstrated. This problem belongs to architectural field, however it has been widely inquired by researchers of CAAD field; normally the results of these researches have been software prototypes. The design process and concepts related to architectural floor plan layout, and how to apply these concepts to the design of a high-rise residential building by using computers (Space Layout Planning) has been explained to architects and non-architects119. All the variables that must be taken into consideration when designing a floor plan layout from the architecture point of view have been described in detail. Facing the lack of methodologies in the architectural field, the trend in the last fifty years has been to take elements from engineering. All the researches and prototypes have a good evaluation under the engineering point of view, but not under the architectural one. The clearest and absolute proof of that is the absence of those results in our desktop, as available tools for architects´ daily work. On the other hand, the commercial approaches using manual methods (without automatic generation) have been raising (Onuma, Trelligence) on the last years and offer a fast way (but not automated) to get the layout design and its evaluation in the early stages. BIM systems do not generate designs, but they support the visualization and manipulation of vast and complex information about building design from the early stages until the building life cycle. This work seems to be, at first sight, two PhD theses: one about 3D Modeling for Urban Codes and another about Space Layout Planning, but this is one single complex problem of the early stages of the design divided into two manageable parts. Demonstrating the strong and unbreakable relationship between Zoning Planning and Space Layout Planning stages have been one of our best achievements; this novel approach allows the linking of two worlds commonly separated in research but strongly related in practice. Top-down and bottom-up strategies, as well as concepts created by Donath and Steinmann in the 1980s, are still valid. The process is cyclical. The parametric approach can be extended for handling variables of other issues such as water consumption or building performance, etc. Graph theory can be a useful approach for Space Layout Planning. It has demonstrated its theoretical application, as well as its practical application, by implementing it in our problem. This proves to be a feasible and plausible way to handle the complexity of floor layout design. It has been proven that architects do not use optimization, ratio for room sizes, level of connection (low-high) between spaces, and many other variables that engineers include in their solutions for Space Planning to mathematize the design problem. A system cannot be absolute. They should allow user participation and they should not pretend to generate a solution. All four trends have proven to be useless in practice. By reviewing the papers, adding our architectural knowledge and background, and under the “Simulation and Evaluation” paradigm, a new framework has been developed; in this methodology, the user participation is crucial to define high constraints. In other approaches, these constraints must be added through annoying mechanisms. With this formula, one decreases the dependence on high-performance algorithms (always far from the architectural background and practice). The strategy takes advantage of Graph Theory and Topology techniques, which allow one to catch and re-use complex information about the relationship among hundreds of objects. By going deep into the architectural problem itself, it is possible to find the clues for the solution (like Topological structures, Space Program specifications, Building Regulations for specific cases, etc.) instead of using approaches from other fields that will lead us to non-sense results. Before making an application (either prototype or commercial), it is necessary to know 119 Normally architects use their own vocabulary to describe some phenomena and nobody understands, that is why we made some efforts to explain the problem to non-architects (we mean mainly engineers).
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exactly the complete design process and its variables and to know what a good solution is; this knowledge comes only through the deep understanding of architecture. That is why we have made great efforts to present the problem in terms of Architecture, and then to take the rules of a specific case to utilize them in a scientific environment. Also in this early stage, it has been demonstrated that it is not necessary to generate an accurate layout (with walls, windows and doors), rather a sketched and approximated layout just to explore alternatives and evaluate them rapidly. Engineers’ solutions, in the case of Facility Layout Planning and related fields, should look and learn from well-kwon architects like Mies Van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, and Frank Lloyd Wright; since they have set the foundations of the modern architecture. In the same way, architects should learn how engineers resolve design problems. There is no universal tool for space planning; each case (residential buildings, hospitals, schools, etc.) has some special requirements, even though they do have some common points in the early stages. It is crucial for the future that Architecture students continue with the classical Design Courses, but, at the same time, they have to be trained in programming language tools and related courses. In this way, they will resolve the problem of their field without losing the quality and usability of the solution.
Unlike traditional CAD systems, the future applications will have to solve specific tasks, abstracted of other mechanisms and deeply related to real problems of the architectural design. (Donath, Loemker and Richter, 2002)
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Discussions and Open Questions
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Introduction Discussion topics are presented below to spark the debate concerning our research, as well as, about science, architecture, computer science, and their scopes that direct or indirectly fit our research’s themes. 6.1
Plausibility
6.1.1 The Meaning of Plausibility There are a lot of resources to define the concept of plausibility. Most of them come from the economic field and deal with risks at decision-making that cannot be known. Many traditional trends were based on the Bayesian statistical method, and they give some numerical result in an attempt to predict whether an economic decision was good or not. As the years went by, economists realized that managers made decisions by considering risk factors that cannot be known and that they preferred risks that are known over unknown ones. Collins and Michalski then said that the Bayesian model was not enough, and the calculation of “Expected Value” was replaced by the “Risk Threshold”120 of the Plausibility Theory. According to the same authors, “something is plausible if it is conceptually supported by prior knowledge”. As seen, Plausibility Theory is not an exact numerical method, but it mixes heuristic and mathematical methods to give confidence to the user in a presented solution or process, and this fits with an architectural way of working. Architects normally based their decisions on previous knowledge and experience but now, under this new paradigm, they support those decisions with “plausible” information that assures confidence in the decisions. Prof Dr-Ing Dirk Donath at the Bauhaus Universität-Weimar has been a pioneer of the application of these concepts to the architectural design. His work has shown the possibility of mixing Computer Science and traditional Architectural techniques for the creation of a concept and software prototypes for diverse and specific tasks of architectural practice and theory (i.e. Pattern Language).
Figure 85 Different cover magazines that warn about city growing. From Alejandro Aravena lecture, 2010. Image 105 Germany's first high-rise apartment complex, Hamburg's Grindelberg, built in 1957. From DER SPIEGEL, 2010.
6.2
Research Methodologies
6.2.1 A very specific case in Providencia… “…the Chilean detached high-rise residential building with over nine stories, rectangular floor shape, and plots of less than 5000 m², located in the centre of the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile, and designed between 2005 and 2007” case was analyzed. We agree with most of the research methodologies’ authors who show the real existence of problems as well as real samples of the subject of study. On the other hand, our findings, after the state-of-the-art review, were that most of the researches create fictitious cases to resolve. If we try to apply later the solution to reality, it does not work; because, reality is more complex and made up of several factors and players not included in their research.
120 Wilkinson and Ramirez, 2009 [Congresses Proceedings´ Papers]
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6.3
Urban Codes and Zoning Planning tools
6.3.1 Rural vs. Urban Most people now live in cities121, and this trend will increase in the future122. High-rise buildings seem to be a standard solution for the growth of the cities and the urban population. European society, especially German culture, should take advantages of their cutting-edge knowledge in design and construction technologies to plan and develop the growing of their cities under this new paradigm. 6.3.2 High-Rise Buildings vs. Building Blocks Despite the need of High-Rise Buildings, it is well known that the quality of living is better in smaller buildings. The German case is a good example: the continuous refurbishment of buildings of up to five stories allows the re-use of old buildings and it keeps the city structure, avoiding overloading it with more density. The problem is that continuous growth of population will demand more sites, and these will be more and more scant. In Image 105 it is described: “…even during World War II, Nazi planners began envisioning a spatially divided city planning style that would make German cities less susceptible to bomb damage. Modernism also called for a departure from the medieval city centers which had dominated Germany for centuries. The results were not always pretty...”123
6.3.3 Urban Codes Digital Tools in Latin America, Europe and USA Urban Code and Zoning Planning digital tools have been more developed in Latin America since high-rise residential buildings are rapidly increasing and demanding efficiency from architects. The USA has no particular interest on this topic and architects prefer manual methods for mass studies. Europe, with its constant intervention to cities, has tried to research this field, but this type of building is not required by the citizens due to cultural differences.
Image 106 A high-rise residential building in Concepcion (Chile) collapsed during earthquake on 27/2. Picture by Danny Lobos in Concepcion (18.03.2010)
Figure 86 Typical forms used in residential buildings. From Neufert 2000.
6.3.4 Earthquake in Chile 27/2 One of the strongest earthquakes in the world history (magnitude 8.8) was in Chile in February 2010. The author was invited as a researcher to visit the place and participate in several activities related to surveying the damage, reconstruction, and re-engineering for architectural design of houses and buildings. We can say that less than 1% of the total high-rise residential buildings in Chile were affected by the earthquake; from this small amount, four units must be repaired (two in Santiago and two in Concepción) and eight units must be 121 Research* EU, 2008 [Magazines/Reviews] 122 Aravena, 2010 [Lectures/Talks] 123 Der Spiegel, http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/fotostrecke-56372-8.html (visited 10.08.2010) [Online Articles]
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demolished (one in Santiago and two in Concepción, even though this point has not been decided yet). This result shows a good answer of these type of buildings to strong demands on extreme situations. There was only one collapsed high-rise residential building (see Image 106), and it was located in Concepcion (Edificio Alto Rios). Behind it, in the same block and same soil conditions, we can see another building with no damage. 6.4
Architecture
6.4.1 Traditional Architectural Design We should recognize that the traditional architectural design has proved to be efficient up to the XXI century because we do not have any proof of the contrary. Since there is no wide evidence of the use of computers in the decisions concerning design, we should guess that architects in the entire world still use the traditional “black box” design method. Maybe our thoughts about ICT Tools support will be, as it has been from the 1950s, only a utopia. 6.4.2 Canonical Forms There are many well-known forms utilized in architectural design; they are known as canonical forms, and the term refers to those who are mostly known as a good solution for a given problem, as discussed in the PhD thesis of Prof Dirk Donath, 1988. An example of typical forms used in residential buildings is shown in Figure 86. Software for early stages of architectural design should include these types of shapes in their templates. Currently, templates include only boxes, spheres, pyramids, gables, and cylindrical shapes. The same case for Space Layout Planning typologies, discussed in 3.2.1 Foundations of Floor Plan Layout in Architectural Design, there are many types of typologies considered as standard solutions for a certain type of problem. Space Layout Planning prototypes and software should include this as a starting point to create a layout, particularly in this type of building where the solutions are often very similar. 6.4.3 Knowledge from Practitioners It is crucial that researchers acquire knowledge from practitioners. Regrettably, practitioners do not divulge their secrets, thus preventing other architects from using them. Reviews and books about famous architects should attempt to extract, in a reasonable way, this type of expert knowledge. It is known that architects in offices are not used to giving more details about the design operations since it is part of their professional and artistic work, and it is often seen as a “secret formula.” Practitioners believe that if they reveal their formula, others can use it and get the jobs. More serious discussions about this knowledge transfer can be found in Richter´s (2010) PhD thesis about Case-Based Reasoning at the Bauhaus-University Weimar. 6.4.4 Lack of Conventions among Architects A lack of conventions in the field of architecture leads to a delay in the development of the discipline. Since half of its matters are artistic issues (design, history, urbanism, etc.), it is difficult to make a fixed classification or to even find an agreement concerning good or bad architecture. The other half related to science (structure, materials, construction techniques, etc.) is easier to develop, since the specialists and the new knowledge come from other fields. 6.4.5 Study Programmes in Schools of Architecture Normally, study programmes in a school of architecture are based on lectures, seminars, and workshops on humanities, technology, and communication. Each school in the world creates its own program. For the same aforementioned reason (half artistic, half science), it is difficult to share experiences in the same level. An evaluation of results is a traditional way of comparing different ethos of the schools.
