GIS and its implementations

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Department of Cadastre and Land Management, Warsaw, Poland. Ph.D. Dsc. Grażyna SZPOR, Faculty of Law and Administration, Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski.
“GIS and its implementations”

Edited by Ryszard ŹRÓBEK Davorin KEREKOVIĆ

2013, Zagreb, Croatia

Scientific Council: Prof. Vlado DADIĆ Ph.D. Dsc., Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Split, Croatia Prof. Wojciech WILKOWSKI Ph.D. Dsc., Real Estate University in Warszaw Poland Prof. Sabina ŹRÓBEK Ph.D. Dsc., University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Land Management and Regional Development, Olsztyn, Poland Ph.D. Dsc. Katarzyna SOBOLEWSKA-MIKULSKA, Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Geodesy and Cartography. Department of Cadastre and Land Management, Warsaw, Poland Ph.D. Dsc. Grażyna SZPOR, Faculty of Law and Administration, Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University of Warsaw, Poland Ph.D. Vlasta BEGOVIĆ, Institute of Archaeology, Zagreb, Croatia Ph.D. Agnieszka DAWIDOWICZ, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Real Estate Resources, Olsztyn, Poland (secretary) Ph.D. Małgorzata GAJOS, University of Silesia, Faculty of Computer Science and Materials Science, Institute of Computer Science, Sosnowiec, Poland Ph.D. Małgorzata LESZCZYŃSKA, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Geodesy, Olsztyn, Poland Scientific Editors of Monograph: Prof. Ryszard ŹRÓBEK Ph.D. Dsc., University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Real Estate Resources, Olsztyn, Poland Davorin KEREKOVIĆ, prof., Croatian Information Technology Society – GIS Forum, Zagreb, Croatia Reviewers Board: Ph.D. Kamil KOWALCZYK, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Department of Geodesy, Olsztyn, Poland Ph.D. Josip KASUM, Faculty of Maritime Studies - Split, Croatia. Published by: Croatian Information Technology Society – GIS Forum 10 000 Zagreb, Ilica 191e, Croatia

Editor: Davorin KEREKOVIĆ, prof., Croatian Information Technology Society – GIS Forum, Zagreb, Croatia © Copyright Information Technology Society – GIS Forum, Croatia University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland University of Silesia, Poland All rights reserved International Standard Book Number: ISBN 978-953-6129-35-5 Nacionalna knjižnica, Zagreb, Croatia

Contents INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.

THE MODERN GEODESY, CADASTRE AND CARTOGRAPHY ......................................................3 POLISH AND CROATIAN WAY TO LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEMS – A CASE STUDY ...............5 Agnieszka Dawidowicz, Irena Džunić MAPS FOR DESIGN PURPOSES – GEODETIC AND LEGAL ASPECTS ....................................................... 20 Karabin Marcin, Karabin Magdalena LANDSCAPE VALUE MAPPING IN SPATIAL MANAGEMENT ..................................................................... 31 Adam Senetra, Agnieszka Szczepańska NUMERICAL MAPS IN THE DESIGNING AND REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERING OBJECTS ....... 40 Krzysztof Bojarowski, Dariusz Gościewski DIGITAL HERITAGE DOCUMENTATION USING TERRESTRIAL LASER SCANNING TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................................. 46 Karolina Hejbudzka, Andrzej Dumalski GIS AND 3D TECHNOLOGY FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE: SCIENTIFIC E-JOURNALS ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................................. 57 Małgorzata Gajos, Zygmunt Wróbel A PROPOSAL OF AN ALGORITHM FOR LINKING ADDRESS POINTS AND NUMBERING RANGES WITH LINES REPRESENTING STREETS............................................................... 65 Piotr Cichociński UTILIZATION OF TIE DISTANCES FOR THE MODERNIZATION CADASTRE ...................................... 75 Paweł Hanus

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CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE ...................................................................................85 MEASUREMENT AND LOAD TESTING ANALYSIS OF THE ROOF OF THE OPERA LESNA IN SOPOT ................................................................................................................................................................................. 87 Waldemar Kamiński, Krzysztof Bojarowski, Krzysztof Mroczkowski, Artur Janowski, Krzysztof Wilde THE PROJECT "A NEW GIS PROCEDURE FOR THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LANDSCAPE IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY (TERRITORY OF TODAY PRIMORJE-GORSKI KOTAR COUNTY)" ......................................................................................................................................................... 95 Vlasta Begović, Ivančica Schrunk, Davorin Kereković

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SEA AND WATER MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................107 USING OF GIS AND GPS TOOLS IN LAKES MACROPHYTES INVESTIGATIONS ............................... 109 Hanna Ciecierska, Piotr Dynowski, Anna Źróbek-Sokolnik, Joanna Ruszczyńska RZGW IN KRAKOW EXPERIENCE CONCERNING TO IMPLEMENTATION “FLOOD PROTECTION PROGRAMME WITHIN THE UPPER VISTULA RIVER BASIN” ................. 119 Krzysztof Kondziołka, Radosław Radoń

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EARTH RESOURCES AND RISK MANAGEMENT ....................................................................123 THE ANALYSIS OF GEODATA TO DETERMINE THE THREAT POTENTIAL AS AN ELEMENT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SAFE ZONE ............................................................................ 125 Anna Maria Kowalczyk IDENTIFICATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN THE REGION OF WARMIA AND MAZURY WITH THE USE OF MapInfo PROFESSIONAL SOFTWARE ..................................................... 136 Hubert Kryszk, Krystyna Kurowska, Zbigniew Brodziński THE USE OF FLOOD HAZARD MAPS FOR DESIGN SOLUTIONS IN INFRASTRUCTURE LAND CONSOLIDATION ........................................................................................................................................... 149 Marta Smal

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THE NEW GIS SOLUTIONS .................................................................................................. 161 USE OF THE GIS TOOLS FOR EVALUATION OF THE DEVELOPMENT LEVEL OF AGROTOURISM IN WARMIŃSKO-MAZURSKIE VOIVODSHIP ................................................................ 163 Krystyna Kurowska, Hubert Kryszk A PROJECT APPROACH FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF GIS – THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF PRINCE2 AND SCRUM METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 173 Krzysztof Świtała HEIGHTS DETERMINATION IN KORTOWO OBJECT USING ASG-EUPOS SERVICES .................... 179 Karol Dawidowicz, Krzysztof Świątek RECORDING, PROCESSING, ANALYSIS AND VISUALIZATION OF VERTICAL DISPLACEMENTS ................................................................................................................................. 192 Dariusz Gościewski, Krzysztof Bojarowski CLASSICAL AND LASER SCANNER METHODS IN DETERMINING SLENDER OBJECTS VERTICALITY ............................................................................................................................................................... 203 Dumalski Andrzej, Hejbudzka Karolina, Łata Paweł, Zienkiewicz Marek Hubert THE PYTHON PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE AND ITS CAPABILITIES IN THE GIS ENVIRONMENT ......................................................................................................................................... 213 Katarzyna Szczepankowska, Krzysztof Pawliczuk, Sabina Źróbek ISSUES CONCERNING LEGAL STATUS AF AGRICULTURAL PROPERTY BORDERS ...................... 223 Wojciech Wilkowski, Dorota Wilkowska-Kołakowska

