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The Writing Center at AMERICAN UNIVERSITY

Getting the most out of THE EVERYDAY WRITER A workshop and discussion .

Battelle-Tompkins 228 || 11-7 Mon–Thu and 11–5 Fri || 202-885-2991

Getting the most out of THE EVERYDAY WRITER

ORGANIZATION ANALYZING AND COMPOSING

Covers the expectations for college writing, steps of the writing process, how to do critical thinking, how to form an argument, and how to do and incorporate research

USAGE AND STYLE

Covers language, sentence style, sentence-level grammar, punctuation, and mechanics

RESOURCES

Covers MLA and other citation styles and information for multilingual writers and those writing across the disciplines

ANALYZING AND COMPOSING: About college writing

The top 20 errors 1. Wrong word

11. Missing comma with a nonrestrictive element

2. Missing a comma after an introductory clause

12. Unnecessary shift in verb tense

3. Incomplete or missing documentation

13. Missing comma in a compound sentence

4. Vague pronounce reference

14. Unnecessary or missing apostrophe

5. Spelling

15. Run-on sentence

6. Mechanical error with a quotation

16. Comma splice

7. Unnecessary comma

17. Lack of pronoun-antecedent agreement

8. Unnecessary or missing capitalization

18. Poorly integrated quotation

9. Missing word

19. Unnecessary or missing hyphen

10. Faulty sentence structure

20. Sentence fragment


Expectations for College Writing  Establishing authority: Your opinions count!  Being clear and direct: State main point early and clearly; avoid overqualifying your writing; avoid digressions; use evidence; make transitions; use logical organization.

 Academic reading: You should be an active reader who offers informed opinions on the assigned readings. This doesn’t meant to be disagreeable or negative. Make notes in the margins.  Electronic communication: How to conduct yourself in email, discussion forums, blogs and social-networking spaces.


Oral and Multimedia Assignments 1. Contributing to in-class discussions • • • •

Be prepared for class Listen purposefully Make sure your comments are fair and relevant Be specific in your comments

2. Giving effective presentations •

• •

3. Online presentations • • •

Practicing Speaking clearly Look into camera

• • • • •

Consider your task, purpose and audience Making your introduction and conclusion memorable Using explicit structure and signpost language Writing your script Speaking from notes Integrating visuals Practicing Making your presentation


Design for College Writing a. Visual structure •

Principles of design for print and electronic documents

b. Formats • • • • • •

Margins and white space Color Paper Pagination Headings Effect

c. Headings • •

Type sizes Consistency

d. Visuals • • •

Selecting visuals Identifying visuals in your writing Analyzing and altering visuals

e. Sample documents

ANALYZING AND COMPOSING: The writing process

Writing Situations a. Write to connect: Remember that your writing should extend upon, respond to or challenge what others say. b. Understand rhetorical situations: Ethos, pathos and logos c. Consider your topic and audience: How are your readers like or unlike you? What might they value? What do they know about the topic? What kinds of appeals will be most effective? d. Analyze the purpose of your writing: Are you writing to respond to a question? Are you writing to learn about a topic? How can you achieve these goals? e. Analyze your position as a writer or speaker: What is your overall attitude toward the topic? What influences account for your feelings on the topic? What interests you most/least about the topic? How will you establish your credibility?

f. Consider other elements of the writing context: time and length; medium and genre; language and clarity; tone and style


Exploring Ideas a. Brainstorming • • •

Make a list of thoughts on the topic Think about the opposite side of the argument Look for patterns in your list of ideas and phrases

b. Freewriting or looping (above) •

Write for 10 minutes about your topic, and let your mind wander


Exploring Ideas c. Drawing • • •

Sketch out your topic What images do you come up with? What can you expand upon?

d. Clustering (above) • • •

Write your topic in the middle of the page and circle it In a ring around the topic, write what you see as the main parts of the topic Think of more ideas, examples, facts and include them in your diagram


Exploring Ideas e. Ask questions • • • • •

What is the topic? What caused this topic to come up? What is it like or unlike? What larger system is the topic a part of? What do people say about the topic?

f. Browse sources •

Use the library and Internet to browse topics

g. Collaborate (when applicable)


Planning and Drafting a.