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6.4.6 Conservative Architects? What to do? What happens with current trends in digital design, like ours, if we find an architectural office that is conservative? Well, we cannot do much in those cases. Our approach, supported by digital tools, is a very small part of the complete design process, and we have to assume that conservative offices will not use digital tools also in the complete process. If we want to be closer to conservative architects, it does not depend on our efforts. 6.4.7
How do we explain that Weimar and Chile can have the same Results using our Approach? This can be true: some cases can lead to the same results even in different countries. However, this does not depend on us. Our approach is open enough to allow architects to make the final decision. If the results are the same at the end, that depends on the architects´ criteria. 6.4.8
Were the Sevilla Pavillion (Mies van der Rohe) and the Falling Water House (Frank Lloyd Wright) a Mistake? It is sure that these famous architects did not use any of the ICT tools now available during the design process of these buildings. Nevertheless, they are constantly mentioned as a strong reference for all architects (sadly not for the whole society). We must be able to take information from existing designs and re-use it. Case-Based Reasoning can be useful in this case. 6.4.9 Flexibility: Model and Theory versus Reality We need to discuss if it is necessary for practitioners to use these types of digital tools. Maybe they are more worried about getting new clients or solving construction problems instead of creating layouts by using computers. Theoretically, they need to save time in this early stage (this is our belief), but maybe in practice, they do not. 6.4.10 Weather Crisis and Architecture Role During the years of this research (2007-2010), there was a growing concerning for the issue of SUSTAINABILITY. This is a transversal topic that involves different actors of human life: from worldwide institutions (like United Nations, European Community, etc.) down to single citizens of a small village. This means that all the players of our current life can get involved by becoming aware of energy consumption and other aspects. The global climate change relates to many factors, and building construction is one of the most important. In the field of Architecture, the performance of buildings is more and more evaluated using digital tools. This trend is relatively recent (although in the 70s, the energy crisis made people look into sustainable aspects too…), and it is still not a standard for design. We think that Space Layout Planning problems should include some sustainable aspects in the near future. 6.5
Space Layout Planning
6.5.1 Similar Names for Space Layout Planning Problem There are many names for the same problem; the difference relates to specific requirements from each field. The following names represent fields that deal with object arrangement: Automated Facility Layout, Computerized LayoutConstruction Procedures, Problem of Spatial Arrangement, Packing Problems, Tiling, Polynomials Arrangement, Assignment Problem, and Location of Activities (economy). A standardization of names and procedures will allow more interaction between researchers and a greater exchange of information. 6.5.2 What about the other four trends in Space Layout Planning? It is a fact that we did not follow the main four trends in Space Layout Planning (Generative Design, Constraint-Based, Expert Systems, and Shape Grammars). Although we did not find evidence of their use in practice, we believe that efforts made by them can still be useful for architectural practice. Since
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algorithms and programming issues are currently not a challenge, we recommend putting more effort into learning deeply about architectural design problems and solutions from the architectural point of view. 6.5.3 Space Layout Planning in Europe and USA Space Layout Planning has been widely researched from both sides, USA and Europe. The main differences are that while Europe is still trying to use optimization and algorithms to create a layout automatically, the USA is trying to support the process by handling the Space Program information manually. This trend can be observed in the software and prototypes´ development reviewed in our state-of-the-art. 6.5.4
What is the Meaning of Optimization, Local Optima, and Global Optima in Space Layout Planning? Achievements in optimization up to the XXI century can be clearly helpful and must be taken into consideration for timely computing search. As mentioned above, the efficiency of these tools reduce the time and guarantee feasible solutions. Architects and Schools of Architecture should start to look at and deal with these approaches. 6.5.5 Conflict as Catalyst Conflicts emerging from computing forms in architecture can be seen as a catalyst for creating innovative and original designs that go beyond our analytical imagination. From a discussion with the supervisor, we bring a classical problem in Space Layout Planning: a space out of the boundary. This situation can be later considered as a brand new idea. 6.6
Computers and Architecture
6.6.1 Why use BIM/REVIT? This research could be done without using BIM (Building Information Modeling), but we decided to use it anyhow. We are still facing the big change of paradigm from traditional CAD tools to BIM approach, and, of course, this change is difficult, slow, and arguable, like every change in history. However, the end is clear: paradigm will be shifted and BIM will be the next traditional way of designing architecture. When we have five big companies that offers almost the same BIM solution (Nemetschek and Graphisoft, Bentley, Gehry technologies and Autodesk), we have to look deeply into software knowledge and learning approaches to decide which of them to adopt. In our case, we think that Autodesk Revit © offers a balance between the robustness of results and the ease of learning the tool. Nevertheless, we look every year into the new features of versions of Allplan, Archicad, and Microstation. 6.6.2 Mix between Traditional and ICT Tools Methods If we look into the effectiveness of the traditional methods (they achieve their goals) and the high efficiency of ICT approaches (they use less resources), a mix between both would be the perfect strategy for an architectural office. The big challenge now is to demonstrate to all architects in the world that efficiency is an important deal. That is why universities are the best places to spread these ideas. Currently, architects use heuristic methods to create a design. 6.6.3 Universal Tools for Architecture? We do not support the idea of universal tools to resolve very specific problems. In the field of Architecture, all the phases (Site Analysis, Conceptual design, Design, Construction Documentation, etc.) have very specific variables and methods. Any attempts to create universal tools should consider many variables and rules, and this can lead to failure (in practice). Efforts in finding and
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describing subjacent rules of various processes and phases, like Schneider and Fischer, 2010124, must be mentioned. 6.7
Computing Science and Programming
6.7.1 Computing Science and Programming The knowledge in Computing Science and Programming fields up to 2010 is wide. Moreover, the foundations of programming techniques sometimes remain, only the languages change. This means that academics of Computing Science can easily find a way to teach these concepts to students from other fields, like Architecture, taking advantage also of web 2.0 Tools like Web content and online videos. Study programmes in architecture should include at least one course of programming led by architects and engineers. 6.7.2 Restrictions of .NET y C# Environment As discussed on the chapter about programming, every programming environment has advantages and disadvantages. We would say that one of the main disadvantages of choosing these commercial packages is indeed to pay for them and accept the way of thinking that they impose. After some years, the version is too old, and one is forced to buy a license again and so on. Open Source languages also bring many possibilities for the scientific research. 6.7.3 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Our problem deals with external rules (urban codes and zoning planning) and internal rules (space program and layout). This means that the final solution should keep a balance between these two different worlds. If we change the envelope, then the internal layout is affected; if we change the layout, then the envelope is affected. As shown in Figure 87.^
Figure 87 Advances on Space Layout Planning Prototype. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2011.
6.7.4 Is an Information Visualization Approach a Decision Support System? We may find many definitions of Decision Support System (DSS), and some of them will of course fit with Information Visualization Support (IVS). The main difference between these two trends is the generation of solutions. Some DSS approaches led to the generation of solutions, mainly in 1980s and 1990s. IVS approaches show the information in a structured way (required by users) and lets the user make decisions about what to do with the information. In our Space Layout Planning case, the user decides what to do with space relationships as well as where to locate the rooms and which sizes these rooms should be.
124 Schneider and Fischer: 2010 Rethinking Automated Layout Design. Developing a creative evolutionary design method for the layout problems in architecture and urban design in 10th DCC Conference Proceedings, Stuttgart.
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Bibliography
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Introduction A new proposal is presented for the bibliography of our research. Some reflections about the traditional methods in PhD research bibliography, library usability, and text reading are also presented. Since the future lecture and reviewing of the contents (after the wise lecture of the official reviewers and defence of Thesis) is intended for a worldwide audience (Europe, USA and Latin America provide research in our field), as well as to different players (architects, researchers, teachers, companies, etc.), it has not adopted a specific citation or reference system (no symbols, codes or field agreements). However, detailed information about our sources to facilitate the bibliographic search is provided. It is known that some data, such as interviews or personal communications, are not obtainable (from the printed version), but they were part of the research and they appear as a source. A new structure Normally, PhD research bibliographies are structured using standard citation styles such as parenthetical referencing, footnotes, endnotes, “author-date" (also known as “Harvard style” or “Harvard System”), etc. Nevertheless, after reading our numerous sources (books, journals, thesis, papers, etc.) and visiting different universities in the world, our conclusion is that there is not one universal method for referencing in a PhD research and that this depends on the field and its own agreements or norms. Of course, there are some widely accepted trends such as the publications by the Modern Language Association for Arts and Humanities in the USA, but even that is not a universal standard. Therefore, as a contribution, a new structure has been proposed, that takes some aspects from traditional citations, such as authors sorted by name and year, based on Environment and Planning B Journal house style and APA 5th style. This new structure will also lead to a quick assessment of the quality of the sources since they will be classified by “difficulties to be published” this means, that the higher the position (A, B, C, etc.), the higher the requirements before being published. As an example, books supervised by an editorial committee (A) are considered in all academic and research environments as the best proof of good quality in contents because of their long and discussed process of production; on the other hand, Websites (G) have a low credibility (but this paradigm is now changing), since websites can be made by only one person/company without discussions or reviews. The proposed cathegories are shown besides each footnote. On-line contents: The role of the library in the XXI century The traditional paradigm of a “PhD student living in the library” is definitely old. More and more current on-line contents are comparable to the classical “hard copy borrow” system. Many institutions, journals, and book publishers have agreements with the university libraries to search and download books, journals, and proceedings. This system allows a quick and exhaustive search; once the material is found, one can easily download the contents and use them. The PDF format has proven to be a feasible standard in this field. In any case, working at the library still guarantees, like no other, a quiet space to concentrate fully on a topic. On-line content from Governments and private institutions improve the access to wide information that formerly required travelling to the place, special permissions, a lot of money in copies, and long hours of reviewing old shelfs and cabinets searching for useful information for the thesis. Reading in the backyard with an iPad Current Tablet-PC and some other modern devices allow reading almost all types of content with full mobility and connectivity. The ability of reading several formats (PDF, TXT, HTML, PS, etc.) facilitates the access and storage of much information, like books, papers, technical reports, and presentations. For PhD research, it should be considered to standardize its use to allow a fast exchange of information between PhD students, researchers, and partners.
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Downloading the bibliography? Some recent local and web-based digital applications allow the user to electronically handle large databases of references (books, journals, papers, websites, etc.). This allows the sharing of sources already typed so one does not need to rewrite the data of the source for the bibliographic citation. The software program makes the list automatically at the end of the document, and they follow some styles (Harvard, APA 5th, Bio Essays, etc.). Some examples are EndNote, Mendeley, LaTeX and export RIS Format, Ref Works, ASCI, BibteX. 7.1 Books supervised by an editorial committee 1.
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Brooks, B: 2004 Frank Lloyd Wright Taschen, Köln [Book in Spanish] Ching, F: 1979 Architecture: Form, Space and Order Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York Clark, J and Holton, D: 1991 A first look at graph theory World Scientific Publishing, Singapure Cohen, JL: 2006 Le Corbusier Taschen, Köln [Book in Spanish] Droste, M: 2006 Bauhaus, Reforma y Vanguardia Taschen, Köln [Book in Spanish] Droste, M and Bauhaus Archiv: 2006 Bauhaus 1919-1933 Taschen Gmbh, Köln [Book in Spanish] Dzambazova, T, Krygiel, E and Demchak, G: 2008 Mastering Revit 2008 John Wiley and Sons, Indianapolis Eastman, C, Teicholz, P, Sacks, R and Liston, K: 2008 BIM Handbook. A guide to Building Information Modeling for Owners Managers, Designers, Engineers, and Contractors John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey Eco, U: 1983 Como se hace una tesis Gedisa, Barcelona [Book in Spanish] Groat, L and Wang, D: 2002 Architectural Research Methods John Wiley and Sons, New York Gross, JL: 2003 Handbook of Graph Theory CRC Press LCC, New York Hernandez, R, Fernandez, C and Baptista, P: 1998 Metodologías de la Investigación McGrawHill, Mexico [Book in Spanish] Lewis, R: 1998 Architect? a candid guide to the profession Mass. MIT Press Cambridge Lupfer, G and Sigel, P: 2006 Gropius Taschen, Köln [Book in Spanish] Martínez, FJ: 2004 Informatica Basica Alfaomega Grupo Editor, DF Mexico [Book in Spanish] Neufert, E: 1935, Architects' Data Blackwell Science, London Patten, J: 2003 The Architect’s Portable Handbook. First-step rules of thumb for Building Design McGraw-Hill Professional Pellegrino, P and Corray, D (Ed): 1999 Arquitectura e Informática Editorial Gustavo Gilli, Barcelona [Book in Spanish] Zimmerman, C: 2006 Mies van der Rohe Taschen, Köln [Book in Spanish]
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7.2 Books 20.
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Du Mortier, GE: 2005 Introduccion a la programacion MP Ediciones, Buenos Aires [Book in Spanish] Katcheroff, P: 2006 El Gran Libro de la programacion MP Ediciones, Buenos Aires. [Book in Spanish]
7.3 Book Chapters 22.
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Earl, C and March, L: 1979 "Architectural applications of graph theory" in RJ Wilson and LW Beineke (Ed) Applications of Graph Theory Academic Press, London 327-355 Wilson, R: 1999 “Graph theory” in I James (Ed) History of topology Elsevier Science B.V, Amsterdam 503-529
7.4 Government Official Laws and Reports 24.
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MIDEPLAN: 2003 Indicadores Demográficos 1990-2000. Ministerio de Planificación y Desarrollo del Gobierno de Chile, Santiago de Chile [Ministry of Planing and Development of Chile] MINVU: 2007 Ley General Urbanismo y Construcciones. DFL 458 y D.S. Nº103. Ministerio de la Vivienda del Gobierno de Chile, Santiago de Chile [Chilean Building Code] INE: 2005. Anuario de Edificación 2004 Subdirección de Operaciones del Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Santiago de Chile [Chilean National Office of Statistics]
7.5 Peer Reviewed Indexed Journals 27.
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Assadi, F: 2008 “Edificio GEN” Revista ARQ 69 48-53 Del Río-Cidoncha, M, Iglesias, J and Martínez, J: 2007a “A comparison of floorplan design strategies in architecture and engineering” Automation in Construction 16 559-568 Del Río-Cidoncha, M, Iglesias, J and Martínez-Palacios, J: 2007b “A multidisciplinary model for floorplan design” International Journal of Production Research 45(15) 3457–3476 Donath, D and Lobos, D: 2009 “Plausibility in Early Stages of Architectural Design. A new tool for High-Rise Residential Buildings” Journal Tsinghua University Science and Technology 14(3) 327-332 Liggett, RS: 2000 "Automated facilities layout: past, present and future" Automation in Construction 9(2) 197-215 March L and Earl CF: 1977 "On counting architectural plans" Environment and Planning B 4 57-80 Medjdoub, B and Yannou, B: 2001 “Dynamic space ordering at a topological level in space planning” Artificial Intelligence in Engineering 15 47-60
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Michalek, J and Papalambros, P: 2002 “Interactive Design Optimization of Architectural Layouts” Engineering Optimization 34 485-501 Michalek, J, Choudhary, R and Papalambros, P: 2002 “Architectural Layout Design Optimization” Engineering Optimization 34 461-484 Pogodzinsk I, JM and Sass, TR: 1991 “Measuring the Effects of Municipal Zoning Regulations: A Survey” Urban Studies 28(4) 597 – 621 Rahman, M Nakano, S and Nishizeki, T: 2002 "Rectangular drawings of plane graphs without designated corners" Computational Geometry 21(3) 121-138
7.6 Peer Reviewed Journals 38.
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Donath, D and Lobos, D: 2008 “Typing the Shape of a Building: Zoning Planning Support Tool for Individual Plots in Architectural Design” Architecture and Modern Information Technologies. International, Electronic Scientific - Educational Journal on Scientific-Technological and EducationalMethodical Aspects of Modern Architectural Education and Designing with the Usage of Video and Computer Technologies 4(5) 1-11 Donath, D and Bohme, LF: 2008 “Constraint-Based Design in Participatory Housing Planning” International Journal of Architectural Computing 6(1) 97117 Hsu, Yc: 2000 Constraint Based Space Planning: A Case Study ACADIA Quarterly 19(3) 2-3 Roth, J and Hashimshony, R: 1988 “Algorithms in graph theory and their use for solving problems in architectural design” Computer-Aided Design 20(7) 373-381