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THE INTEGRATED EUROPE AND WORLD ........................................................................... 231 CROSS-BORDER HEALTHCARE AS A NEW SOLUTION IN EUROPEAN UNION SOCIAL POLICY ............................................................................................................................................................ 233 Wiesław Koczur PRESENTATION OF 20 YEARS OF CROATIAN-POLISH GIS COOPERATION BASED ON THE WEBSITE www.gis.us.edu.pl ................................................................................................................................. 239 Małgorzata Gajos, Sebastian Stach

INTRODUCTION It all started in the early 1990s. The governing bodies of three biggest Silesian higher education institutions: University of Silesia, Silesian University of Technology and University of Economics in Katowice as well as the Institute for Ecology of Industrial Areas decided to set up a think thank, consisting of both academics and practitioners who were experts on information issues, in order to modernize the infrastructure for spatial information. Thus Silgis Centre was established, its activities included the preparation of conferences of experts working on GIS systems and metainformation. At that time Polish doctors helping war victims in the Balkan needed some help themselves because their car got damaged. It was dr Davorin Kereković [at that time working on GIS systems in the INA Institute] and his wife Walentyna born in Krakow who offered such help. After coming back to Poland the doctors gave a radio interview in Katowice and the editor of the radio passed the contact details of the Croatian spatial information expert to the Management Board of Silgis Centre. Common interests and openness to co-operation of both parties made their co-operation possible and it started with organizing conferences in Katowice and Szczyrk in 1994. The international conference on “Freedom of information and its limits” in Ustroń in 1997 was attended by 8 Croatian experts. In October 1998 the International Geographic Information Systems Conference and Exhibition “GIS Croatia” was held in Osijek, where to eat dinner by the river Drava we needed to pass by black and white banners warning against mines. At first sight it seemed that our objectives are different. We wanted to implement principles of gathering and using spatial information for ever-changing geodetic control network of the Silesian industrial lands; on the other hand our Croatian colleagues were focused on using GIS systems for reconstruction (and replacement) of their national heritage destroyed during the terrible war. However, in practice the works of Polish and Croatian experts complemented each other very well, which resulted in common scientific conferences and exhibitions held each year by both countries. Over the years we have also invited experts from England, Germany, Austria, Ukraine, Czech Republic and other countries to work with us. Traditionally, our annual meetings are held in the most interesting natural and cultural sites of our countries. These meetings enable us to exchange information, find out about new developments and exchange experiences concerning research methods and legal protection of information. While co-operation with some experts is occasional, others have been working with us for many years. Nevertheless, it always results in interesting works, solutions, exhibitions and publications, including in total over 880 articles. Many things have changed over the years. Silgis Centre was transformed into Silgis Association, some of its members have left while others have joined in. One thing has remained the same – it is the continuous and excellent co-operation with our partners in Croatia. Starting from our first meetings in Silesia and ending with this year twentieth conference, which is to be held in Crikvenica and Krk by Professor Kereković to whom we would like to offer our most sincere thanks for 20 years of educational and organizational co-operation. Dr Andrzej Michalski Prof. dr Grażyna Szpor Regarding hystory of GIS in almost 30 years general conclusions can be that we have deal with powerfull tools gave us lot of research possibilities and satisfaction.All components of GIS have grow up starting with SW and ending with briliant printing HW necessary to ensure high quality graphic output. In the expert life most atractiv aspect of work with GIS was extremly wide range of aplications.At the beguning defence analyses have turn into sofisticated space analyses,reconstruction aplications,urban planning, natural resource control,protection of natural and cultural heritage and applications in warious sport projects, company and town securyty analyses. Also we note powerfull geomatic demography,natural dissaster analyses and many many other.

From the level of single company to town and regional aspects GIS have been akcepted as everyday option for people needs high quality of data necessary to serch options and make decisions. Open Europe and World with strong impulse of free market without boundaries needed tools to manage with space unit,land and real estate and modern geomatic,GIS provided all instrument and porocedures ensured modern cartography and cadastre. Basic positive changes in state services as cadastre and municipal services was awaken with running impresiv analitic solution basewd on informatics and GIS. Today expert research and achiwements in various branches of life and prouduction give even common citizens chance to use prepeared and opened systems of GIS in everyday life situation.Advertsing,traveling navigation,space information , GPS,GSM and many other options are based on briliant space analyses in GIS environment. This monograph confirm that expert intuition and spirit research still exsists as a main element of progress in science and practice. Thats the main reason for us to still be in GIS and belive in future of this beautifull science. Prof. Ryszard ŹRÓBEK Ph.D. Dsc. Davorin KEREKOVIĆ, prof.

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THE MODERN GEODESY, CADASTRE AND CARTOGRAPHY

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POLISH AND CROATIAN WAY TO LAND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEMS – A CASE STUDY Irena Džunić

Zagreb City Office for Cadastre and Geodetic Activities Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: [email protected]

Agnieszka Dawidowicz, Ph.D. Department of Real Estate Resources University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract In the context of sustainable economic development and the land management efficient, almost every country develops its land information systems. Multi-tasking and universality of these systems makes efforts to their modernization and continuous development. The European Union imposes an obligation on Member States to build a common, publicly accessible infrastructure for spatial information regulated by the provisions of the INSPIRE Directive. Prepared technical standards define the scope and the form of the spatial data to the infrastructure. Thus, there is a need to examine how the selected Member States deal with this task. Poland was granted membership in 2004, while Croatia joins the partnership in the current 2013. In this paper the authors present ways in which their countries achieve the required objectives, basic problems, problem solving and current results. Key words: land administration system, cadaster 1. Introduction By the Land Administration System (LAS) should be understood an infrastructure for implementation of land policies and land management strategies in support of sustainable development. The infrastructure includes institutional arrangements, a legal framework, processes, standards, land information, management and dissemination systems, and technologies required to support allocation, land markets, valuation, control of use, and development of interests in land [WILLIAMSON et al. 2010]. LAS are constructed on the basis of a cadastral reference system. Cadasters support the effective functioning of many countries, but there are other solutions such as in the UK [DAWIDOWICZ et al. 2013]. The multipurpose real estate cadaster has priceless value and usefulness in land management and different business processes, which has been confirmed by numerous studies such as: BENNETT et al. [2007, 2010], ENEMARK [2004, 2005, 2010a, 2010b], FIG [1995, 1999], HENSSEN [1995], GAŹDZICKI [1995], LARSSON [1996], WILLIAMSON et al. [2010]. The article concerns the land administration systems development, whose importance has grown in recent years. This phenomenon is important from the point of view also of the development of the information technology, but most of all is essential for sustainable development. Sustainable development is not attainable without sound land administration [UN/FIG 1996]. Transparency and timely access to reliable information are cornerstones in the legal protection of property rights. A transparent register is in fact the heart of the organism that secures the right of third persons. This principle has however important trade-offs with another important rule of law: the human right to protect the personal integrity. The Polish and Croatian legislation generally accepts full public access to the cadaster and land register information. Real estate descriptions, registered owners and registered encumbrances are available on the web if you know the number of the cadastral parcel or land registration file, i.e. property section.