• Narrow your topic

b.

• Craft a working thesis

c.

• Gather information to support your thesis

d.

• Organize information

e.

• Make a plan

f.

• Write a draft


Developing Paragraphs a. Focus on the main idea

b. Provide details c. Use effective methods of development


Developing Paragraphs c. Use effective methods of development • • • • • • • • • • •

Narrative Description Definition Example Division and classification Comparison and contrast Analogy Cause and effect Process Problem and solution Reiterating


Developing Paragraphs d. Consider paragraph length When to start a new paragraph: • Turning to a new idea • Emphasizing something • To get readers to pause • To take up a subtopic • To start the conclusion

e. Make paragraphs flow • • •

Repeating key words and phrases Using parallelism Using transitions

f. Work on opening and closing paragraphs


Reviewing and Revising a. Reread • • • • • •

Meaning Purpose Audience Stance Organization Visuals

b. Get responses from peers •

Tools for peer review

c. Consult instructor comments

d. Revise • • • • •

Thesis Support Organization Title, introduction and conclusion Design


Editing and Reflecting a. Edit • • • • •

Sentence length Word choice Spelling Document design Proofreading

b. Reflect

ANALYZING AND COMPOSING: Critical thinking and argument

Critical Reading a. Think critically about written texts • •

Summarize what you’ve read Take notes on your analysis

b. Think critically about visuals • • • • •

Details Composition Color Words Repetition


Analyzing Arguments a. Think critically about argument • • • • •

Check understanding Play the believing – and the doubting – game Ask pertinent questions Interpret and assess information Assess your own arguments

b. Recognize cultural contexts

c. Identify an argument’s basic appeals •

Ethos, pathos and logos

d. Analyze the elements of an argument • • • • •

Claim or claims Reasons for the claim Stated or unstated assumptions Evidence Qualifiers

e. Analyze the visual arguments f. Think critically about fallacies


Constructing Arguments Understand what counts as an argument Checking whether a statement can be argued

Make a claim and formulate a working thesis

Argument Examine your assumptions

Shape your appeal to your audience


Constructing Arguments e. Establish credibility through ethical appeals • • • •

Demonstrating knowledge Establishing common ground Demonstrating fairness Using visuals that make ethical appeals

f. Use effective logical appeals • • • •

Examples, precedents and narratives Authority and testimony Inductive and deductive reasoning Using visuals to make logical appeals


Constructing Arguments g. Use appropriate emotional appeals • • •

Concrete descriptive details Figurative language Visuals that make emotional appeals

h. Consult sources I. Organize your argument

ANALYZING AND COMPOSING: Research

Preparing for a Research Project

Analyze the research project

Formulate a research question and hypothesis

Plan your research

Set up a research log

Move from hypothesis to working thesis


Doing Research • Find library resources

• Search the Web

• Conduct field research

Books and journals

Articles and opinions

Firsthand experiences


Evaluating Sources and Taking Notes a. Understand why you should use sources

d. Read critically and interpret sources

b. Create a working bibliography

e. Synthesize sources

c. Evaluate a source’s usefulness and credibility

f. Take notes, and annotate your sources


Integrating Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism a.

b.

Decide whether to quote, paraphrase or summarize Integrate quotes, paraphrases and summaries effectively

c. Integrate visuals effectively

d. Check for excessive use of source material e. Understand why you should acknowledge your sources f. Know which sources to acknowledge

g. Uphold your academic integrity, and avoid plagiarism


Writing a Research Project a.

• Refine your writing plans

b.

• Organize your draft

c.

• Incorporate source material

d.

• Review and get responses to your draft

e.

• Revise and edit your draft

f.

• Prepare a list of sources

g.

• Prepare and proofread your final copy


QUESTIONS?