7.7 Congresses Proceedings´ Papers 42.
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Arvin, S and House, D: 1999 Physically Based Modeling Technique in Space Layout Planning 8th International Conference on Computer Aided Architectural Design Futures, Atlanta Choudhary, R and Michalek, J: 2005 Design Optimization in Computer-Aided Architectural Design 10th International Conference on Computer Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, New Delhi Del Río-Cidoncha, M, Martínez, J, Martín, A and Bravo-Aranda, G: 2003 Estudio Comparativo de las Estrategias para la Distribucion del Espacio en Planta en los Campos de la Arquitectura e Ingenieria 7th International Congress on Project Engineering, Barcelona Dokonal, W and Knight, M: 2007 Digital Design Tools vs. Sketching in Design 25th European Computer Aided Architectural Design and Education, Frankfurt am Main Donath, D and Gonzalez, LF: 2006 A constraint based Building Bulk Design Support 10th Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica Digital, Santiago de Chile Donath, D and Lobos, D: 2008 Massing Study Support. A new tool for Early Stages of Architectural Design 26th European Computer Aided Architectural Design and Education, Antwerp
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Donath, D, Lömker, TM and Richter, K: 2002 Plausibility in the Planning Process – Reason and Confidence in the Computer-Aided Design and Planning of Buildings Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture, Pomona Donath, D and Lobos, D: 2008 Top down and bottom up – using BIM to merge these two design strategies 12th Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica Digital, La Habana Cuba Donath, D and Lobos, D: 2008 Plausibility in Early Stages of Architectural Design. A new tool for High-Rise Housing Buildings 12th International Conference of Computing in Civil and Building Engineering, Beijing Donath, D and González, LF: 2007 Constraint-Based Design in Participatory Housing Planning 25th European Computer Aided Architectural Design and Education Frankfurt am Main Duarte, J: 2003, A Discursive Grammar for Customizing Mass Housing 21th European Computer Aided Architectural Design and Education, Graz Elezkurtaj, T and Franck, G: 1999 Genetic Algorithms in Support of Creative Architectural Design 17th European Computer Aided Architectural Design and Education, Liverpool Elezkurtaj, T and Franck, G: 2000 Algorithmic Support of Creative Architectural Design 18th European Computer Aided Architectural Design and Education, Weimar Elezkurtaj, T and Franck, G: 2002 Algorithmic Support of Creative Architectural Design 19th Umbau, Vienna Erba, D A and Uribe, A: 2005 Catastro Urbano y ciudades virtuales 3d en Latinoamérica 2nd Congreso Internacional Ciudad y Territorio Virtual, Concepción – Chile Frassia, M: 1999 Código Digital de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. 10th Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica Digital, Montevideo Grason, J: 1971 An approach to computerized space planning using graph theory, in Annual ACM IEEE Design Automation Conf. Proceedings of the 8th Design Automation Workshop, Atlantic City Grazziotin, PC, Benamy, T, Sclovsky, L, and Freitas, C: 2004 Cityzoom - A tool for the visualization of the impact of urban regulations 8th Iberoamerican Congress of Digital Graphics, Porte Alegre Herman, I; Melançon, G and Marshall, MS: 2000 Graph Visualization and Navigation in Information Visualization: a Survey, IEEE, VOL. 6 Hsu, YC and Krawczyk, Rj: 2003 New generation of computer aided design in space planning methods: A survey and a proposal Computer Aided Architectural Design and Reseacrh in Asia, Bangkok. Hsu, YC and Krawczyk, Rj: 2004 Form Development with Spatial Character 22nd European Computer Aided Architectural Design and Education, Copenhagen Kraft, B and Nagl, M: 2003 Semantic Tool Support for Conceptual Design in 4th Joint Symposium on Information Technology in Civil Engineering, Nashville Keatruangkamala, K and Sinapiromsaram, K: 2005 Optimizing Architectural Layout Via Mixed Integer Programming 11th CAAD Futures, Vienna
65.
66.
67.
68.
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73.
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Labarca, C and Culagovsky, R: 2005 c-Code 1.0: Simulación Urbana Digital in 2º Congreso Internacional Ciudad y Territorio Virtual, Concepción - Chile Li, SP, Frazer, Jh and Tang, MX: 2000 A Constraint Based Generative System for Floor Layouts 5th Conference on Computer Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, Singapore Lobos, D: 2006 Plausible Design of Floor Layouts. A methodology based on IT Tools 10th Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica Digital, Santiago de Chile Loemker, T: 2006 Designing with Machines: solving architectural layout planning problems by the use of a constraint programming language and scheduling algorithms in 2nd International Conference of the Arab Society for Computer Aided Architectural Design, Sharjah, Marambio, A and Garcia, J: 2005 Modelización 3d de zonas urbanas con SIG 2nd Congreso Internacional Ciudad y Territorio Virtual, Concepción – Chile [Paper in Spanish] Mellantoni, G: 2006 Sólido Capaz: Modelamiento Paramétrico de Distanciamientos. Revit Workshop in SIGraDi 2006, 10 th Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica Digital, Santiago de Chile Nilkaew, P: 2006 Assistant Tool for Architectural Layout Design by Genetic Algorithm 11th Conference on Computer Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, Kumamoto (Japan) Raposo, M, Sampio, M, Raposo, P, Camara, A, Batista, A, and Andrade, F: 2001 A City Simulator 21st Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture, New York Schneider, S and Fischer, JR: 2010 Rethinking Automated Layout Design. Developing a creative evolutionary design method for the layout problems in architecture and urban design 10th Conference on Design Cognition and Computing, Stuttgart Wilkinson, A and Ramirez, R: 2009 How plausible is plausibility as a scenario effectiveness criterion? Joint ASU, Oxford
7.8 PhD and MSc Thesis 75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
Dahabreh, S: 2003 “Two or More: an Investigation Into Courtroom Floor Typologies: Towards the Creation of Analytic/Generative Typology” Georgia Institute of Technology [Qualifying Paper] Del Río-Cidoncha, MG: 2002 “Un modelo para el diseño de distribuciones en planta en arquitectura” Tesis Doctoral, Escuela Superior de Ingenieros, Universidad de Sevilla [Thesis in Spanish] Doulgerakis, A: 2007 “Genetic and Embryology in Layout Planning” Master of Science in Adaptive Architecture and Computation, University of London Elezkurtaj, T: 2004 “Evolutionäre Algorithmen zur Unterstützung des kreativen architektonischen Entwerfens” Institut für Architekturwissenschaften, Technische Universität Wien [Thesis in German] Gonzalez, LF: 2005 “BDS: A Building Bulk Design Support Tool” PhD Report, Bauhaus-Universität-Weimar
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80.
81.
82.
83.
Lyon, E: 2002 “Strategies for IT Adoption in the Building Industry” Georgia Institute of Technology [Graduate Research Seminar] Mölle, H: 2006 “Rechnergestützte Planungsprozesse der Entwurfsphasen des Architekten auf Basis semantischer Modelle”, Dr-Ing Dissertation, Institut für Entwerfen und Bautechnik, Technische Universität München [Thesis in German] Steinmann, F: 1997 “Modellbildung und computergestütztes Modellieren in frühen Phasen des architektonischen Entwurfs”, Dr-Ing Dissertation, Fakultät Bauingenieurwessen, Bauhaus-Universität Weimar [Thesis in German] Wurman, D: 2006 “Normativa 3D. La modelación tridimensional como método de evaluación y herramienta de generación de la normativa”, Tesis Magister en Arquitectura, Universidad Catolica de Chile [Thesis in Spanish]
7.9 Magazines/Reviews 84.
85.
86.
CChC: 2006 Magazín ENCONCRETO Nº 47 Cámara Chilena de la Construcción, Santiago de Chile Inmobiliaria MAPSA S.A.: 2006 Catálogo de vivienda MAPSA S.A., Santiago de Chile Mcgraw-Hill-Construction: 2008 SmartMarket Report on Building Information Modeling (BIM). Transforming Design and Construction to Achieve Greater Industry Productivity, New York
87.
Publimetro: 2006 Guia Inmobiliaria 2006 Publimetro, Santiago de Chile.
88.
Research* EU: 2008 Megalopolis, Bietlot (Belgium)
7.10 Academic Resources in Universities 89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
150
Dolkart, A: 2003 The Architecture and Development of New York City: The Birth of the Skyscraper Columbia University, Website (visit: 01.jul.2007) http://nycarchitecture.columbia.edu Macho-Stadler, M: 2002 Que es la Topología, Apunte Académico, Departamento de Matemáticas (Universidad del Pais Vasco), España http://www.ehu.es/~mtwmastm (01.04.2010) [Text in Spanish] Macho-Stadler, M: 2008 Topología de Espacios Métricos Apunte Académico, Departamento de Matemáticas (Universidad del Pais Vasco), España http://www.ehu.es/~mtwmastm (01.04.2010) [Text in Spanish] Rittel, H: 1972 On The Planning Crisis: Systems Analysis of the First and Second Generations. Translated into Spanish by Andrés Weil (01.06.2006) www.plataforma.uchile.cl/fg/semestre1/_2001/doc/plani.doc Tonn, C and Loemker, T: 2002 in FREAK Software – Framework, Bauhaus Universität Weimar Research Summary http://caupa.de/webfm_send/9 (01.03.2010)
7.11 On-line Articles 94.
95.
Der Spiegel On-Line: 2010 Calamity of Post-war Construction Came from Rejecting History Interview with Architect Albert Speer http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/fotostrecke-56372-8.html (visited 10.08.2010) Torres, M: 2005 Planeación Urbana en Chile. Un producto de la especulación Inmobiliaria Boletín CF+S 29/30 Notas para entender el mercado inmobiliario http://habitat.aq.upm.es (visited: 01.Jul.2007)
7.12 Websites / Newspapers 96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
Bentley-Systems: 2009 Official WebSite. (visited 20.06.2009) http://www.bentley.com/es-MX/Products/Bentley+Architecture/ El Mercurio: 2007 Portal Inmobiliario (visited 01.Jul.2007) www.emol.cl Gehry Technologies: 2009 Project Gallery (visited 01.05.2008) http://www.gehrytechnologies.com/index.php?option=com_jportfolio&cat=3 &Itemid=25 Khemlani, L: 2006 Bentley Architecture and Bentley Structural V8 XM AECbytes Product Review (visited 01.03.2008) http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2006/BentleyArchStructV8XM.html Khemlani, L: 2008a Allplan BIM 2008 Architecture. AECbytes Product Review (visited 01.03.2008) http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2008/AllplanBIMArch.html Khemlani, L: 2008b ArchiCAD 12. AECbytes Product Review (visited 01.03.2008) http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2008/ArchiCAD12.html Khemlani, L: 2008c Revit Architecture 2009. AECbytes Product Review (visited 01.03.2008) http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2008/RevitArch2009.html Nemetscheck: 2008 Allplan News – PROJECTS (visited 08.05.2008) http://www.allplan-news.com/eng/ausgabe_1.php
7.13 Interviews 104.
105.
106.
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Arch Consuelo Larrea, Badia y Soffia Arquitectos, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2010. Arch Felipe Gonzalez, Badia y Soffia Arquitectos, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2009. Arch Felipe Soffia and Arch Felipe Gonzalez, Badia y Soffia Arquitectos, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2010. Arch Juan Manuel Labra, Almagro División Arquitectura, Almagro S.A., interviewed by telephone in Santiago de Chile, mar 2010. Prof Gonzalo Acuña Leiva, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2010.
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109.
110.
111.
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Prof Jorge Baier, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2010. Prof Mario Inostroza Ponta, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2010. Prof Ricardo Baeza Yates, Universidad de Chile, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2010. Prof Victor Parada Daza, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, interviewed in Santiago de Chile, Jan 2010.
7.14 Lectures/Talks 113.
114.
Aravena, A: 2010 Alejandro Aravena Arquitectos + Elemental Speech at the Bauhaus University Weimar, feb2010. Lobos, D: 2008 InfAR to Eastman, presentation to Prof Charles Eastman and students of PhD Program, Georgia Tech University, dec2008.
7.15 Personal Communication 115.
Del Rio-Cidoncha, G Communication via e-mail, jun2008.
116.
Corrada, M Communication via e-mail, may2010.
117.
Loemker, T Communication via e-mail, Jan2009.
118.
Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects, Communication via e-mail, may2008.
119.
SOLNET S.A., Communication via e-mail, may2007.