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The development of IC technologies, maturity of e-Government concepts and expansion of usage of GI systems and geospatial information reflects the need for the delivery of products, data and information collected, systemized, kept and maintained by institutions. The article identified the differences and similarities of land administration systems built in Poland and Croatia, so that it was possible to evaluate of those systems. Comparison of Polish and Croatian systems is very important inter alia for the following reasons: 1) There is a great need to determine the similarities of both LAS in the context of the differences between these two countries, such as: - Croatia and Poland are located in different geographical parts of Europe, are characterized by different environmental and cultural conditions and other social mentality, but quite similar language. - Croatia is a country with a large tourist values which underpin its economy, while Poland supports itself mainly from agricultural production, but also more and more from industrial production, 2) There is a great need to determine the differences of both LAS in the context of the similarities of these two countries, such as: - these two countries link historically the sad experience of war destruction, the hardships of raising the economy of the collapse, damage repair and reconstruction of the independent statehood, - Poland and Croatia are members of the European Union - are obliged to adapt its common policies, 3) There is a need to assess the concepts and work affecting the development of the LAS. 2. Land Register and Cadaster Project – “Organized Land” – Croatian LAS Since 2003, the Government of the Republic of Croatia has been implementing the Land Register and Cadaster Project - „Organized Land”. It is a comprehensive project of the Government of the Republic of Croatia initiated with the objective of establishing an effective real property and cadaster system. Given the importance of the reform and its excellent achievements, the Project was extended until 30 June 2010. The Project was initiated with the main objective of building an efficient land administration system aimed at contributing to the development of efficient real property markets. The Project is for the most part funded by a World Bank loan and the remaining part by the European Union grants and Croatia State budget funds. The Land Register and Cadaster Joint Information System (JIS) has been developed or rather a unified database and application for keeping and maintaining the land register and cadaster data have been established. The World Bank has decided to continue offering support to this very important reform and has granted to the Croatia an advance to support the preparation of the proposed project aimed at modernizing the land administration system in order to improve the civil services in terms of efficiency, transparency and cost (Figure1.).

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Figure 1. Open window the website www.uredjenazemlja.hr Source: Project documentation, official documents and official data published on:http://www.uredjenazemlja.hr/default.aspx?id=96

The preparation for the new Project started on 2 August 2010 and was completed on 15 November 2011. With the Loan Effectiveness Statement of 15 November 2011, the World Bank defined the initial date of the Integrated Land Administration System Project (ILAS Project), and the planned duration of the project is 4 years, i.e. until November 2015. The total estimated value of ILAS Project is 18.4 million Euros, of which 16.5 million Euros (equivalent to USD 23.8 million) are Loan funds for the period of four years. So far, the Bank has provided support in 48 project operations totaling over three billion US dollars and approved 52 grants amounting to 70 million dollars in total. The Project components of special interest have been recognized and are funded by the European Union (EU) assistance funds so, as was the case in the previous project as well, the new project will use European Union grants in the estimated amount of 10 million Euros which will, together with the new World Bank loan, provide sufficient funds. The Project has been very successfully co-implemented since 2003 by the following two State administration bodies in charge of registering the real property and related titles in Croatia: – Ministry of Justice and municipal courts through 109 land registries, – State Geodetic Administration responsible for; inter alia, the functioning of the cadastral system (20 regional cadastral offices and their 92 branch offices). The Integrated Land Administration System Project (ILAS Project) in the framework of the Organized Land national program is a follow-up to successfully completed Real Property Registration and Cadaster Project which was implemented by the State Geodetic Administration (SGA) and Ministry of Justice. Through the Project, the two institutions together with their cadastral offices and land registry offices successfully completed the first phase of the land administration reform. The Integrated Land Administration System Project (ILAS) is one of the most significant milestones of the „Organized Land“ Project, representing the largest IT endeavor of the Government of Croatia that will build a database system storing at one place the land registration data as well as the textual and graphic cadastral data (Figure 2). It will provide standardized procedures and processes; vouch that the registers can no longer differ in their content and increase security in real property legal transactions. The system will provide remote communication with the users (access and data extracts) and authorized experts (public notaries, lawyers, licensed surveyors, banks, etc.)

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who will be able to communicate with the system in a fast and accurate way, along with advanced functions that these people need in order to perform their work.

Figure 2. Open window the website GEOPORTAL.gov.pl. Source: http://maps.geoportal.gov.pl/webclient/

Necessary development and modernization of the land registration system on one hand, and the cadastral system on the other hand are the main objectives. Along with the efficient functioning of both systems, the objective is to, by implementing the adequate technology and developing the business processes, create the Real Property Registration and Cadaster Joint Information System (JIS), or rather establish such a level of cooperation between the cadasters and land registries in which the systems will be interlinked and exchange the data related to the real properties. This will yield numerous benefits for the users such as the time needed to access the data and make a registration will be reduced and the citizens will be able to see at one place the ownership structure of a real property and its location in space as well as numerous other functionalities. This system is, therefore, one of the key instruments in the development of e-Croatia and the entrepreneurship as well as securing the public trust in respect of the registers. Expected benefits of „Organized Land” are to: - accelerate the real property registration in both the cadastral as well as the land registration system - raise the level of legal security of the real property transactions - streamline both systems and simplify business processes - harmonize the data of both systems - improve the customer relationships and the speed and quality of service provision By streamlining both systems (the cadaster and the land registry) the registration of real property and its titles are accelerated and simplified. The information from the cadaster and the land registers can be obtained IMMEDIATELY, and all digitized data can be checked over the Internet. An access to the data is free of charge, has an informative purpose, corrective role and cannot serve as an official excerpt.

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Most newly adopted legislations have covered the issue of the NSDI and promoted the responsibility of the regional land administration institutions for this activity. This positive momentum can and should be used for further development, for the establishment of the necessary services and for implementing the Inspire Directive rules, or transposing the whole directive into the national legislation. The World Bank and other donors assess the achievements of „Organized Land“ as highly satisfactory but also point to the activities that need to be accelerated such as processing the backlogs at land registries and accelerating the activities aimed at the JIS establishment. “Organized Land” attempts at achieving certain benefits that involve: A faster real property registration in the cadastral and land registration systems, streamlining both systems and simplifying business processes, harmonizing the data from both systems, improving the speed and quality of service provision but up-to-date data registers will be imperative. 3. Integrated Real Estate Information System (ZSIN) – Polish LAS After the adoption of the European Union INSPIRE Directive in 2007, the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography (pol. GUGiK - Główny Urząd Geodezji i Kartografii) started to implement the concept of technical solutions in the construction of the National Infrastructure for Spatial Information. The effect of GUGiK work is Project - Geoportal.gov.pl (Figure 3) and already is implemented cadastral node in Project GEOPORTAL 2. GEOPORTAL 2 serves as broker, which provides all users the geospatial data and services by searching for the requested information. One of the requirements of the developed solution is to ensure interoperability understood as possibility of cooperation infrastructure nodes regardless of the hardware platform and software system through the adoption that the implementation of the infrastructure nodes is in accordance with recognized international standards (ISO standards and recommendations OGC) and with evolving national standards [www.geoportal.gov.pl].

Figure 3. Open window the website GEOPORTAL.gov.pl. Source: http://maps.geoportal.gov.pl/webclient/

After the implementation of Geoportal technical solutions, GUGiK developed the legal basis for its functioning – the Law of 4 March 2010 on Spatial Information Infrastructure (IIP), (Journal of Laws No. 76 item. 489 of May 7, 2010), which legally incorporated real estate cadaster for system of spatial information infrastructure, by requiring on administration leading public registers (the registers including collections data associated with those listed in the Annex to this Act themes), including real estate cadaster obligation to provide technical solutions to ensure the interoperability of data sets and services, and harmonization of spatial data sets [Dawidowicz, Źróbek 2012].