USAGE AND STYLE: Language

Considering Your Audience Writing to the world • • • • • •

What do you consider “normal”? Defining your terms Your own responsibility to your audience What counts as evidence Organization Style

Language that builds common ground • • • •

Unstated assumptions and stereotypes Assumptions about gender Assumptions about race and ethnicity Other kinds of differences

USAGE AND STYLE: Language

Variations Language variety • • • •

Standard varieties of English Ethnic varieties of English Regional varieties of English Other languages

Word choice and spelling • • • • • •

Appropriate formality Denotation and connotation General and specific language Figurative language Spell checkers Spelling rules

Glossary of usage

USAGE AND STYLE: Sentence style

Coordination, subordination, and emphasis •

• •

Use coordination to relate equal ideas Use subordination to distinguish main ideas Use closing and opening positions for emphasis

Consistency and completeness • • • • •

Revise faulty sentence structure Match up subjects and predicates Use elliptical structures carefully Check for missing words Make comparisons complete, consistent, and clear


Parallelism • • •

Make items in a series parallel Make paired ideas parallel Include all necessary words

Shifts Revise unnecessary shifts in: • tense • mood • voice • person and number • direct and indirect discourse • tone and word choice


Conciseness • • • • •

Eliminate unnecessary words Eliminate redundant words Eliminate empty words Replace wordy phrases Simplify sentence structure

Sentence variety • •

Vary sentence length Vary sentence openings

USAGE AND STYLE: Sentence grammar

Basic grammar • • •

Parts of speech Parts of sentences Types of sentences

Verbs • • • • • • • •

Five forms Auxiliary verbs Regular/irregular forms Lie/lay, sit/set, rise/raise Verb tenses Sequence of tenses Active and passive voice Mood


Subject-verb agreement • • • • • • • • • •

Third-person singular subjects Subject and verbs separated by other words Compound subjects Collective-noun subjects Indefinite-pronoun subjects Antecedents of who, which, and that Linking verbs Subjects that are plural in form but singular in meaning Subjects that follow verbs Titles and words used as words

Pronouns • • • • • •

Pronoun case Who, whoever, whom, and whomever Case in compound structures We and us before a noun Pronoun-antecedent agreement Clear pronoun reference


Adjectives and adverbs • • •

Adjectives after linking verbs Adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs Comparatives and superlatives

Modifier placement • • •

Misplaced modifiers Disruptive modifiers Dangling modifiers

Comma splices and fused sentences • • • • •

Separate the clauses into two sentences Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction Link the clauses with a semicolon Rewrite the clauses as one independent clause Link the two clauses with a dash

Sentence fragments • • •

Phrase fragments Compound-predicate fragments Dependent-clause fragments

USAGE AND STYLE:

Punctuation and mechanics

Punctuation Marks  Commas  Semicolons  End punctuation Apostrophes  Quotation marks  Other punctuation

USAGE AND STYLE:


Letters and Figures  Capitalization

Abbreviations Numbers

USAGE AND STYLE:


Other Matters Italics • Long works •Words, letters, and numbers •Non-English words

Hyphens • Compound words • Prefixes and suffixes • Line breaks • Avoiding unneeded hyphens


QUESTIONS?

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

In-Text Citations MLA style requires documentation in the text of an essay for every quotation, stance of paraphrasing, and summary. An in-text citation give the reader two kinds of information: 1. 2.

It indicates to which source on the works cited page the writer is referring, and it explains where in the source material is being quoted, paraphrased or summarized.

In-text citation includes the author’s last name in (a) a signal phrase introducing the source material or (b) at the end of the sentence. It also includes the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

In-Text Citations CITATION USING A SIGNAL PHRASE: In his discussion of Monty Python routines, Crystal notes that the group relished “breaking the normal rules” of language (107). PARENTHETICAL CITATION: A noted linguist explains that Monty Python humor often relied on “bizarre linguistic interactions” (Crystal 108).

AUTHOR NAMED IN SIGNAL PHRASE: Lee claims that his comic-book creation, Thor, was “the first regularly published superhero to speak in a consistently archaic manner” (199). TWO OR THREE AUTHORS: Gortner, Hebrun, and Nicolson maintain that “opinion leaders” influence other people in an organization because they are respected, not because they hold high positions (175).