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Index of Images, Tables and Graphs
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IMAGES Image 1. Hubacher, S., Normalization - The welfare promise. From “Holcim Forum for Sustainable Construction”, Shanghai 2007. ........................................................................................................................... 28 Image 2 An example of the green areas obtained by using high-rise residential buildings ................................. 23 Image 3: Theoretical Volume for a Building in Santiago de Chile. Self Elaboration from www.SkyscraperCity.com (visit: 01.jul.2007) ....................................................................................................................... 31 Image 4. Equitable Building and the Bank of Tokyo as viewed from Pine Street. From ................................... 32 Image 5 Architectural delineator Hugh Ferriss, perspectives demonstrating the architectural consequences of the zoning law in 1922. From the Columbia University Libraries Online Catalog (visit 28.07.2010) ......................... 32 Image 6 Walter Gropius design for the Chicago Tribune Tower competition in 1922. From Lupfer and Sigel, 2006. . 33 Image 7. Edificio Kavanagh, Buenos Aires – Argentina (1936) ................................................................... 34 Image 8. Edificio Alas, Buenos Aires – Argentina. ................................................................................. 34 Image 9 An example of edificio lustrin. From www.skyscrapercity.com (visit 24.07.2010) .............................. 35 Image 10 Edificio Lustrin in Santiago de Chile..................................................................................... 35 Image 11 Edificio Lustrin in Santiago de Chile..................................................................................... 35 Image 12. A Theoretical Volume for a detached high-rise residential building with fifteen stories in the center of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. Source: Architecture Office Badia & Soffia Arquitectos, 2004. ...................... 39 Image 13 Architects can model other possible scenarios (different shape and sizes) allowed by the Local Ordinance. Source: Architecture Office Badia & Soffia Arquitectos, 2004. ................................................................. 39 Image 14 The type of building to be analyzed. Self-elaboration from several sources Lobos © 2007. .................. 40 Image 15 Chile and Santiago de Chile. Self elaboration from www.wpclipart.com (visit: 04.09.2007 .................. 40 Image 16 City of Santiago de Chile and Providencia. From Google Earth (visit: 01.08.2007) ............................. 40 Image 17 Real Estate Projects for High-Rise Residential Buildings in the Commune of Providencia. From http://www.portalinmobiliario.com (visited: 01.ago.2007) ..................................................................... 40 Image 18. The area where the cases of study are located (green streets). Self-elaboration from www.planos.cl (visit: 01.09.07) .......................................................................................................................... 40 Image 19 Comparison between Plot Area Ratio coefficient and heights. From DAU 2007. ................................ 42 Image 20 Representation of possible scenarios for a site, with different heights. From Wurman,2006. ................ 42 Image 21: Detached Building. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. .................................................................. 44 Image 22 Continuous Building. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. ................................................................. 44 Image 23: Semi-detached. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. ...................................................................... 44 Image 24: Mixed Building. The tower-plate case. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. .......................................... 44 Image 25: Built Area. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. ............................................................................ 45 Image 26: Site coverage coefficient. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. ......................................................... 45 Image 27 Setback requirements. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. ............................................................. 45 Image 28 Undergrounds and Chamfer in the corner. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. ...................................... 45 Image 29 Sky exposure plan (Rasante), view from the front of the plot. Self Elaboration. ............................... 46 Image 30 Sky exposure plane (Rasante), view from the side of the plot. Self Elaboration. ............................... 46 Image 31 Sky Exposure Plane in Germany. Self elaboration 2010 .............................................................. 46 Image 32 Shadows of a theoretical volume over the neighbourhood. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. .................. 46 Image 33 New volume shape and its shadows over neighbourhood. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. .................... 46 Image 34 The 18 Building Regulation Rules. Self Elaboration © Lobos 2007. ................................................. 49 Image 35 Mass/Bulk Study and architectural concept with hand drawings for a building in Santiago de Chile. From Enrique Browne y Asociados Arquitectos (Chile), website www.ebrowne.cl (visit: 30.08.07) ............................. 49 Image 36 Mass Study for Bellevue Hotel. No. 23 Manning Street, Tuncurry, Maryland (USA). Oct2003. From Steven Jennings (Senior Assessment Planner) website (visit: 30.08.07). ............................................................... 49 Image 37 Variables for the Architectural Practices in Early Stages. Self elaboration © Lobos 2007. .................... 50 Image 38 CITYZOOM screenshot. From Grazziotin et all, 2007.................................................................. 55 Image 39 CITYZOOM screenshot. From Grazziotin et all, 2007.................................................................. 55 Image 40 Kaisersrot + KCAP, 2007. .................................................................................................. 55 Image 41 NORMATIVA 3D. From Wurman, 2006. ................................................................................... 55 Image 42 C-CODE 1.0. From Labarca and Culawgosky, 2006. .................................................................... 56 Image 43 Building Code from GIS linked to Internet. From Frassia, 1999. .................................................... 56 Image 44 A CITY SIMULATOR. From Raposo et All, 2001.......................................................................... 56 Image 45 Parametric Envelope. From Mellantoni, 2006. ......................................................................... 56 Image 46 IM TOOL. From Yang and Li, 2001. ....................................................................................... 57 Image 47 Screenshots of SPACEplan. From Tonn and Lömker, 2002. .......................................................... 57 Image 48 SIMULADOR PRU_DATOS. From SOLNET S.A. ............................................................................ 57 Image 49 Donath and Gonzalez, 2006 ............................................................................................... 58 Image 50 Building Shadow Calculation, from Global Solution Assist, Inc., 2009 ............................................. 58 Image 51 Revit Prototype. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ...................................................................... 59 Image 52 the planes acting as Boolean on the volume. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008. ................................... 60 Image 53 the effects of sky exposure plane on the volume. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008. ............................. 60 Image 54 Urban Codes and Slice Floor-plate techniques. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2006. ................................. 63 Image 55 Space Layout Planning and delivery to BIM. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2006. ..................................... 63 Image 56 Casa Poli in Coliumo, Pezo von Ellrichshausen Architects (Chile, 2005). From personal communication with authors, 2008. ............................................................................................................................ 68 Image 57 Three most famous architects in history: Le Corbusier (1), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (2), and Frank Lloyd Wright (3) ................................................................................................................................. 68 Image 58 Works from Le Corbusier (1), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (2), and Frank Lloyd Wright (3) .................... 68 Image 59 Norman Foster (1), Frank Gehry (2), Zaha Hadid (3), Rem Koolhaas OMA (4), Renzo Piano (5) . From architects´ websites, visited on 21.06.2010. ....................................................................................... 69 Image 60 Summary of building shapes. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009, from Neufert, 1935. ............................. 70 Image 61 Solar Criteria. From Ecotect software HELP documents © 2009. ................................................... 72 Image 62 View Criteria. ................................................................................................................ 72 Image 63 Abstract of data from Edificio Gen. From ARQ, 2008. ................................................................ 77 Image 64 Abstract of data from Edificio Cumbres. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ......................................... 77 Image 65 Abstract of data from Edificio Puerta del Golf. From ARQ, 2008 ................................................... 78 Image 66 Type of floor-plan layout used currently in Chile. Screenshot from Wurman (2006). .......................... 78 Image 67 Arvin and House (1999). Physically Based Modeling Techniques .................................................... 82 Image 68 Hsu (2000). Constraint Based .............................................................................................. 82 Image 69 Elezkurtaj and Franck. Generative Design .............................................................................. 82 Image 70 Elezkurtaj and Franck ...................................................................................................... 82 Image 71 Li, Frazer and Thang (2000) Constraint Based Generative System. ................................................ 83 Image 72 Michalek, Choudhary and Papalambros (2002). Gradient Based and Evolutionary Algorithms ................ 83 Image 73 Hsu and Krawczyk (2003, 2004). Computer Aided Design In Space Planning Methods. ......................... 83 Image 74 Hsu and Krawczyk (2003, 2004). Computer Aided Design In Space Planning Methods .......................... 83
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Image 75 Keatruangkamala and Sinapiromsaram (2005) Mixed Integer Programming ...................................... 84 Image 76 Duarte (2003) Discursive Grammar ....................................................................................... 84 Image 77 Loemker (2006) Operations Research: Allocation Techniques + Scheduling Algorithms ....................... 85 Image 78 Nilkaew (2006) Genetic Algorithm ....................................................................................... 85 Image 79 Doulgerakis (2007) Genetic Programming + Unfolding Embryology ................................................ 86 Image 80 Doulgerakis (2007) .......................................................................................................... 86 Image 81 Donath and Gonzalez. Constraint-Based Design in Participatory Housing Planning. ........................... 86 Image 82 Medjoub and Yannou (2001) Topological Level and Heuristic Algorithms. ........................................ 86 Image 83 Del Rio (2002), Del Rio et all (2007). .................................................................................... 87 Image 84 Multiobjective Optimization tool for Room Configuration ........................................................... 87 Image 85 Affinity 5.0 (Trelligence, 2006-2007) ................................................................................... 90 Image 86 Onuma Planing Systems. From ONUMA, Inc., 2009. ................................................................... 91 Image 87 The “zone” tool in Archicad 9.0. From Graphisoft 2007 ............................................................. 92 Image 88 Room/ Area tool in Autodesk Revit 2008.From Autodesk © 2008. .................................................. 93 Image 89 Place Space Tool in Bentley Architecture (Microstation v8). From Bentley © 2008 ............................. 93 Image 90 Room tool in Allplan BIM 2008. From http://www.aecbytes.com/review/2008/AllplanBIMArch.html ...... 93 Image 91 Microsoft VISIO template for Facility Management. From http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/templates (visited 16.08.2010) ..................................................................................................................... 95 Image 92 Space Layout Editor for Microsoft Visio. From www.digitalalchemypro.com (visited 18.08.2010) ........... 95 Image 93 The Floor plan, Flat, and the Graph. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ............................................. 98 Image 94 Possible sizes for a room in Autodesk Revit tm Prototype. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ................... 116 Image 95 drag & drop for placing a room in the floor plan. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ............................. 116 Image 96 Prototype implemented on Autodesk Revit2009. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. .............................. 116 Image 97 Street view towards building. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009...................................................... 116 Image 98 Screenshot of graph application. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ................................................ 124 Image 99 Screenshot of graph application. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010 .................................................. 124 Image 100 Space Program Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. .......................................................... 125 Image 101 Topology Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. .................................................................. 126 Image 102 Urban Codes + Architect Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ............................................... 127 Image 103 IVS Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ......................................................................... 128 Image 104 Layout Module. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010...................................................................... 129 Image 105 Germany's first high-rise apartment complex, Hamburg's Grindelberg, built in 1957. From DER SPIEGEL, 2010. ...................................................................................................................................... 136 Image 106 A high-rise residential building in Concepcion (Chile) collapsed during earthquake on 27/2. Picture by Danny Lobos in Concepcion (18.03.2010) ........................................................................................... 137
FIGURES Figure 1 The complete design process and the specific stage for research. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010, from Lyon 2002 and Patten, 2003. ................................................................................................................. 20 Figure 2 Original Scheme for research design. Self-elaboration Lobos 2007 ................................................. 21 Figure 3 Final Scheme for research design. Self-elaboration Lobos 2010. .................................................... 21 Figure 4 The most common floor shape section in Providencia. From DAU 2007. ........................................... 22 Figure 5 Equitable Building NY: zoning and excess bulk limit. From http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/image3.html .... 33 Figure 6. Some buildings using setbacks. From the New York’s Tallest Buildings. .......................................... 33 Figure 7 Bauliche Nutzung. From ISL Lehrmodul in Uni-Karlsruhe (dec2007) ................................................ 34 Figure 8 Diagram for Schematic Design Phase. Self Elaboration © Lobos 2007. ............................................ 37 Figure 9 Causal Multivariate Hypothesis and sub-variables. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. .............................. 52 Figure 10 PROFI [BÜRO]. From INFAR, Anders and Hald, 2002 .................................................................. 57 Figure 11 China Central Television Headquarters building in Beijing. From Architect’s website, visited on 21.06.2010 .............................................................................................................................................. 69 Figure 12 The London Bridge Tower by Renzo Piano. ............................................................................ 69 Figure 13 Accesibility Criteria. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ................................................................ 72 Figure 14 Related Functions Criteria. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ........................................................ 72 Figure 15 Modulor by Le Corbusier. Schema about proportions based in the golden section. The ratio between the distance of the head and navel to the ground is approximately Phi (1.618...). .............................................. 73 Figure 16 Neufert and the standard sizes required in Architecture. From Neufert, 1935. ................................ 73 Figure 17 Minimum distance Criteria. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ........................................................ 73 Figure 18 Geometric Composition. From http://images.artnet.com (21.06.2010). ........................................ 74 Figure 19 Golden ratio image. ........................................................................................................ 74 Figure 20 3D Shape to fill criteria. From Ching, 1975. ........................................................................... 74 Figure 21 3D Shape to fill criteria. From Ching, 1975. ........................................................................... 74 Figure 22. Some abstract drawings or sketches called: Matrix / Schemas ................................................... 75 Figure 23 Summary of Screenshots of Researches and Prototypes from the last ten years. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ....................................................................................................................................... 89 Figure 24. Alberti (AcadGraph, 1998). Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008. ....................................................... 89 Figure 25. Vectorworks10 (Nemetscheck, 2004) .................................................................................. 90 Figure 26 Space and Room tool in Autodesk Architecture (formerly ADT). From Autodesk © 2007. ..................... 93 Figure 27 The Space command in Digital Project Designer V1,R4. From http://www.gtwiki.org ........................ 94 Figure 28 A “mixed Graph” used for a model of a roadmap. Vertices represent landmarks and the directed and undirected edges represent the one and two-way streets. From Gross and Yellen, 2005. ................................. 96 Figure 29 The digraph represents the hierarchy of decision-making within a company. It shows the use of graphs to model social relationships. From Gross and Yellen, 2005. ....................................................................... 96 Figure 30 A floor plan graph with dual graph. From (Grason, 1971). .......................................................... 96 Figure 31 Interconnection graph turned into rectangular drawing through dual-like graph techniques. From Rahman et all, 2002. ............................................................................................................................... 96 Figure 32 A classic example for a Topological Transformation in four steps. From Macho-Stadler, 2008 .............. 97 Figure 33 Königsberg Bridges Problem picture. .................................................................................... 97 Figure 34 A drawing of a labeled graph on 5 vertices and 6 edges. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. .................... 98 Figure 35 A simple unordered tree. From Derrick Coetzee © 2009. ........................................................... 98 Figure 36 Graphs in floor plans from different buildings. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ................................ 99 Figure 37 Graphs by Areas. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010..................................................................... 100 Figure 38 Graphs by Levels. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ................................................................... 100 Figure 39 Graphs by Objects. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ................................................................. 101 Figure 40 Screenshot of Birdeye. From Birdeye © 2010. ........................................................................ 102 Figure 41 Screenshot of Grap Gear. From Creative Syntesis group © 2010. ................................................. 102 Figure 42 A sample of a graph made with SpringGraph. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ................................. 102