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IIP Act, interfering with the normative provisions the GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY ACT (1989), stressed the importance of the real estate cadaster information aspect, emphasizing its multi-purpose character in the context of spatial information register. After the successful launching of the Polish Spatial Information Infrastructure, the government has focused attention on the construction of LAS in the project - Integrated Real Estate Information System (ZSIN). The ZSIN will functionally integrate (Figure 4) the Real Estate Cadaster, New Land and Mortgage Register (NKW), Tax system, Register of Economic Entities (REGON), Population Register (PESEL), National Register of Borders (PRG), National Register of Country Territorial Divisions (TERYT), Register of Agricultural Producers, Farms and Requests for payment, as well as other public records through the functional specification of Integrating Electronic Platform (IPE), which will allow viewing and data transfer between a number of public registers (REGULATION OF 17 JANUARY 2013 ON ZSIN). ZSIN will be based on the following functional assumptions, which expand to a sub-module for analysis the real estate market: there will be an exchange of data between the real estate cadaster and other public records in electronic form; the software will automatically generate notifications of changes to the cadaster, the automatic generation of data updates; access to cadastral data users will take place over the Internet; procedures for data conversion and cadastral database updates will be implemented by a set of applications; data integration will be carried out by an integrating Electronic Platform (IPE); the data network will consist of LAN and WAN; for the transformation of the source database of the real estate cadaster to a modern cadastral database, an application that integrates the descriptive part and mapping shall be installed. [DAWIDOWICZ, ŹRÓBEK 2012].

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Figure.4. Logical architecture of ZSIN. Source: own study on COUNCIL OF MINISTERS REGULATION OF 17 JANUARY 2013 ON THE INTEGRATED REAL ESTATE INFORMATION SYSTEM.

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4. Comparison of Polish and Croatian Land Administration Systems To identify the differences and similarities of land administration systems built in Poland and Croatia in order to determine the directions of the systems development requires the collection of comprehensive information on the general conditions of these countries functioning. Immensely important for this study is the transparency of the criteria adopted and answers clarity. Therefore, the most suitable form of data aggregation is tool table. Comparative analysis of land administration systems is performed in the tables 1, 2 below. Table 1 Political and socio-economic states conditions Overview - State and administrative context General location and area

Countries Poland Europe/ 312 679 sq km

Government

Parliamentary Republic [Constitution of 2 April 1997]

Division into sub-

Voivodship - higher level unit of administrative division (16), district level, municipalities

Population 01/01/2012 /population density 01/01/2011

38.538.447 persons / 123 persons / sq km (GUS 2012)

Gross domestic product, current prices 2011/ USD Billion Dollars Ministry / organization supervising the real estate information system

470 354 (INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, 2012)

units (federal state)

Organization responsible for maintaining the system at the country level Organization responsible for maintaining the system in the states / federal states

Ministers responsible for: public administration, internal affairs, justice, public finances

Surveyor General of Poland

Surveyor General of Poland in cooperation with the provincial governors and provinces marshals

Source: own study

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Croatia Europe/ 56594 sq km (land)/ 87.661 sq km (land and sea Republic with multi-party parliament [Constitution of Croatia adopted on 22 December 1990] Counties (21), including the City of Zagreb Towns (127) Municipalities (429) Settlements (6755) 4.290.612 persons / 75,81 persons /sq km, [CROATIAN BUREAU OF STATISTICS, 2011 census first results] 57.493 (INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, 2012) Ministry of Justice / State Geodetic Administration (SGA)Central Office For the operational implementation of the projects are in charge the Project Implementation Unit and teams from both government bodies. State Geodetic Administration - 20 Regional cadastral offices and their branch offices/ Zagreb City Office for Cadaster and Geodetic activities/ Municipal courts through 109 land registries

Table 2 Land Administration System – basic information

Land Administration System Open to connect with other systems

Register of Agricultural Producers, Farms and Requests for payment

Register of Economic Entities

Population Register

Technical standards

Cartographic Information System

Legislation

Topographic objects database

System startup

Data storage format

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

-

-

-

-

-

+

TAX system

Name of system

System concept

Land and Morgage Register

Countries

Real Estate Cadastre

Integrated records

INSPIRE Directive 2007,

At the stage of Zintegrowany System Informacji o Nieruchomościach -

Poland

ZSIN (Integrated

Real Estate Information System)

records

1990 2000

modernization, launched a pilot (Gdańsk, Katowice, Kraków, Łódź, Poznań, Tychy)

XML, GML 3.0

in incomplete

functional

Croatia

"Organized Land" a national program of the

2003-2008

Joint Information System (JIS) – 1stphase

XML, GML2.1.23.1/ WMS, WFS, WFS-T,

Geodesy and cartography act, Draft Government Regulation on the integrated real estate information system The Law on State Survey and Real Estate Cadaster 2007 with builtin basic

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ISO/TS 211 19100 Application Schema in UML

ISO/TS 211 19100

Real Property Registration and Cadaster Joint Information System (JIS)/ Modernisation as ILAS

WCS Integrated Land Administration System (ILAS) – 2ndphase

2010-2015

principles of INSPIRE Directive 2007/ Land Registration Act 1996/Act on Ownership and other Real Rights 1996

OGC Open Web Service

Source: own study The LAS cores are cadastral systems. They have a direct impact on the shape of the LAS. Hence it is very important to explore the Polish and Croatian cadaster potential. This study is performed for the descriptive and the graphic part of the cadasters (Table 3, 4). Table 3 Real estate cadaster – descriptive information

Poland

parcel

+

+

-

-

Perpetual using, sustainable management, ownership of the building without the ownership of land, housing and property ownership of land

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+

+

+ +

+

Type of Land Use Land quality class Land value

Parcel No

Other rights

Area

Property Details Identifier Information on the entity Location

Mortgage

Servitudes

Lease

Right to the property Ownership

Countries

Basic unit

Content of the system Descriptive data

+

+

+

Additional Information

Cadastral map sheet number, the number of mortgage book, the story changes, link to the name file of buildings and premises, links to other registration records, monuments inf.

Croatia

property land registry file/parcel

+

+

+

Ownership of the building without the ownership of land, recordation of life support, of dispute, of custody rights, housing loans burden

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

-

-

Change Requests number – case status, personal identification number, valid building permit remark, rewriting statistic in digital form and its verification

Source: own study

Table 4 Real estate cadaster – graphic information

Content of the system Graphic data – cadastral map

parcel

+

+

+

+

Land quality class

Roads / streets

Buildings data +

+

Technical conditions Land use

Poland

Boundaries and territorial division

Basic unit

Borders and border points

Countries

Parcel No

Spatial data

Other data

+

statistical areas boundaries, registered objects names

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Map format

Cartography

Map scales

analog / digital

terrain measurements, digitization, photogrammetric images

1:500 to 1:5000

Croatia

parcel

+

+

+

+

+

-

statistical areas boundaries, specific legal regimes established on parcel, deed, the number of attached documents or geodetic elaborates, date of the data change, personal identification number