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

In-Text Citations FOUR OR MORE: Use first author’s name and et al. (“and others”), or name the authors in a signal phrase or in parentheses. UKNOWN AUTHOR: Use the full title, if it is brief, in your text – or a shortened version of the title in parentheses. One analysis defines hype as “an artificially engendered atmosphere of hysteria” (“Today’s Marketplace” 51). LITERARY WORK Cite the page number from the edition you used followed by a semicolon, and they give other identifying information. Indicate the act and/or scene in a play (37; sc. 1). For a novel, indicate the part or chapter (175; ch. 4). In utter despair, Dostoevsky’s character Mitya wonders aloud about the “terrible tragedies realism inflicts on people” (376; bk. 8, ch. 2).

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

In-Text Citations VISUALS INCLUDED IN THE TEXT: When you include an image in your text, number it and include a parenthetical reference. Number figures (photos, drawings, cartoons, maps, graphs, and charts) and tables separately. Each visual should include a caption with the figure or table number and information about the source. The trend is illustrated in a chart distributed by the College Board as part of its 2002 analysis of aggregate SAT data (see Fig. 1).

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

Explanatory and Bibliographic Notes SUPERSCRIPT NUMBER IN TEXT Stewart emphasizes the existence of social contacts in Hawthorne’s life so that the audience will accept a different Hawthorne, one more attuned to modern times 3 than the figure in Woodberry.

NOTE Woodberry does, however, show that Hawthorne was often an unsociable individual. He emphasizes the seclusion of Hawthorn’s mother, who separated herself from her family after the death of her husband, often even taking meals alone (28). Woodberry seems to imply that Mrs. Hawthorne’s isolation rubbed off onto her son. 3

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

Works Cited A works cited list is an alphabetical list of the sources you have referenced in your essay. If your instructor asks you to list everything you have read as background, call the list “Works Consulted.”

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

MLA Format

RESOURCES:

APA documentation

APA Style: In-Text Citations APA style requires parenthetical references in the text to document quotations, instances of paraphrasing, summaries, and other material from a source. These citations correspond to full bibliographic entries in a list of references at the end of the text. Note: APA style generally calls for using the past tense or present perfect tense for signal verbs.

Example: Baker (2003) “showed” or Baker (2003) “has shown.” Use present tense only to describe discuss results (“the experiment demonstrates”) or widely accepted information (“researchers agree”). In-text citations in APA style always indicate which source on the references page the writer is referring to, and it tells what year the material was published; for quoted material, the in-text citation also indicates where in the source the quotation can be found.

Example: Gitlin (2001) pointed out that “political critics, convinced that the media are rigged against them, are often blind to other substantial reasons why their causes are unpersuasive” (p. 141). If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author’s name, the year, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation: (Gitlin, 2001, p. 141).

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

APA Format

RESOURCES:

MLA documentation

APA Versus MLA Distinguishing characteristics of the APA style:

*Greater emphasis on recent research dates. Scientific and psychological research tend to privilege the latest findings in their fields. Whereas, MLA research gives no preference to the newest research in their fields. *The title page is a stand-alone piece. *A section dedicated to a conclusion.

RESOURCES:

Chicago Manual of Style

Chicago Style In-Text Citations The style guide of the University of Chicago has been used in history as well as in other areas of the arts and humanities. IN-TEXT CITATIONS: Use superscript numbers (1) to mark citations in the text. Place the superscript number for each note just after the relevant quotation, sentence, clause, or phrase. Type the number after any punctuation mark except the dash; do not leave spaces before the superscript. Number citations sequentially throughout the text. When you use signal phrases to introduce quotations or other source material, note that Chicago style requires you to use the present tense (citing Bebout’s studies, Meier points out...).

RESOURCES:

Chicago Manual of Style

Chicago Style for Notes The notes themselves can be footnotes (each typed at the bottom of the page on which the superscript for it appears) or endnotes (all typed on a separate page at the end under the heading Notes); check your instructor’s preference.

The first line of each note is indented five spaces or one-half inch and begins with a number followed by a period and once space. All remaining lines of the entry are flush with the left margin. Footnotes and endnotes should be double-spaced. IN THE TEXT: Sweig argues that Castro and Che Guevara were not the only key players in the Cuban Revolution of the late 1950s. 19 IN THE FIRST NOTE REFERRING TO THE TEXT: 19. Julia Sweig, Inside the Cuban Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 9.


QUESTIONS?

The Writing Center at AMERICAN UNIVERSITY

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