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Figure 43 Screenshot of Flexigraph. From Flexigraph Library © 2010 ........................................................ 102 Figure 44 Screenshot of aiSee. From aiSee © 2010 .............................................................................. 102 Figure 45 A sample of a graph made with yFiles tool. From yFiles sample © 2010 ....................................... 102 Figure 46 A sample of a graph made with Tulip tool. From Tulip tools sample © 2010. ................................. 103 Figure 47 A sample of a graph made with Grafos. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ........................................ 103 Figure 48 Screenshot of uDraw(Graph). From uDraw(Graph) © 2010 ......................................................... 103 Figure 49 A sample of a graph made with Tom Sawyer Perspectives applet tool. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. . 103 Figure 50 Cricketschirping screenshot. From Cricketschirping website on 01.12.2009 .................................... 103 httpFigure 51 Graph Browser. From © 2010 Wolfram Demonstrations Project & Contributors ......................... 103 Figure 52 GraphSharp screenshot. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009 by using the application. ............................ 104 Figure 53 Microsoft Automatic Graph Layout screenshot. From website of Microsoft © 2009. .......................... 104 Figure 54 Algraf Project screenshot. From website of Algraf Project © 2010. ............................................. 104 Figure 55 Graphic Sequence of the proposed Framework. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. .............................. 111 Figure 56 Step1: Architects drag manually each room to the floor plate. ................................................... 113 Figure 57 Step 2: Each object has several sizes included in the family. ..................................................... 113 Figure 58 Step3: Discrete Search algorithm finds a simple “non-overlapping” size (not optimal). ..................... 113 Figure 59 Step 4: Finally, a layout is presented. Then architects can manually change objects, like in Elezkurtaj. 113 Figure 60 Step1: In theory, every floor plate has the potential of containing all the objects from SP: corridor, stairwells, lifts, flats, etc. ............................................................................................................ 114 Figure 61 Step2: In addition, everything has the potential of being placed in any position within the floor plate. . 114 Figure 62 Step3: A grid is created, and in each module, some “potential” objects wait to be used for the design. 114 Figure 63 Step4: The TOPOLOGY of the spaces is overlap, and the search into each module to find the object that will be located there is run. .......................................................................................................... 114 Figure 64 Step1: There is an empty boundary of the story. .................................................................... 114 Figure 65 Step2: Architects must place the corridor, the stairwells, the lifts, the flats, etc. following the requirements of the Urban Codes. ................................................................................................... 114 Figure 66 Step3: The application creates the LARGEST possible rectangles in the remaining space, trying to emulate the architectural way of thinking and composing. ................................................................................ 114 Figure 67 Step4: Inside these rectangles, the application distributes the SP following rules such as use the half point, start from corners, use attractors (sun, view, functions, etc.). ....................................................... 114 Figure 68 Step1: SP and Topology relationships are given. ..................................................................... 115 Figure 69 Step2: Discrete Search for possible sizes that met the target area of a flat (i.e. F2: 2 rooms flat, 75m2). ............................................................................................................................................. 115 Figure 70 Step3: Rectangle Creation; The search process gives a rectangle with the best possible sizes inside. .... 115 Figure 71 Step4: Implantation on boundary; the user can manually drag the created flat into the boundary and check. The user repeats the process for other flats. ............................................................................. 115 Figure 72 Edition of the XML file by using Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 Professional Edition. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ...................................................................................................................................... 118 Figure 73 Excel sheet created for improving the interaction with end-users. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ....... 118 Figure 74 Final result example with rooms by editing the XML file from GrapGear application. Self-elaboration © Lobos 2010. .............................................................................................................................. 119 Figure 75 A sample picture of the required building. From Baddia y Soffia (c) 2005. ..................................... 120 Figure 76 A 4th grade Tree (Graph) showing all the rooms of a building sorted by levels. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010 by using y-Files graph software. ............................................................................................... 120 Figure 77 Scheme created to identify the ID of each room and its adjacency relationships. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ...................................................................................................................................... 120 Figure 78 Info about position: left-right, upper-below. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ................................. 121 Figure 79 Sheet containing all rooms, where each room has an ID. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ................... 121 Figure 80 Sheet containing relationships between rooms. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. .............................. 121 Figure 81 Result from TomSawyer Perspectives. Self-elaboration in collaboration with Uli Foesmeyer, 2009. ...... 121 Figure 82 A brief history of programming languages. Image based on a digital file and created by using graphviz software program to generate graph layout automatically. From PIXEL. .................................................... 122 Figure 83 Situation between the available technology and the missing tools in the BIM/CAD environment. ......... 130 Figure 84 Screenshot of the concept. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ....................................................... 130 Figure 85 Different cover magazines that warn about city growing. From Alejandro Aravena lecture, 2010. ........ 136 Figure 86 Typical forms used in residential buildings. From Neufert 2000. ................................................ 137 Figure 87 Advances on Space Layout Planning Prototype. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2011. .............................. 141 Figure 88 The three stages from Steinmann concepts: FunPlan, GenPlan, RelPlan. From Steinmann, 1997. ......... 192 Figure 89 Evaluation of attributes in Steinmann concepts. From Steinmann, 1997. ....................................... 192
TABLES Table 1 Zoning Planning Tools in Several Countries. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009........................................ 34 Table 2 Services provided by an Architect/Engineering office. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007 from Patten, 2003. 37 Table 3. Zoning Tools in Chile. Self elaboration from LGUC ..................................................................... 38 Table 4 Features of high-rise residential building in Providencia. Self elaboration from Urb@2006 , MAPSA 2005 , El Mercurio 2006 , Site www.Portal Inmobiliario.cl and records of the Building Office of the Commune of Providencia 41 Table 5 Variables From Urban Code. Self-elaboration from LGUC and Site Report Information show in Appendix 10.2, Lobos © 2011. ............................................................................................................................ 48 Table 6. Survey of Existing Commercial Software Programs in Architecture. Self elaboration based on interviews with experts and teachers, our own knowledge of Software, Manual, Tutorials, Specialized Magazines and Web Sites reviews. .................................................................................................................................... 53 Table 7 Summary of the results of the survey. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.............................................. 53 Table 8 Evaluation and Scores for Each Software Program. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. .............................. 54 Table 9 INPUT / OUTPUTS in BIM Prototype. Self elaboration © Lobos 2007 ................................................. 60 Table 10 Values used for the parameters in the Revit Prototype. ............................................................... 61 Table 11 Comparison between BIM and the new approach. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. .............................. 62 Table 12 Different types of buildings (about use). Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009 ........................................... 71 Table 13 Comparison for Rational Criteria between Architecture and Engineering. Self Elaboration © Lobos 2009 .. 74 Table 14 Process and Sequence for Designing High-Rise Residential Buildings in an office. .............................. 76 Table 15 Common features for Chilean High-Rise Residential buildings. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ............. 78 Table 16 List of Authors in the Field of Space Planning. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2008. ................................... 81 Table 17 Other names given to this sub-field of research. Self Elaboration Lobos © 2008. ............................... 82 Table 18 Comparison Table for different approaches. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. .................................... 88 Table 19 Comparison Table for commercial CAAD software ..................................................................... 92
156
Table 20 Comparison Table for commercial BIM software. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ............................... 94 Table 21 Comparison of different graph software. Self elaboration Lobos © 2010 .......................................... 105 Table 22 Differences in Space Layout Planning between architects and engineers approaches. Self-elaboration based on Del Rio 2003 .......................................................................................................................... 108 Table 23 Test showing different values for the physical features of the force-directed algorithm. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009. ........................................................................................................................... 118 Table 24 Steps for a regular software program. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2010. ........................................... 123 Table 25. Services provided by an Architecture/Engineering Office. Self elaboration from Patten (2003)........... 160 Table 26 The Building Construction Process (Lewis, 1998). From LYON, 2002. ............................................. 160 Table 27 The Architectural Project Process, Self-elaboration from Lyon, 2002. ........................................... 161 Table 28 Current real estate companies financing high-rise residential buildings in Providencia, Constructor and Architecture Offices. (Sorted by Architecture Office) Self elaboration from Urb@2006, MAPSA 2005, El Mercurio 2006, Site www.Portal Inmobiliario.cl and records of the Building Office of the Commune of Providencia. .......... 165 Table 29 Variables of the architectural practices in early stages of a high-rise detached residential building in the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009 from the analysis of 10 cases (Building Permission files) in the district of Providencia. ................................................................................... 166 Table 30 Variables of the SPACE PROGRAMM for an detached high-rise residential building in the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. Self elaboration from the analysis of 10 cases (Building Permission files) in the district of Providencia ................................................................................................................. 168 Table 31 Full Space Program for Edificio Cumbres. Self elaboration from the analysis of Building Permission files. ............................................................................................................................................. 169 Table 32 Survey for Flats / Store Rooms / Parkings in High-Rise Detached Residential Buildings in the Commune of Providencia iIn Santiago de Chile. Self-elaboration from the analysis of 10 cases (Building Permission files) in the district of Providencia. ................................................................................................................ 170 Table 33 Angles for Sky exposure plane. From LGUC, 2006. .................................................................. 171 Table 34 Minimum quantity and area of external parking, determined by the Local Ordinance. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007. ........................................................................................................................... 171 Table 35 Calculation of shadows area exceeding the theoretical volume. Self elaboration from LGUC 2007. ....... 171 Table 36 Staircases: Quantity and Minimum Width according to the Number of inhabitants: From LGUC, 2006. ... 171 Table 37 Occupational Load Table. From LGUC, 2006. ......................................................................... 171
GRAPHS and CHARTS Graph 1. Total Built Area per Sectors in Chile (2004). Self elaboration from INE, 2005. .................................. 29 Graph 2. Building Permissions per Sectors in Chile (2000-2007). Self elaboration from INE, 2005. ..................... 29 Graph 3 Diagram for the paperwork after the full Government Building Permission. Self-Elaboration © Lobos 2007. 51
COVER IMAGE Edificio Puertas del Golf (Santiago de Chile). Architects: Huidobro, di Girolamo, Zegers y Valdivieso. From ARQ69, 2008.
157
158
9
Appendix A
159
9.1
Tables
9.1.1 Services provided by an Architecture/Engineering Office Red rectangles not included in the original table represent the stages and steps to be considered in our research
Table 25. Services provided by an Architecture/Engineering Office. Self elaboration from Patten (2003)
9.1.2
The Building Construction Process
Table 26 The Building Construction Process (Lewis, 1998). From LYON, 2002.
160
9.1.3
The Architectural Project Process.
Table 27 The Architectural Project Process, Self-elaboration from Lyon, 2002.
161
9.1.4
Current Real Estate Companies financing high-rise residential buildings
CURRENT REAL ESTATE COMPANIES, CONSTRUCTORS AND ARCHITECTURE OFFICES FOR HIGH-RISE DETACHED RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN PROVIDENCIA (2007-2008). Address
Real-State companies
Architecture Office
Constructor
Stories
End of construction
1
Edificio Ámbar
Tobalaba 1661
PAZ
Benjamín Paz Arquitectura
PAZ
12
Sep2008
2
Edificio Ego
Barros Borgoño 33
PAZ
Benjamín Paz Arquitectura
PAZ
11
Jun2009
3
Edificio Lyon & Once
11 de Septiembre 2170
PAZ
Benjamín Paz, Andrés Kraushaar, Benjamín Paz Arquitectura
PAZ
18
Jul2009
4
Edificio Pop
Santa Beatriz 28
PAZ
Benjamín Paz, Andrés Kraushaar, Benjamín Paz Arquitectura
PAZ
16
Dec2008
5
Edificio Amatista
Tobalaba 1727
PAZ
Benjamín Paz, Andrés Kraushaar, Benjamín Paz Arquitectura
PAZ
11
Dec2008
6
Edificio Jazz
Santa Beatriz 73
PAZ
Benjamín Paz, Andrés Kraushaar, Benjamín Paz Arquitectura
PAZ
15
Sep2008
7
Living Urbano
General Flores nº 60
Inmobilia ria Security
Badia y Soffia Arquitectos
Uriarte y Pérez Cotapos
17
Jan2008.
8
Silvina Plaza
Silvina Hurtado 1792
Inmobilia ria Security
Badia y Soffia Arquitectos
Ebco
13
Jul2007
9
Edificio Cumbres
Galvarino Gallardo 1955
Inmobilia ria VyP
Badia y Soffia Arquitectos
RVC Ingeniería y Construcci ón S.A.
15
Oct2005
162
Reference Picture
10
Edificio Campanario
Av. Condell 650
Almagro S.A.
11
Edificio Biarritz
Biarritz 1919
Almagro S. A.
12
Edificio Román Díaz 300
Román Díaz 300
13
Edificio Bilbao 800
14
Constructo ra Almagro Constructo ra Almagro Constructo ra Daniel Salinas y Cia. Ltda.
14
Dec2008
10
Jul2007
Inmobilia ria Delabase S.A.
Almagro División Arquitectura Almagro División Arquitectura Hernando Arriagada y Arquitectos Asoc.
15
Julio 2007
Bilbao 800
Inmobilia ria Delabase III S.A.
Hernando Arriagada y Arquitectos Asociados.
Constructo ra Daniel Salinas y CIA. Ltda.
12
Dec2007
Edificio Doña Matilde
Dario Urzua 1650
DELABASE II S.A.
Hernando Arriagada N.
Constructo ra Daniel Salinas y Cía Ltda.
13
Nov2006
15
Edificio Infante 7
José Manuel Infante Nº 7
Desarroll o Inmobilia rio Napoleón S.A.
Arquitema
Constructo ra del Sol
14
Mar2008
16
Las Palmas de Suecia
Suecia 151
Vista Suecia S.A.
Arquitema
Constructo ra Hogares S.A.
18
Mar2007
17
Bellet Loft
Antonio Bellet 305
Sociedad de Inversion es Inverko
Juan García Igal Kohn Daniel Kohn Rodrigo Meruane
Constructo ra H.M.
12
Aug2007
18
Edificio Amazonía
Av. Los Leones 900
Soc. Adm. de Fondos de Inv. Mar Afuera S.A.
M&H Arquitectos
Cypco
11
Sep2008
19
Edificio Jardín Oriente
Luis Thayer Ojeda 1330
Inmobilia ria Totoral
Arq3
Tabancura
14
Dec2007
163
20
Edificio La Concepción
La Concepción 120
Absalon Espinosa Inmobilia ria
BDE
Absalon Espinosa Constructo ra
19
21
Edificio Plaza Las Violetas
Av. Los Leones 1541
Inmobilia ria ICOM Ltda.
Fernández Wood Arquitectos Asociados
Constructo ra ICOM Ltda.
15
Dec2007
22
Edificio 1810
Federico Froebel 1810
Boetsch, Lira & Cox
Raimundo Lira Valdés y Asoc.
Boetsch, Lira & Cox
12
Julio 2007
23
Edificio Adagio
Cirujano Guzmán 70
Inmobilia ria y Construct ora Hogares S.A
Guillermo Montero I.
Inmobiliari ay Constructo ra Hogares S.A.