+

Source: own study

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digital

photogrammetric maps

-

5. Summary and conclusions Due to the global economic crisis and general trends in governing and running the public administration, there is a clear trend in adopting the new or improving the existing legislations, in line with the requirements of the government and the society. The global economic crisis reflects also the change in institutional financing since the trend has changed towards the selffinancing from the state revenues. It is unclear yet whether this trend will expand to the institutions presently fully financed from the state budget. At the same time, a lot of effort is invested in establishing the tools for mass data viewing and dissemination (browsers and geoportals). Probably the most visible result of these efforts is the establishment of permanent GNSS network fully covered by a dense network of permanent GNSS stations. Anticipating the imminent establishment of Galileo and Kompass GNSS systems, the question arises as to the further development of these GNSS networks. The above-mentioned positive momentum should also be used to support the development of the e-Government concept with regards to the key registers. It can be envisaged that the Key register concept will become a topic of great interest for the governments and especially governmental bodies or institutions responsible directly for the implementation of eGovernment since the reorganization of key registers is a logical next step in increasing the efficiency of public administration and public registers and also for savings in public administration. In the last time, in many economically developed countries, it has become a priority to construct efficient LAS. The clarification and harmonization of the real estate information system affects the economization of spatial planning and significantly enhances spatial order at the local level. LAS also affect the sealing the local tax system – income of municipalities. There are geoportals developed together with the basic services. But looking deeper, the institutions should be aware that there is still a long and hard way towards the full establishment of NSDI’s that are fully compatible with the INSPIRE. This is a difficult issue for a number of European Union countries, so the challenges should not discourage institutions but rather keep them realistic and pragmatic in their efforts. Events of the past years testify that this has also reflected on the position of the profession in these two countries, recognized as a modern profession which is using the most advanced technologies for the collection, systematization, organization, maintenance and distribution of spatial information and registry data to all kinds of users. Detailed knowledge of the LAS in Poland and Croatia allowed for the following conclusions to be drawn: 1) Polish and Croatian LAS concepts are developing in the same direction: – the cadastral reference systems of these two countries are at a similar level of detail the registered objects. The process of modernizing and completing the cartographic part of the cadaster is still taking place and the descriptive database of buildings and premises is being realized in Poland, – the common application schema provides for the recording and management of metadata and quality data in accordance with the ISO specifications (within the European framework guidelines for the construction of a geodata infrastructure in Europe, INSPIRE, the standard conformant modeling of geographic reference data, plays a significant role), – the modeling is based on the results of ISO/TC 211 in the form of the 19100 series of standards at their current stage of processing in Poland, the database is at the conversion process, – at the communication level, users are provided with object-structured or imagestructured data, specially prepared information or analogue extracts that are able to hold the entire data content or extracts according to their content and area as well as management data for any number of time periods. Users' access to LAS data will take place over the Internet, – both Poland and Croatia decided to use the Unified Modeling Language (UML) for describing the application schema and the feature catalogue; 2) Poland and Croatia are facing the same problems during startup the LAS such as: – the lack of standardization of the same data records in many public records makes their integration difficult,

the fact that the cadastral parcels data are not harmonized with the land registration data and the situation in the registers does not correspond with the actual situation in the field in many cases, – relatively slowly systematic renewal of the cadaster and land register implementation, – the number of unresolved property issues. 3) Due to the similar problems of the LAS organization these two countries, should endeavor to cooperate in order not to repeat the same mistakes and share successes. –

References 1. BENNETT R., WALLACE J., WILLIAMSON I.P. 2007. Organising land information for sustainable land administration, Journal of Land Use Policy, NO 25 (2008), 126-138.

2. BENNETT R., RAJABIFARD A., KALANTARI M., WALLACE J., WILLIAMSON I. 2010. Cadastral Futures: Building a New Vision for the Nature and Role of Cadastres. FIG Congress 2010. Facing the Challenges – Building the Capacity. 11-16 April 2010, Sydney, Australia

3. CONSTITUTION OF CROATIA on 22 December 1990 [NN 56/1990, 135/1997, 113/2000, 28/2001] 4. CONSTITUTION OF POLAND on 2 April 1997 [Dz. U. z 2009 r, Nr 114, poz. 946] 5. DAWIDOWICZ A., ŹROBEK R., 2012, The evolving role of the cadastre in the land administration system in Poland, FIG/FAO International Seminar State Land Management in Transitional Countries: Issues and Ways Forward, Budapest, Hungary, Ministry of Rural Development, 20-21 September 2012 6. DAWIDOWICZ A., VOß W., LEONARD B., 2013. Land administration systems – development trends – a case study. Journal of the Polish Real Estate Management and Valuation, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 84-93. 7. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS REGULATION OF 17 JANUARY 2013 ON THE INTEGRATED REAL ESTATE INFORMATION SYSTEM (Journal of Laws of 2013, item. 249) 8. ENEMARK S., 2004, Building Land Information Policies, Proceedings of Special Forum on Building Land Information Policies in the Americas, 26-27 October 2004, Aguascalientes, Mexico http://www.fig.net/pub/mexico/papers_eng/ts2_enemark_eng.pdf (5.12.2010) 9. ENEMARK S, 2006, Spatially Enabled Land Administration – Bridging the Gap, Presentation at the GSDI9 in Santiago, Chile, 3-10 November 2006. http://www.fig.net/council/enemark_papers/enemark_gsdi9_nov_2006_paper.pdf 10. ENEMARK S., WILLIAMSON I., WALLACE J., 2005, Building Modern Land Administration Systems Developed Economies, pending publication, Journal of Spatial Science, Vol.50(2): 51-68 11. ENEMARK S., 2010a, From Cadastre to Land Governance: The role of land professionals and FIG, Annual World Bank Conference on Land Policy and Administration, 26-27 April 2010, Washington D.C. 12. ENEMARK S., 2010b, The Evolving Role of Cadastral Systems in Support of Good Land Governance, Open Symposium FIG 7 Commission, 9 September 2010, Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic. 13. EUROSTAT, 2012, General and regional yearbook 2012, Statistical books, ISBN 978-92-7924940-2, 14. FIG, 1995, FIG Statement on the Cadastre, FIG publication No 11, FIG Office, Copenhagen, http://www.fig.net/commission7/reports/cadastre/statement_on_cadastre.html (5.12.2010) 15. FIG, 1999, Bathurst Declaration, http://www.fig.net/pub/figpub/pub21/figpub21.htm (accessed 5.12.2010) 16. GAŹDZICKI J., 1995, Systemy katastralne, PPWK, Warszawa 17. GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY ACT 1989 – Journal of Laws 2005, No. 240, item. 2027, as amended

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18. GUS, 2012, Raport z wyników Narodowy Spis powszechny ludności i mieszkań 2011, Warszawa, http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/lud_raport_z_wynikow_NSP2011.pdf 19. HENSSEN J., 1995, Basic Principles of the Main Cadastral Systems in the World, In Proceedings of the One Day Seminar held during the Annual Meeting of Commission 7, Cadastre and Rural Land Management, of the International Federation of Surveyors (FIG), May 16, Delft, The Netherlands 20. INSPIRE Directive 2007/2/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 March 2007 establishing an Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE) 21. INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, 2011, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2012: Nominal GDP list of countries. Data for the year 2011, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/weodata (accessed 2.07.2013) 22. LARSSON G., 1996, Land Registration and Cadastral Systems, Essex, UK, Addison WESLEY LONGMAN 23. SOKOLIK N., ZAJĄC B., 2010, Zintegrowany System Informacji o Nieruchomościach, Materiały szkoleniowe GUGiK dla pracowników administracji samorządowej, USTROŃ 20 – 22 października 2010 r. Poland 24. UN-ECE, 1996, Land Administration Guidelines, ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE Committee on Human Settlements, Geneva, http://www.unece.org/env/hs/wpla/docs/guidelines/lag.html 25. WILLIAMSON, I.P., ENEMARK, S., WALLACE, J. AND RAJABIFARD, A. 2010, Land Administration for Sustainable Development, ESRI Press Academic, Redlands, California. ISBN 978-1-58948041-4. 49.