18
Mayo 2008
24
Edificio Arboleda Federico Froebel
Federico Fröebel 1575
Inmobilia ria Incael Tres S.A.
Soto & Soto Arquitectos
Incael Ingeniería y Construcci ón
13
Dec2006
25
Edificio Boulevard Lyon
Ricardo Lyon 505
Inmobilia ria Boulevard Lyon Ltda.
Raúl Sará Gastón May
Constructo ra Sigma Ltda.
19
Aug2007
26
Edificio Chagall
Av. Pocuro 2624
Construct ora e Inmobilia ria Magal S.A.
G. Tapia y G. del Río
Constructo ra León Wolf S.A.
14
Nov2007
27
Edificio Classic Plaza Sucre
Rengo 1440
AVSA Concepto Inmobilia rio
Akros Arquitectura
Constructo ra De Mussy
10
Mar2007
28
Edificio Darío Urzúa
Dario Urzúa 2080
Inmobilia ria Darío Urzúa 2080 S.A.
Ruiz Tagle Vicuña Arquitectos
Empresa Constructo ra Sigro S.A.
15
Mar2007
164
29
Edificio Darío Urzúa 1990
Darío Urzúa 1990
Inmobilia ria Tulpen II S.A.
Balmaceda y Serrano Arquitectos
Tecnia Construcci ones S.A.
11
Mar2007
30
Edificio Europa 2121
Europa 2121
Inmobilia ria San Damián S.A.
Balmaceda y Serrano
Tecnia Construcci ones S.A.
11
Dec2007
31
Edificio Huáscar 1400
Calle Huáscar 1400
Inmobilia ria Condell Ltda.
E. Echavarria -M&R Briones B. - T Rodríguez V.
Briones y Martinez Ltda.
12
Oct2006
32
Edificio Manuel Montt
Manuel Montt 610
D&G Inmobilia ria
Marcos de Iruarrizaga y Cia Ltda.
Altius
13
Jul2008
33
Edificio Miguel Claro 1457
José Miguel Claro 1457
Inmobilia ria Tulpen II S.A.
Balmaceda y Serrano
Tecnia Construcci ones S.A.
11
Dec2007
34
Edificio Neo Froebel
Federico Froebel Nº 1819
VIVA Grupo Inmobilia rio
Ruiz Tagle Vicuña
Sigro
12
Mar2007
35
Edificio Parque Las Violetas
Las Violetas 2274
Consorcio Inmobilia ria Capital
Pablo Astaburuaga
DESCO
11
Jun2007
36
Edificio Plaza Matilde
Matilde Salamanca 910
Inmobilia ria y Construcc iones Maulen Ltda.
Lira y Stitchkin
Constructo ra Diego de Almagro Ltda.
14
Septiemb re de 2007
Table 28 Current real estate companies financing high-rise residential buildings in Providencia, Constructor and Architecture Offices. (Sorted by Architecture Office) Self elaboration from Urb@2006125, MAPSA 2005126, El Mercurio 2006127, Site www.Portal Inmobiliario.cl and records of the Building Office of the Commune of Providencia.
125 Publimetro, 2006. Guia Inmobiliaria 2006, 1(2), Published by Modern Times Group AB (Chile) Ltda. 126 Inmobiliaria MAPSA S.A., 2006. Catálogo de vivienda 2006, published by MAPSA S.A., Santiago de Chile. 127 El Mercurio, 2007. Portal Inmobiliario, www.emol.cl (visited 01.Jul.2007).
165
9.1.5
Variables of the Architectural Practices VARIABLES OF THE ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICES IN EARLY STAGES OF A HIGH-RISE DETACHED RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN THE COMMUNE OF PROVIDENCIA
1
MASS – SURROUNDING Distance to the main opposite building
2
Distance to the main backside building
3
Distance to the main left building
4
Distance to the main right building
5 6
Distance between the road and the volume Gap of the Centroid from the plot’s center
7
ENVIRONMENT Positioning from north sun direction
8
Positioning from main wind direction
9 10
Building entrance parallel to the main street Balconies to North/South/West/East
14
Elevations (Surfaces) Net Area of North Elevation
15
Net Area of South Elevation
16
Net Area of West Elevation
17
Net Area of East Elevation
18
Green Surfaces of the project Green Area in Ground level
19 20
Green Area in Roof-Terrace Green Area in other floors
24
AESTHETIC Proportions Proportion wide/length in floor plan Proportion wide/length/height of the volume Proportion wide/height of the main elevation Proportion wide/depth of the volume
25 26
Wide circulations Wide of circulations by the Urban Code Proposed wide of circulations
27 28 29 30 32
3d Voids Higher Ground Floor Double height in Ground floor Use of Ledge English Light shaft / Others Void in pedestrian entrance
33 34 36
Structural Modules used Does the building use a structural module? Size 1 / Size 2 It uses non-regular module
21 22 23
Description
Measurem ent Scale
Values
Measured from the front façade to the front façade of the main opposite building. Measured from the backside façade to the nearest façade of the main opposite building. Measured from the left façade to the nearest façade of the main left building. Measured from the right façade to the nearest façade of the main right building. Measured from the front side façade to the road in front of the entrance or main façade. Gap of the Centroid of volume from the plot’s center
Meters
0-1000 m 0-1000 m 0-1000 m 0-1000 m 0-1000 m 0-1000 m
Rotation in grades about the North. Optimise building orientation for passive solar gains / losses. Rotation in grades about the Wind Direction. Optimise building orientation for passive wind gains / losses and Ventilation.
Grades
0-360°
Grades
0-360°
Grades
0-360°
Yes/Not
1-0
Square meters Square meters Square meters Square meters
1-1000 m 1-1000 m 1-1000 m 1-1000 m
Net Area of the windows) Net Area of the windows) Net Area of the windows) Net Area of the windows)
Façade (regardless balconies and Façade (regardless balconies and Façade (regardless balconies and Façade (regardless balconies and
Meters Meters Meters Meters Meters
Include: gardens, flower spot stands, swimming pool
Table 29 Variables of the architectural practices in early stages of a high-rise detached residential building in the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2009 from the analysis of 10 cases (Building Permission files) in the district of Providencia.
166
9.1.6
Variables of the Space Program
VARIABLES OF THE SPACE PROGRAMM FOR A HIGH-RISE DETACHED RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN THE COMMUNE OF PROVIDENCIA IN SANTIAGO DE CHILE Components of the Housing Building / Variables to measure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PLOT Plot Size Plot Price Tax Value Commercial Price Appreciation Post-Construction Projected Profitability Required Area
8 9
NUMBER OF USERS Number of users Occupation Load
10 11 12 13 14
FLATS Flat 1 sleeping Flat 2 sleeping Flat 3 sleeping Flat 4 sleeping Studio Flat
15 16 17
UNDERGROUNDS STORE ROOMS Store Room size 1 Store Room size 2 Store Room size 3
18 19 20
room room room room
Existence of it
Variables to measure and Units Quantity Size: Height (Euros) Width x (m) Depth Cost
X
Area (m²)
Location (story)
X
X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
PARKINGS Flat Parking’s Visitor Parking’s Truck Parking’s
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
21 22 23 24
PORTER´S LODGE Porter’s Lodge / Reception Porter’s Toilette Porter’s Kitchen/Dinning room Porter’s Shower
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
25 26 27
EXTERNAL PEOPLE External Workers Lockers room External Workers Toilette External Workers Dressing room
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
BUILDING SERVICES Water Fountain/Mirror Swimming Pool (Big) Swimming Pool (Medium) Swimming Pool (Small) Dressing room/Toilette Sport Fitness Center Sport Machines Room Squash Court Tennis Court Babyfutbol Court Covered Terrace Roof Uncovered Terrace Roof Uncovered Barbecue space Covered Barbecue place
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
42 43 44 45 46 47 48
MULTIUSE ROOMS Adults Room in Terrace Roof Events Room Multiuse Room Internet Room Multimedia Room Reading Room Kindergarten
X X X X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X
X
X
X
X
167
49 50 51
Kids playing room Laundry Drying Room
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61
EXTRA FEATURES Green Surfaces Flowerpot stand Pergola Double Height Hall Waiting Room Uncovered Floored Circulations Covered Floored Circulations Wide Entrance Setback for Main Entrance Exterior Porter Room
X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X
X X X X X X X X X X
62 63 64
ENGINEERING SYSTEMS Elevator Rooms Building Water Systems Room Electrical Room
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X
Table 30 Variables of the SPACE PROGRAMM for an detached high-rise residential building in the district of Providencia in Santiago de Chile. Self elaboration from the analysis of 10 cases (Building Permission files) in the district of Providencia
168
9.1.7
Full Space Program for Edificio Cumbres FULL SPACE PROGRAM FOR EDIFICIO CUMBRES
Components of the Housing Building / Variables to measure NUMBER OF USERS Number of users Occupation Load FLATS Flat 1 sleeping room: 1 toilette+1 access+1 living-room+1diningroom+1 terrace+1 bed-room+1kitchen = 7 rooms each Flat.
Quantity/ value
Total of objects
500 15
3x13 7x3x13
39 273
4x13 8x4x13
52 416
3x13 4x13
39 52
PARKINGS Flat Parking’s Visitor Parking’s Truck Parking’s
91 14 2
91 14 2
PORTER´S LODGE Porter’s Lodge / Reception Porter’s Toilette Porter’s Kitchen/Dining room Porter’s Shower
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
EXTERNAL PEOPLE External Workers Lockers room External Workers Toilette External Workers Dressing room
3 2 1
3 2 1
BUILDING SERVICES Water Fountain/Mirror Swimming Pool (Small) Uncovered Barbecue space
1 1 1
1 1 1
MULTIUSE ROOMS Multiuse Room Internet Room Laundry Drying Room
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
EXTRA FEATURES Green Surfaces Flowerpot stand Double Height Hall Waiting Room Uncovered Floored Circulations
4 6 1 1 1
4 6 1 1 1
ENGINEERING SYSTEMS Elevator Rooms Building Water Systems Room Electrical Room
1 1 1
1 1 1
Flat 2 sleeping room 1 toilette+1 access+1 living-room+1diningroom+1 terrace+2 bed-room+1kitchen = 8 each rooms Flat. UNDERGROUNDS STORE ROOMS Store Room size 1 Store Room size 2
TOTAL number of objects
1013
Table 31 Full Space Program for Edificio Cumbres. Self elaboration from the analysis of Building Permission files.
169
9.1.8
Survey for Flats / Store Rooms / Parking lots in High-Rise Detached Residential Buildings
x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
x
Truck Parking’s
x x x
Visitor Parking’s
Flat Parking’s
Store Room size 2
Store Room size 1
Studio Flat
Flat 4 sleeping room
Flat 3 sleeping room
x x x
Store Room size 3
Level -3 Level -2 Level -1 Ground Level Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7 Level 8 Level 9 Level 10 Level 11 Level 12 Level 13 Level 14 Level 15 Level 16 Level 17
Flat 2 sleeping room
number of rooms
Flat 1 sleeping room
SPACE PROGRAM FOR FLATS / STORE ROOMS / PARKING LOTS IN HIGH-RISE DETACHED RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN THE COMMUNE OF PROVIDENCIA STORE FLATS ROOMS PARKINGS
x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Table 32 Survey for Flats / Store Rooms / Parkings in High-Rise Detached Residential Buildings in the Commune of Providencia iIn Santiago de Chile. Self-elaboration from the analysis of 10 cases (Building Permission files) in the district of Providencia.
170
9.1.9
Angles for Sky exposure plane SKY EXPOSURE PLANE
Lands North: I to III Región Middle: IV to IX Región and Region Metropolitana (Santiago) South: X to XII Región
Angles for Sky exposure plane 80º 70º 60º
Table 33 Angles for Sky exposure plane. From LGUC, 2006.
9.1.10 Minimum quantity and area of external parking MINIMUM QUANTITY AND AREA OF EXTEPARKING ACCORDING TO BUILDING SIZE 0-1000 m2 1000-3000 m2 3000-6000 m2 6000-12000 m2 12.000 m2 and over
1 truck parking 2 truck parking 3 truck parking 4 truck parking 5 truck parking
30 m2 60 m2 90 m2 120 m2 150 m2
Table 34 Minimum quantity and area of external parking, determined by the Local Ordinance. Self-elaboration Lobos © 2007.
9.1.11 Calculation of shadows area exceeding the theoretical volume CALCULATION OF SHADOWS AREA EXCEEDING THE THEORETICAL VOLUME I to III Region Projected Shadow To South To East To West
Grads 63° 28° 28°
Or the Height divide by 1,96 0,53 0,53
IV - IX Region and Region Metropolitana Grads Or the Height divide by 57° 1,54 26° 0,49 26° 0,49
X a XII Region Grads 51° 24° 24°
Or the Height divide by 1,23 0,45 0,45
Table 35 Calculation of shadows area exceeding the theoretical volume. Self elaboration from LGUC 2007.
9.1.12 Stairwells STAIRWELLS: QUANTITY AND MINIMUM WIDTH ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF INHABITANTS Number of inhabitants Up to 50 From 51 to 100 From 101 to 150 From 151 to 200 From 201 to 250 From 251 to 300 From 301 to 400 From 401 to 500 From 501 to 700 From 701 to 1.000
Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
Minimum Width 1,10 m 1,20 m 1,30 m 1,40 m 1,50 m 1,20 m 1,30 m 1,40 m 1,50 m 1,60 m
Table 36 Staircases: Quantity and Minimum Width according to the Number of inhabitants: From LGUC, 2006.
9.1.13 Occupational Load Table OCCUPATIONAL LOAD TABLE Residential Use m² per person Flats to 60 m² 15 Flats Between 60 – 140 m² 20 Flats more than 140 m² 30 Table 37 Occupational Load Table. From LGUC, 2006.
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9.3
Site Information Report Edificio Cumbres
Site Information Report: report for a single plot in the district of Providencia. Source: Architecture Office Badia & Soffia Arquitectos, 2004 (for Edificio Cumbres). In red color some important values for Zoning Planning (by author).
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173
9.4
Plans and Drawings for Buildings
Drawings and pictures obtained from ARQ69 (except Edificio Cumbres de Providencia, obtained from Badia y Sofia Arquitectos). Drawing scales may vary since they have been adapted to fit in the A4 format. 9.5
174
Edificio Gen
175
9.6
Edificio Cumbres de Providencia
This information is valid for the Urban Codes as well as the Space Layout Planning Stage. It is a complete set of plans for the official Blueprint Permission Folder of the Building: Edificio Cumbres de Providencia, located in Galvarino Gallardo Street, Number 1955, in Providencia. Designed by Badia y Sofia Architects in 2003, and finished in 2005. Drawings provided by Badia y Sofia Architects.
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
9.7
Edificio Puerta del Golf
185
186
187
188
9.8
Wurman Floor Plans Type of floorplan layout used currently in Chile. From Wurman (2006).
189
9.9
Interviews
1. Ricardo Baeza Yates (UChile)
Ph.D. Computer Science, U. of Waterloo (1989) Magíster en Ing. Eléctrica (1986) Ing. Civil en Eléctrica y Magíster en Computación (1985) 2. Gonzalo Acuña Leiva (USACH)
1995 Docteur en Automatique et Productique Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble 1991 Diplôme d´Etudes Approfondies en Automatique. Productique et Informatique Industriel Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble (INPG) 1986 Ingeniero Civil Electricista UChile 1980 Bachiller en Ciencias de la Ingeniería Eléctrica Uchile 3. Mario Inostroza Ponta (USACH)
2000 Magíster en Ingeniería Informática Univ Santiago de Chile 1999 Ingeniero Civil en Informática Univ Santiago de Chile 1998 Licenciado en Ciencias de la Ingeniería Univ de Santiago de Chile 4. Victor Parada Daza (USACH)
1989 Doctor en Ciencias de la Ingeniería de Sistemas y Computación COPPE-Universidad Federal de Río de Janeiro 1986 Magíster en Ingeniería Industrial Pontificia UCatólica Río de Janeiro 1981 Ingeniero Civil Químico UConcepción 5. Jorge A. Baier (PUC)
Profesor Instructor Adjunto, Ingeniero Civil Industrial Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería (PUC-Chile). Dr © University of Toronto. Areas de interés: Lógica y Representación de Conocimiento, Teorías de Acción, Robótica Cognitiva 6. Consuelo Larrea
Arquitecto / Magister Arq PUC Arquitecto de proyectos Badia y Soffia Arquitectos 7. Juan Manuel Labra
Arquitecto Almagro División Arquitectura Almagro S.A.
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9.10 Notes on the Interviews After three years of research and before going deeper into our proposal, and trying to avoid the “predictable” result of a solution not related to practice, we discussed the research’s problems with experts from Computer Science and Architectural Design128. The idea was to discuss our point of view about architectural practice and computer programming strategies. A brief description of the experience is presented below. Architectural Design Practitioners from two offices were asked about the early stages of design for High-Rise Residential Buildings in Santiago de Chile. They were asked to see our approach and then compare it with their methods in practice. 1. Both offices noted that the problem must be resolved in another sequence because the complexity was higher in the space planning stage than in the urban codes stage; therefore, they recommended putting more efforts into the topology and space program satisfaction. The sequence of design must be changed to: Space program -> Topology -> Space program satisfaction -> Floor plan layout -> Underground Layout ->Urban Codes.
2. The first issue for them is the capacity of the complete space program (3000-6000m2) in a plot and then, at the end, the location of the building inside this plot following the underground design. 3. Underground layout must be in crucial structural concordance with the rest of the stories. This means that every module or size utilized in the flats layout design must be consistent with the underground layouts. 4. Both offices use existing templates for developing new floor layouts. For each new project, they re-use information from old layouts by adapting such designs to the new circumstances (new size, new orientation, new number of flats, etc.). 5. They edit these old templates by using common 2D commands: stretch, move, scale 6. They have different opinions about the role of computers in the decision-making process. One office thinks that the problem is highly complex and thousands of variables cannot be computed. On the contrary, the other trusts the technology, even though they suggest a link to sustainable aspects for the early stages. Computer Science Teachers from three universities were asked to see the presentation of our approach and then comment and suggest some ways towards a solution by Computer Science strategies. The conclusions are: 7. They understood the problem very well because this was described in terms of an Architectural Design problem but always mentioning the parallel approach in Engineering. 8. They don´t care too much about the programming language to implement a solution129 but in the “mathematical model”. This means the ability to describe the solution of the problem in a model with formulas, then translate this solution to a solver to get the solution, and finally to a graphical interface to interact with the user and see the results. 9. All of them had different opinions about which model/strategy was better: Constraint-based, Optimization, Graphs, and Dynamic Programming. These suggestions were based on their field of expertise. Conclusions of the interview The experience of confronting the “research” approach to “experts/practitioners” approach was very useful to bring the solution nearer to the real problem, and it demonstrates that architectural background and a deep knowledge of the problem are essential to technically describe architectural problems and solutions that other non-architect people (i.e. Informatics Science Engineers) cannot understand, but can easily resolve. 128 Interviews were given by these experts in Chile (January 2010). More details (names and dates) can be found in Appendix. 129 In our case, it was expected to use .NET environment because of the BIM solution selected: Autodesk Revit.
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9.11 Steinmann concepts
Figure 88 The three stages from Steinmann concepts: FunPlan, GenPlan, RelPlan. From Steinmann, 1997.
Figure 89 Evaluation of attributes in Steinmann concepts. From Steinmann, 1997.
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9.12 XML Codes for Graph Gear
193
9.13 Tables for Tom Sawyer Perspectives and Spreadsheets
ID
Type
Rooms
Location 1
Location 2
1
appartment
2
left
below
2
appartment
2
left
upper
3
appartment
1
left
upper
4
appartment
1
right
upper
5
appartment
2
right
upper
6
appartment
2
right
below
7
appartment
1
right
below
8
stair case
0
left
below
9
corridor
0
middle
middle
3
Access
38
5
Room1
Flat´s Corridor
20
3
Kitchen
39
5
Living Room
2
1
Access
21
3
Living Room
40
5
Terrace
3
1
Kitchen
22
3
Terrace
41
6
Flat´s Corridor
4
1
WC2
23
3
Room1
42
6
Access
5
1
Room2
24
3
WC1
43
6
Kitchen
6
1
Room1
25
4
Flat´s Corridor
44
6
WC2
7
1
WC1
26
4
Access
45
6
Room2
8
1
Terrace
27
4
Kitchen
46
6
Room1
9
1
Living Room
28
4
WC2
47
6
WC1
10
2
Flat´s Corridor
29
4
WK
48
6
Terrace
11
2
Access
30
4
Room1
49
6
Living Room
12
2
Kitchen
31
4
Terrace
50
7
Flat´s Corridor
13
2
WC2
32
4
Living Room
51
7
Access
14
2
Room2
33
5
Flat´s Corridor
52
7
Kitchen
15
2
Room1
34
5
Access
53
7
WC1
16
2
Living Room
35
5
Kitchen
54
7
Room1
17
2
Terrace
36
5
WC2
55
7
Terrace
18
3
Flat´s Corridor
37
5
Room2
56
7
Living Room
194
Appartment 5
Appartment 2
Ap par tm ent 3
Appartment4
1
Appartment 1
1
Appartment 7
19
Appartment 6
ID App Name
57 Next to
28 10
16 Next to
55 39
38 Next to
2 58
2 Next to
29 16
17 Next to
56 33
39 Next to
3 58
11 Next to
30 19
18 Next to
57 33
38 Next to
4 58
19 Next to
31 18
21 Next to
58 37
33 Next to
5 58
26 Next to
32 21
23 Next to
59 33
35 Next to
6 58
34 Next to
33 21
22 Next to
60 42
43 Next to
34 22
23 Next to
61 42
41 Next to
App 3
1 58
8 58
51 Next to
35 18
23 Next to
62 49
48 Next to
9
2
3 Next to
36 23
24 Next to
63 49
41 Next to
10
3
4 Next to
37 24
20 Next to
64 49
47 Next to
11
1
4 Next to
38 18
20 Next to
65 47
48 Next to
12
1
5 Next to
39 26
27 Next to
66 47
46 Next to
13
1
5 Next to
40 27
28 Next to
67 41
46 Next to
14
6
7 Next to
41 28
29 Next to
68 41
45 Next to
15
7
8 Next to
42 29
30 Next to
69 41
44 Next to
16
8
9 Next to
43 30
31 Next to
70 46
45 Next to
17
1
9 Next to
44 31
32 Next to
71 44
45 Next to
18
9
2 Next to
45 32
25 Next to
72 43
44 Next to
19
1
3 Next to
46 30
25 Next to
73 51
52 Next to
20 11
12 Next to
47 30
28 Next to
74 52
53 Next to
21 12
13 Next to
48 25
27 Next to
75 53
54 Next to
22 12
10 Next to
49 34
35 Next to
76 54
50 Next to
23 10
13 Next to
50 35
36 Next to
77 50
52 Next to
24 13
14 Next to
51 36
37 Next to
78 50
51 Next to
25 14
15 Next to
52 37
38 Next to
79 50
56 Next to
26 10
15 Next to
53 38
40 Next to
80 56
55 Next to
27 15
16 Next to
54 40
39 Next to
App 7
App 6
42 Next to
App 4
7 58
App 5
App 2
App 1
corridor
ID from to type
195
9.14 Programming Codes for C# using System; using System.Collections.Generic; using System.Linq; using System.Text; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; using System.Windows.Data; using System.Windows.Documents; using System.Windows.Input; using System.Windows.Media; using System.Windows.Media.Imaging; using System.Windows.Navigation; using System.Windows.Shapes; using QuickGraph; namespace GraphSharp2 { /// /// Lógica de interacción para Window1.xaml /// public partial class Window1 : Window { private IBidirectionalGraph _graphToVisualize; public IBidirectionalGraph GraphToVisualize { get { return _graphToVisualize; } } public Window1() { CreateGraphToVisualize(); InitializeComponent(); } private void CreateGraphToVisualize() { var g = new BidirectionalGraph(); //agrega vertices al Grafo string[] vertices = new string[7]; for (int i = 0; i < 7; i++) { vertices[i] = i.ToString(); g.AddVertex(vertices[i]); } //agrega lados al Grafo g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[0], vertices[1])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[1], vertices[2])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[2], vertices[3])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[3], vertices[1])); g.AddEdge(new Edge(vertices[1], vertices[4])); _graphToVisualize = g; } } }
196
10
Appendix B
197
10.1 Glossary Most of the following terms have been taken and adapted from Wikipedia website. BIM: Building Information Modeling is the process of generating and managing building data during its life cycle. Typically, it uses three-dimensional, real-time, dynamic building modeling software to increase productivity in building design and construction. The process produces the Building Information Model (also abbreviated BIM), which encompasses building geometry, spatial relationships, geographic information, and quantities and properties of building components. CAAD: Computer-aided architectural design is the use of computer technology for the process of designing and design-documentation in architectural design. CAAD software, or environments, provides the user with input-tools for the purpose of streamlining design processes; drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes. The output is often in the form of electronic files for printing or machining operations. The development of CAAD-based software is in direct correlation with the processes it seeks to economize; industry-based software (construction, manufacturing, etc.) typically uses vector-based (linear) environments whereas graphic-based software utilizes raster-based (pixelated) environments. XML: Extensible Markup Language is a set of rules for encoding documents in a machine-readable form. It is defined in the XML 1.0 Specification produced by the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium), and several other related specifications, all gratis open standards. XML's design goals emphasize simplicity, generality, and usability over the Internet. It is a textual data format with strong support via Unicode for the languages of the world. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, it is widely used for the representation of arbitrary data structures, as it is the case in web services. IFC: The Industry Foundation Classes data model is a neutral and open specification that is not controlled by a single vendor or group of vendors. It is an object-oriented file format with a data model developed by buildingSMART (from International Alliance for Interoperability, IAI) to facilitate interoperability in the building industry, and it is a commonly used format for Building Information Modeling (BIM). ICT Tools: ICT is an acronym that stands for "Information and Communication Technology". They are normally based on Information technology (IT), which is the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware. IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to securely convert, store, protect, process, transmit, input, output, and retrieve information. Top-down and bottom-up130: Top-down and bottom-up are strategies of information processing and knowledge ordering, mostly involving software, but also other humanistic and scientific theories (see systemics). In practice, they can be seen as a style of thinking and teaching. In many cases top-down is used as a synonym of analysis or decomposition, and bottom-up of synthesis. There is also a meaning for Top-down and bottom-up in Architecture: often, the École des Beaux-Arts school of design is said to have primarily promoted top-down design because it taught that an architectural design should begin with a parti (a big idea), a basic plan drawing of the overall project. By contrast, the Bauhaus focused on bottom-up design. This method manifested itself in the study of translating small-scale organizational systems to a larger, more architectural scale (as with the wood panel carving and furniture design).