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MAPS FOR DESIGN PURPOSES – GEODETIC AND LEGAL ASPECTS Karabin Marcin, Ph.D.

Department of Cadastre and Land Management Warsaw University of Technology Warsaw, Poland Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Karabin Magdalena, M.Sc.

Department of Cadastre and Land Management Warsaw University of Technology Warsaw, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract In Poland there are one unified set of regulations concerned maps for design purposes. It doesn’t matter what kind of object is planned to build. The same map is prepared for design buildings, underground infrastructure and other objects. Authors are planning to study key aspects concerning this kind of maps, i.e. map content, map extent, form of map. In practice it should depend on planned construction, but there is lack of clear regulations concerned this aspect. In the second part of paper there will be done detailed researches concerned usefulness of map for design purpose made for design detached houses. Propositions of changes of current regulations there will be also presented. Keywords: maps for design purposes 1.

Introduction

A map for design purposes is the basic geodetic-and-cartographic product, which is the basis for making settlements concerning location of designed building structures (buildings), as well as additional elements (such as hardening of pavements, decanters for solid waste etc.). It is reflected in the parcel management plan, which is developed basing on this map. The map for design purposes is also used for development of the design of the underground network infrastructure and other engineering objects. Although the possible utilisation of the map for design purposes to develop designs of various objects - unified regulations are obligatory in the course of production of such a map, which do not differentiate the ways of producing such maps depending on the planned investments. The paper is focused on geodetic and legal aspects concerning creation of such maps, i.e. the issues related to the scope and content of the map. Proposals concerning changes of the rules of creation of maps for design purposes are also presented. 2. General rules of creation maps for design purposes resulting from the existing legal regulations Rules concerning creation of a map for design purposes are included in the Decree of the Minister for Physical Management and Construction of February 21, 1995 on the types and scopes of geodetic-and-cartographic works and geodetic operations, which are obligatory in construction industry1 and in the Decree of the Ministry for Internal Affairs and Administration of November 9, 2011 on technical standards of topographic surveys and on elaboration and transfer of results of such surveys to the state geodetic and cartographic resources. 2. Decree (1995), „Decree of the Minister of Physical Management and Construction of February 21, 1995 on the types and scope of geodetic-and-cartographic works and geodetic operations which are obligatory in construction industry” (Off. J. 1995 No. 25 item 133); 2 Decree (2011), „Decree of the Ministry for Internal Affairs and Administration of November 9,2011 on technical standards of topographic surveys and on elaboration and transfer of results of such surveys to the state geodetic and cartographic resources” (Off.J. 2011 No. 263 item 1572); 1

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2.1.

The map scale

The map for design purposes is mostly created at the scales of 1:500, 1:1000 and 1:2000. Following the Decree (1995), the scale of the map for design purposes should be adapted to the type and size of the object or the entire construction investment, providing that: 1) the scale of maps of building parcels should not be smaller than 1:500, 2) the scale of maps of groups of construction objects and areas of industrial constructions cannot be smaller than 1:1000, 3) the scale of maps of large areas with dispersed constructions and line objects may be equal to 1:2000. In the case of special demands the scale of the map for design purposes is specified by the body which is responsible for issuing the building permit. 2.2.

The map content

The map for design purposes is created basing on the base map, which content should be updated and amended with additional elements, in accordance to the Decree (1995). Following this, the content of the map for design purpose, apart from elements of the base map content together with the boundaries of parcels, should include: 1) Surveyed and calculated or calculated lines which delimit areas of various destination, lines of land development, axes of streets, roads etc, if they have been set in the local physical management plan or in the decision concerning building conditions and land management, 2) location of high green components together with the protected natural features, 3) location of other objects and details pointed by the designer, according to the objectives of performed works. Therefore, the surveyor who creates such a map should update the content of the base map acquired from the starost (authority of the district) who maintains the geodetic-and-cartographic documentation centre and introduce additional elements required by the designer, as well as elements from the local physical management plan. The issue which arises concerns the lack of integration of the base map and the local physical management plans and the lack of lines (surveyed and calculated or calculated), which delimit areas of various destination. That is why the surveyor, in order to amend the content of the map for design purposes, must additionally content the municipal office and acquire information mentioned in item 1 above, it this information is to be introduced onto a map. It often means that the surveyor must perform required surveying calculations and processing. The rich content of the base map creates other problems; the catalogue of objects presented on the base map in accordance to the Decree of the Minister of Administration and Digitization of February 12, 2013 on the database of the surveying inventory of the technical infrastructure network, the topographic objects database and the base map 3, includes 278 various elements of the map content. In order to ensure the timeliness of the base map content, a lot of ancillary measurements are usually required, which cover the area of the investment, which must be enlarged by the buffer zone of at least 30 m width. Additionally, the content of the map for design purposes may also include line measures, acquired as a result of field surveys, which determine, in particular, distances between characteristics points, which are important for designing. They may also be distances between existing constructions, presented on this map, as well as measures between border points specified in the cadastral documents etc. Besides, in the course of creation of the map for design purposes it should be settled whether such encumbrances, as usufructs, exist within the areas of designed investments. Usufructs are marked on the map for design purposes by brown dashed lines together with short descriptions of the content or the ways used for implementation of such usufructs. This element of the content of the map is acquired by the surveyor basing on entries existing in land register. Therefore the surveyor, first of all, acquires the number of land register, established for the given parcel from the cadastral database and then investigates the entries existing in the land register database. Due to the lack of integration between the cadastre and land register, a problem often arises, which is connected with the timeliness of information concerning the land register’s 3Decree

(2013), „Decree of the Minister of Administration and Digitization of February 12,2013 on the database of the surveying inventory of the technical infrastructure network, the topographic objects database and the base map” (Off.J. 2013 No 0 item 383).

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number in the cadastre. This has been confirmed by research performed by Magdalena Karabin (2012)4. As it results from this research, in 17 cases, out of 58 investigated cases (i.e. in 29% of cases) the cadastre included out of date data concerning the numbers of land register. This was caused by changes in the scope of responsibility of the court which maintains the land register what resulted in transferring these land registers to another court and with modification of their numbers; this modification has not been reflected in the cadastre. Besides, in 9 cases (i.e.16% of all 58 investigated cases) the cadastre did not include any information concerning the number of land register for a given parcel. The Internet service existing in Poland, which allows for reviewing the complete content of land register, considerably simplifies the issue of checking whether usufructs exist. In order to have the possibility to review land register, the knowledge of the land register number is required. On the other hand, the records (included in the appropriate database field of the section III of the land register), concerning the usufruct and its spatial extension are not always precise enough, what makes the entire operation difficult. For example, the authors found such record in the course of creating the map for design purposes: "the right to cross the land of Borzecin Village on the southern part of Zalesie Village". This was the record transferred from the old land book, which is now out of date, what was confirmed the name of the village (now divided into two villages), used in the past. Situations, when the surveyor cannot find any records, which could be the basis for determination of the extension of usufructs - is forced to visit the court and investigate analogue documents, old land book, including cartographic documents, which illustrate this extension and which create the archive of the land register. 2.3. The scope of work The map for design purpose should cover the area of investment, as well as the surrounding areas, enlarged by the buffer zone of at least 30 m width. In the case if a protection zone is established, it should be also covered by this map (buffer zone). The term "the area of investment" may be the reason of some hesitations (see. Figure 1). It is not clear whether it should be considered as equivalent to the entire parcel where the construction is performed or whether it should be connected with the place of building the construction only. Whether the part of the parcel which is planned for locating non-building objects, such as trees etc., should be also considered as the area of investment? Do such parts of the parcel also create the area of investment? On Figure 1 boundaries of parcel are marked in green, 30m buffer zone connected with parcel – marked in grey and 30m buffer zone connected with the construction – marked in red, the designed building – marked in yellow.