130 http://wapedia.mobi/en/Top-down (visited 10.08.2010)
198
10.2 Thesen zur Dissertation BIM Supported Building Envelopes and Space Layout based on a Case Study in South America PhD Dissertation Faculty of Architecture (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar) Danny Alfredo Lobos Calquin (Dipl-Ing Architect) Reviewers Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Donath (Supervisor, Bauhaus-Universität Weimar) Prof. Dr.-Ing. Karl Beucke (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar) Lecturer, MSc, Arch. Phil Bernstein (Yale University) Weimar, 2010
The design of the building´s envelope and the interior design are key issues for high-rise residential buildings. Eighteen variables influence the design of such envelopes and thirteen influence the interior design. Shape and size of the building envelope as well as the interior layout is the result of the interaction of urban codes, clients’ needs, and architectural practices. Architects do not have time or the tools for testing several scenarios quickly. Manual drawings are the traditional way to resolve the problem, which is now an inefficient method. A missing tool for the application of specific zoning planning variables is detected. Most of the existing tools do not consider the fact that the interior layout influences the exterior envelope, or vice versa. A BIM strategy for the parametric design of buildings´ envelopes is presented. After the creation of the envelope, architects have to fit a wide space program (a list with the clients´ needs) into that shape (building envelope). This is called Floor Plan Layout. Architects must consider at least thirteen variables that influence a floor plan layout. Space Layout Planning field (Space Layout Planning) has started in the 1950s with the Systematic Layout Planning (Buffa, 1955), and it aims at the automatic generation of floor layouts. Four trends are identified: Expert Systems, Shape Grammar, Generative techniques, Constraint Based. Nowadays, it is not possible to see the results of research in Space Layout Planning in the daily practice in architecture. Due to a misunderstanding of the traditional Space Layout Planning approaches regarding architectural design issues, none of the four main approaches has been implemented in commercial software programs for architects. Results from Space Layout Planning have not been accepted in Architecture. Optimization formulas are not used in floorplan creation. The most important issues here are aesthetic and compositions, and it is difficult to define an optimization for them. Because of the above-mentioned reason, commercial Space Layout Planning approaches, which use manual methods, without automatic generation, have increased during the last years; they support the process of getting the layout design and its evaluation in the early stages by visualizing and handling all objects (spaces) manually. BIM systems support the visualization and manipulation of vast and complex information about building design from the early stages until the building life cycle. BIM systems did not support the generation of buildings’ envelopes or interior layouts, up to now. Graph and Topology are able to synthesize and keep the complex information of a floor layout. A floor plan layout, for this type of building, normally contains hundreds of objects and relationships. The possibility of visualizing these objects and maintaining their relationships during design is a key issue for a plausible solution. A new concept, without automatic generation of the floor plan layout using graphs and based on an Information Visualization approach for BIM, is a valid solution. Architects in practice must handle the building´s envelope and the interior design at the same time, until they get a final balance. It is possible to integrate both stages by using a top-down and bottom-up approach to integrate BIM+Space Layout Planning and Graphs. Processes and methods utilized in this research as well as the results can be extended to other types of buildings such as hospitals, schools, hotels, etc.
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10.3 Curriculum Vitae (Defense on 07.03.2011, CV updated on 07.09.2011) PERSONAL INFORMATION Names Lobos Calquín, Danny Alfredo Marital Status Married, one daughter (Rafaella, 07.08.09, Weimar) Address Belvederer Allee 21, 99425 Weimar, Germany. Phone Numbers +49 3643 258012/+49 3643 584198 / fax+49 3643 584202 E-mail
[email protected] /
[email protected] WEB www.archdl.cl Nationality Chilean Birth Date 22.10.1974 CURRENT POSITION Post-Doc Researcher at the Bauhaus-Universität Weimar (Germany), Chair Computer Science in Architecture [INFAR] Prof Dr-Ing Dirk Donath, 2011-2012. Post-Doc Researcher at the Universidad del Bio-Bio (Chile), School of Architecture, 2012-2014. PAST POSITIONS PhD student and Research Assistant at the Bauhaus-Universität Weimar (Germany), Chair Computer Science in Architecture [INFAR] Prof Dr-Ing Dirk Donath, 2007-2011. Teacher for “Computation” (Universidad de Santiago de Chile), “Computer Aided Design” (Universidad de Las Américas), “Computer Science Applied to Architecture” (Universidad Ciencias de la Informática), “Graphic Computing” (Universidad Central), Santiago, Chile, 2000-2007. Member of the Scientific Committee for SIGRADI 2006 and 2008 Congresses. (Iberoamerican Society of Digital Graphics). CAD Coordinator, Faculty of Architecture Art and Design, Universidad de Las Américas 2000-2007. Leading a group of seven CAD teachers. Freelance Architect and Private Studio “Architect Danny Lobos”, 2000-2007. Collegiate Architect ICA 7662, Chilean Architectural Association – Chile AG, 2000-2007.
EDUCATION DR-ING ©, Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, Germany, 2007-2011. ARCHITECT Degree, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, 2000. BACHELOR IN ARCHITECTURE Degree, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, 1999. ARCHITECTURE COMPUTING DESIGN Diploma, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, 1997. Secondary Education, Instituto Nacional “General José Miguel Carrera”, Santiago de Chile.
ACADEMIC EXPERIENCE Bauhaus-University Weimar (Germany). Assistant Teacher for Prof Dr-Ing. Dirk Donath Design courses at INFAR: Digital_Space [atelierhaus.her] (WS 07/08) // Digital_Space [modell] BILD (SS07) // Entwurf Bachelor "Add-on für Kirchen, Neue Kir(s)chen braucht das Land... " (SS08) // Digitale Planung (SS07).
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Bauhaus-University Weimar (Germany). Assistant Teacher for Prof. Dr-Ing. Frank Petzold courses at INFAR (currently Chair of CAAD in TU Munich): BIM or not to BIM (WS08/09) // Experimentalbau_Stahl (SS09). Universidad de Las Americas (Chile): “Computer Aided Design” Teacher, 2001 – 2007 // Universidad Ciencias de La Informática (Chile): “Computer Science Applied to Architecture” Teacher, 2004 – 2007// Universidad Central (Chile): “Graphic Computing” and “Autodesk REVIT” Teacher (aug2006-jan2007), Assistant Teacher (mar1998–Aug2006) // Universidad de Santiago de Chile (Chile): “Computation” Teacher (Aug2006-Jan2007). All contract finished because of the Scholarship and travel to Germany. BIM (Building Information Modelling) Trainer: eCAADe Conference (Belgium, 2008) // Stuttgart University (Germany, 2008-2009) // Autodesk Students Experts (Bauhaus UniWeimar-Autodesk, Germany, 2008-2010) // Comgrap (Autodesk Reseller, Chile 2005-2007).
PUBLICATIONS Indexed Journals (ISI) - “Space Layout Problem in Architecture. A survey and reflections”, Lobos, D. and Donath, D. in Arquiteturarevista. Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (Brasil), Editoria de Periódicos Científicos e Acadêmicos, ISSN 1808-5741. To be published in Dec2010. - "Plausibility in Early Stages of Architectural Design. A new tool for High-Rise Housing Buildings”. Journal Tsinghua University Science and Technology, Vol 14 No.3, Jun2009, Donath, D. and Lobos, D. - “Das Magnitude 8.8 Maule (Chile)-Erdbeben vom 27. Februar 2010 – Ingenieuranalyse der Erdbebenschäden. Teil 1 ” Abrahamczyk, L; Schwarz, J; Lobos, D and Maiwald, H. Bautechnik 87(8), 2010, pp462-474. Wiley online library. - “Das Magnitude 8.8 Maule (Chile)-Erdbeben vom 27. Februar 2010 – Ingenieuranalyse der Erdbebenschäden. Teil 2 ” Abrahamczyk, L; Schwarz, J; Lobos, D and Maiwald, H. Bautechnik 87 (8), 2010, pp614-622. Wiley online library. Journals - Typing the Shape of a Building: Zoning Planning Support Tool for Individual Plots in Architectural Design". Donath D and Lobos D. AMIT 2008 Journal issue 4(5). Architecture and Modern Information Technologies. International, Electronic Scientific - Educational Journal on Scientific-Technological and Educational-Methodical Aspects of Modern Architectural Education and Designing with the Usage of Video and Computer Technologies. ISSN-1998-4839. Moscow, Russia. Congresses - "Top down and bottom up. Using BIM to merge these two design strategies", Donath, D.; Lobos, D. 12th Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica Digital Congress (SIGRADI XII). Universidad de La Habana, Cuba (Dec2008). - “Simulation and Evaluation for Building Shapes and Floor Layout in Early Stages of Design”, Dirk DONATH and Danny LOBOS, 1st International Congress Bauhaus.solar. Technology – Design – Environment, 25 – 26 November 2008, Erfurt Exhibition Centre, Germany - "Plausibility in Early Stages of Architectural Design. A new tool for High-Rise Housing Buildings". Donath, D.; Lobos, D. in Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Computing in Civil and Building Engineering (XII ICCCBE 2008, Beijing). - "Massing Study Support. A new tool for Early Stages of Architectural Design". Donath, D.; Lobos, D. in eCAADe 2008 conference (education and research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe), Antwerp, Belgium.
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- "One for all, all for one: Connecting Ideas for Collaborative Urban and Architectural Design". Donath, D.; Lobos, D.; Bauriedel, C. ICE 2008 14th International Conference on Concurrent Enterprising. Lisbon, Portugal, Jun 2008. - “Plausible Design of Floor Layouts. A methodology based on IT Tools”, Lobos, D. 10th Sociedad Iberoamericana de Gráfica Digital X Congress, Universidad de Chile, Nov 2006. CONFERENCES AND LECTURES (given) "Infar to Eastman". Lecture to Charles Eastman. Professor in the Colleges of Architecture and Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta., Georgia, USA, Dec2008. "Plausibility in Early Stages of Architectural Design. A new tool for High-Rise Housing Buildings", ICCCBEXII, Beijing-China, Oct2008. "Massing Study Support. A new tool for Early Stages of Architectural Design". eCAADe, Antwerp-Belgium, Sep2008. “Plausible Design of Floor Layouts. A methodology based on IT Tools”, 10th SIGRADI Congress, Universidad de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Nov2006. XIV BIENAL OF ARCHITECTURE, Cycle “Higher Education in the Digital Era" Comgrap. Title of lecture: "ACES in UDLA... Generating Vanguard: Academic Experience in Universidad de las Américas with the Autodesk products”, Santiago de Chile, Dec2004. ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE EXPERIENCE Private Houses: Designer Architect, 2000 – 2007. Valderrama House Design, Santiago, Jan2002 // Garate House Design and Remodeling, Puente Alto, Santiago, Aug-Dec2000 // Mihovilovic House Design and Remodeling, Santiago, Aug–Sep1999 // Tirapegui Ly house Design, Santiago. JanSep1998. Commercial Projects: Designer Architect, 2000 – 2007. Books Showrooms Design, Universidad de Santiago, Santiago, may1999 // Store Design for “Calandre” y “Poeme” Shoes in en Mall Plaza Oeste (May1998 and Oct2004), Mall Plaza Vespucio (Nov2003), Mall Plaza La Serena (Mar2001and Dec2004).
LABOR AND ACADEMIC TRAINING “Research Methodologies” and “Pedagogic School: Teaching and Labour Training Courses”. Universidad de las Américas – Santiago de Chile, May-Sep2005. Certified Teacher Diploma. Autodesk and Graphisoft, Santiago de Chile, dec2004. Updating Courses (2003-2006) in Autodesk and Graphisoft Chilean reseller: Revit 5.0-8.1-9.0, Architectural Desktop R3.3-2006, Archicad R7.0-R9.0, Autodesk VIZ 2004 – 2005, AutoCAD R2002-R2006. Ecotect (2006-2010; Berlin)
CONFERENCES AND SEMINARS (attended) "Design Modelling Symposium Berlin 2009", Fakultät Gestaltung - Studiengang Architektur, Prof. Dr-Ing. Ch. Gengnagel, Universität der Künste, Berlin, Sep2009. "BIM-Tag Conference 2009", Autodesk, Berlin, Sep2009. "ENCUENTROS 2009". Third Conference of Young Chilean Scientists in Europe. Feb2009, Göttingen (Germany). "Autodesk University 2008", Autodesk Annual Meeting. Sponsored by Autodesk, dec2008. Las Vegas (USA). 12th International Conference of Computing in Civil and Building Engineering
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(ICCCBE XXII). Oct2008. Tsinghua Science and Technology, Beijing (People's Republic of China). Conference for Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe (eCAADe 2008). Sep2008. Antwerp (Belgium). "Generative Components Seminar for Academics", Bentley Systems and BRT Architects Office. Jun2008. Hamburg (Germany). SmartGeometry Conference 2008, Bentley Systems and Generative Components. BMW World. Mar2008. Munich (Germany). eCAADe_2007 (Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe). FH Frankfurt. Sep2007. Frankfurt am Main (Germany). Autodesk, "BIM Strategies Meeting 2007", key speaker: Phil Bernstein (Autodesk Vice-President). Porsche Zentrum. Sep2007. Leipzig (Germany). Prof. Dr Phil. Habil. Max Welch Guerra (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, Germany), lectures about "Urban Planning Research Studies in Weimar". Oct2006. Santiago (Chile). Workshop-Seminary “Roll, Identity and Action of today Architect”, Faculty of Architecture U.C. and MERCATOR Foundation, Campus Lo Contador Universidad Catolica, Jan1995, Santiago (Chile).
SCHOLARSHIPS / AWARDS Scholarship from The Post Graduate Funding Programme from the Free State of Thuringia, Germany, Oct2009. Scholarship for Doctorate Research: "Concurso 2006 de Becas CONICYT de Doctorado en el Extranjero” (BIRF - Gobierno de Chile). Given by National Commission for Scientific and Technological Research (Chilean Government). Apr2007-Apr2011. Award to the Six Best Achievements of 2004 for project “Certification of Competences Autodesk and Graphisoft”, Universidad de las Américas, Team CAD, Oct 2005. Winner of "Scholarship of Stimulus to improvement to quality of life 1997”, Universidad de Santiago de Chile. Given by ViceRectoría de Asuntos Académicos, Oct 1997. Excellence scholarship given by Education Minister (1993-1994), Universidad de Santiago de Chile.
SUBSCRIPTIONS Printed (p) and On-Line (@). “ResearchEU”: magazine from European Research Space, monthly (p) “CUMINCAD”: Cumulative Index of Computer Aided Architectural Design Works (@).Full member since 2006 “ITC Digital”: Library Digital of Information Technology in civil Engineering and Construction. “ITcon”: Electronic Journal of Information Technology in Construction (@). “AECbytes” http://www.aecbytes.com / "CAD digest Weekly" www.caddigest.com (@) "Deutschland" Magazine, published by Societätsdruck Societätsverlag Frankfurter Neue Presse, monthly (p). Since 2005.
LANGUAGES Spanish: mother language English (“Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency” Approved, Jan2006). German (DAF Mittelstufe Deutsch B1/B2 approved, Mar2009).
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