4Karabin

Magdalena (2012), „Research of the compliance of data stored in the cadastre and land register for real estates located in the West-Warsaw District” – Przegląd Geodezyjny, 2012, No 10, pp. 3-8;

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Figure 1. The parcel management plan – questionable term "the area of investment" Source: own research The existing legal regulations do not define the term “the area of investment”. The act Building Law5 defines only the area of the construction site, which should be considered as the space in which construction works are performed, together with the space occupied by installations of the construction camp. Determination of the scope of the map for design purposes at the level of 30m, with consideration of the rich content of the base map (the basic cartographic material used for creation of the map for design purposes), which should be updated in this range, influences the complexity of works. The question arises whether the scope of works should be the same (the minimum scope specified by legal regulations – there are of investment enlarged by 30m) in the course of designing all investments. Figure 2 presents the situation when it was assumed to redesign and reconstruct the gas terminal in the case of ribbon development.

Act (1994), „Act of July 7,1994. Building Law” (Off. J. 2010 No. 243 item 1623).

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Figure 2. The scope of updating of the base map for the investment concerning the reconstruction of the gas terminal. Source: own research with the use of a map from the service www.podgik.pwz.pl The agreed zone of 30m around the place of investment, i.e. the gas terminal marked within the green circle, covers the area of three parcels with the gas terminal (the extension is marked in red). The question arises whether the out of date content on the neighbouring parcels will influence the designing solutions concerning the terminal under reconstruction. This leads to make the attempt to examine the influence of particular elements, which create the content of the base map, on the designing solutions. 2.4.

Timeliness of a map for design purpose

Due to the above rules concerning creation of maps for design purposes, the term of its timeliness may be defined as the common meeting the following conditions: the compliance between the content of the map for design purposes with the content of the base map, maintained by the geodetic-and-cartographic documentation centres, the compliance of the content of the map for design purposes concerning the usufruct with the appropriate land register, the compliance of the content of the map for design purposes, including elements for planning , with the existing local physical management plan, the compliance of the content of the map for design purposes with the cadastral map, with respect to boundaries of parcels and type of land use, the compliance of the content of the map for design purposes with respect to determination of type of land use (of the parcel, where the investment is planned) with the real terrain conditions, the compliance of remaining content of the map for design purposes with the existing field situation.

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According to the Building Law, the parcel management plan is made on the updated map. Therefore the person who makes the design of parcel management plan, i.e. the designer, is responsible for the timeliness of the map used for design purposes. Legal regulations do not precise the moment for which the map should be considered as updated or the period when the map for the design purposes remains updated. In practice, this map is considered as updated for the day when ancillary surveys were performed by the surveyor. There is no guarantee that the field situation is not changed between the moment of such ancillary surveys and the transfer of maps to the contracting unit. The decision on utilisation of the map for design purposes should be made by the designer. 3.

Rules concerning location of buildings and other objects

Below the list of recommended minimum distances between the existing elements of the land management, which create the content of the map for design purposes, and the designed objects, is presented. The list was created basing on the Decree of the Minister of Infrastructure of April 12,2002 on technical conditions of buildings ad their location6. Table 1 A list of recommended distances between the existing land management elements, which create the content of the map for design purposes, and the designed objects. The existing land management elements, being the content of the map for design purposes A boundary of a building parcel

A boundary of a building parcel

Types of designed objects

Recommendations concerning the minimum distances between the designed object and the given element, presented on the map for design purposes

A building

They should be located within the distance from the neighbouring building parcel, not less than: 1) 4 m - in the case of a building having the wall with windows or doors directed towards this boundary, 2) 3 m - in the case of a building having the wall with no windows or doors directed towards this boundary, 3) it is allowed to locate within the distance of 1,5 m from the boundary or directly close to this boundary, if this results from the provisions of the local physical management plan or from the decision on building conditions and land management. it is permitted: 1) to locate the building with its wall without windows or doors directly close to the boundary with the neighbouring building parcel or within the distance shorter than 4m or 3m, but not shorter that 1.5 m, on the building parcel of the width smaller than 16m 2) to locate the building directly close to the boundary with the neighbouring building parcel, if it adheres, with its entire wall to the wall of the building existing on the neighbouring parcel or to the wall of the designed building, for which the final decision on the building permit has been issued, under the condition that the part of the building located within the belt of 3m width, along the parcel boundary, will have the length and the height not greater than those of the existing building or the building which is designed on the neighbouring parcel. 3) development of the existing building, located within the smaller distance than the distance specified in item 1 from the boundary with the neighbouring building parcel, if - within the belt of the 3m width, along this boundary, its existing dimensions will be maintained, as well as the additional storey of a building located this way, no more than one storey, providing that the additional wall, located within the distance shorter

A building one family houses

Decree (2002), „Decree of the Minister of Infrastructure of April 12,2002 on technical conditions of buildings ad their location” (Off.J., 2002 No. 75 item 690) 6

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A dwelling house, multifamily development or public buildings, a building which has the final building permit A dwelling house, multifamily development, with exception for hotels, a health care centre, an education centre, sporting yard A boundary of a building parcel

A boundary of a building parcel, a building

A boundary of a building parcel

A roadside ditch A stock building, related tight silos, reservoirs for storing wastewater A boundary of a parcel, a road, a paths for pedestrians, a building

A stock building, or a farm building Special parking places, including the multi-storey parking area (open or under the roof) for personal cars Special parking places or an open multistorey parking area for personal cars Areas for storing solid waste materials

A well which supplies drinking water for inhabitants, when the establishment of the protection zone is not required The above well The above well Reservoirs for liquid wastes, no outflows

that 4m from the border, cannot have any windows or doors 4) location of the farm building and the garage of the length shorter than 5,5 m and of the height smaller than 3 m directly close to the boundary with the neighbouring building parcel or within the distance not shorter than 1,5m, with the wall without windows or doors It cannot be located with its wall with windows or doors within the distance shorter than 8m from the wall of the building existing on the neighbouring building parcel The distance from windows of rooms planned for permanent stay of people, of the building existing on the neighbouring building parcel, as well as from the playing ground for children, cannot be shorter than: 1) 7 m - in the case of up to 4 places, 2) 10 m - in the case of 5 to 10 places, 3) 20 m - in the case of more places. The distance from the building parcel boundary cannot be shorter than: 1) 3 m - in the case of up to 4 places, 2) 6 m - in the case of 5-60 places, 3) 16 m - in the case of more places. The distance of places for containers fo solid wastes, should be at least equal to: 1) 10 m from windows and doors from buildings with rooms for permanent stay of people 2) 3 m from the boundary with the neighbouring parcel; it is not required to maintain the distance from the parcel boundary, if housings or rooms adjoin the similar installations on the neighbouring parcel. In the case of single-family development, farm buildings and individual recreation it is permitted to decrease the above distance from windows and doors to 3m, from the parcel boundary to 2m, as well as to locate housing with roofs or rooms at the parcel boundary, if they adjoin the similar installations on the neighbouring parcel or close to the delimiting line on the side of the street. The distance should be equal at least to 5m, counting from the well axis. It is allowed to locate a well within the distance shorter than 5m from the parcel boundary, as well as a common well at the boundary of two parcels, under the condition that the distances are maintained on both parcels.

The distance should be equal to at least 7.5m from the axis of the roadside ditch, counting from the well axis The distance should be equal to at least 15 m, counting from the well axis The distance of covers and outlets of ventilation from outflow-free reservoirs for liquid wastes, from pits of lavatories with the number of places not exceeding 4 and similar sanitary installations, of the capacity up to 10 m3 should be equal to at least: 1) from windows and external doors to rooms planned for the permanent stay of people and to stores of food products - 15 m, and in the case of one-family

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houses, farm houses and individual recreation - 5 m 2) from the boundary of the neighbouring parcel, a road (street) or a path for pedestrians - 7,5 m, and in the case of one family houses, farm houses and individual recreation - 2m. For reservoirs of the capacity between 10 m3 and 50 m3 these distances should be equal to at least: 1) from windows and external doors to the rooms specified in item 1 - 30 m, 2) from the border of the neighbouring parcel - 7,5 m, 3) from the line which delimits the road (street) or the path for pedestrians - 10 m. Additionally - the above reservoirs maybe located within the distance which is not shorter than 2m from the border, or by the parcel boundary, if they are neighbouring similar installations on the neighbouring parcel, under the condition that appropriate distances from windows, doors etc. are maintained. Distances from the reservoirs of the capacities exceeding 50 m3 from buildings planned for stay of people, should be assumed in accordance with the guidelines of the technical expertise, adopted by the state provincial sanitary inspector.

Source: basing on the Decree of the Minister of Infrastructure of April 12, 2003 on technical conditions of buildings and their location – own research. Besides requirements concerning location of buildings with respect to the existing boundaries and buildings, which are listed in Table 1, the Decree(2002) imposes the additional condition - it provides that the distance from the building with rooms planned for the permanent stay of people to other objects should allow for natural illumination of such rooms. Detailed requirements in this respect are specified in §13 of the Decree(2002). Besides, the Decree(2002) specifies in details the building location with respect to fire safety. It specifies the minimum distances between external walls of buildings, which are not the fire protection separation walls. 4. Analysis of the method of creation of a map for design purpose and proposals concerning modification of this method Considering the discussion presented in this paper, concerning the content of the map for design purposes and the rules of location of single family houses and accompanying objects - below the analysis of ways used for creation of a map for design purposes, for an exemplary investment.

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Figure 3. The parcel management plan – construction of a one family house. Source: own research In the case of the discussed investment the preliminary location of the building was agreed with the designer and the investor. Then the area of investment, enlarged by the 30m zone, was updated. This updating also covered comparison of the base map content with the terrain and ancillary surveys. Reconstructed buildings (marked in red), which exist on the parcel located to the north of the designed building (marked in yellow, together with design measures) were surveyed, together with the building in the phase of construction, located on the other side of the street (marked in red), which adjoins the parcels with the designed building, edges of concrete hardening (marked in green) and the water supply connections between buildings on the neighbouring parcel (marked in green). Characteristic terrain points were also surveyed - spot heights, i.e. such points for which their elevation was determined in the assumed reference system (red circles which delineate the edges and the axis of an asphalt road and red circles located on the investor's parcel and on neighbouring parcels). The parcels 299/6 and 299/7 were inaccessible for surveys. As a results, the complete updating of the base map content was performed. When analysing the rules of locations of buildings, it should be stated that the updating of the complete content of the base map, which is required by the existing legal regulations, it is not necessary. Surveyed elements which do not influence the location of the designed building include, for example: the surveyed elements of buildings of the second order of importance (stairs, terraces, roofing), edges of concrete hardening on the neighbouring parcel, water supply connections and fences. According to the authors opinion, the following elements of the content of the map for design purposes are important for making the parcel management plan:

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elements of management of the parcel on which the designed building is to be located; in this case the authors propose to maintain the requirements concerning updating of the complete base map content, buildings on the neighbouring parcels; however due to the fact that in the process of location of a designed building only location of walls of the existing buildings is considered, the authors propose to limit the updating concerning the buildings on neighbouring parcels to their outlines - without ancillary elements, such as stairs, terraces, roofing etc. elements of technical installations (networks and connections) in the street belt and other terrain elements which may influence the correct route of connections towards the buildings the authors propose to establish the obligation of the complete updating of the street belt within the area from the parcel border to the place of the designed location of connection with the existing technical infrastructure, vertical management of the parcel area, where the investment is planned and vertical arrangement of neighbouring parcels - the authors propose to maintain the obligation to update with respect to the "elevation" content, but with one modification concerning the complete updating within the borders of the given parcel, as well as in the road belt and the limited updating on the areas of remaining neighbouring parcels (this would include the surveys of spot heights with division into spot heights for areas of non-hardened pavements, however without the necessity to present shapes of hardened surfaces, if they are characterised as plain surfaces). The above rules would allow for adaptation of the way of the map updating to the real demands of the designer with respect to information, which is important for implementation for the project. Assuming such modifications of the existing rules it may be considered that the content of the map for design purposes would remain in the existing status, i.e. covering the area of investment enlarged enlarged by the buffer zone of at least 30 m width. In other case, this content should be adjusted to particular investment demands, what means that its extension should be diversified in legal regulations and that it should be decreased, for example, in the case of designing connections and the underground installation network, reconstruction of roads; following the authors' opinion, in such cases the complete content of the map is not required. Besides, the authors propose to integrate data from the base map with the local physical management plans. What refers to usufructs, which are registered in the land register, the authors recommend to consider the necessity to register their extensions in the graphical part of the cadastre (cadastral map). Thus, this information could also automatically occur on the base map, since it is the standard cartographic product, which is created with the use of the cadastral database. 5.

Final remarks and conclusions

As it turns out from analyses performed by the authors, the rules concerning creation of maps for design purposes are complicated and the correct creation of such a map is time and work consuming. The required high amount of labour results from the rich content of the base map, which is utilised to creation of the map for design purposes; this map content should be updated for the large area. The basic issue which has been identified during implementation of research works, concerns the content of maps for design purposes (covering the area of investment, enlarged by the buffer zone of at least 30 m width., as the minimum) , which is not always adequate for the designer's demands. Following the authors' opinion, it should depend on the type of investment and the term "the area of investment" should be defined in legal regulations. Besides, the analysis of legal regulations concerning the rules of building location, proved that not all of the elements of the base map content, used for creation of the map for design purposes, are important for the designer. Therefore, the updating should cover only selected elements of the base map or the size of the area covered by the updating should be smaller. The authors presented their proposal of modification of the rules of creation of such maps, with consideration of the above factors.

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References 1. Karabin Magdalena (2012), „Badanie zgodności danych zawartych w katastrze nieruchomości i księgach wieczystych dla nieruchomości z obszaru powiatu warszawskiego zachodniego”, Research of the compliance of data stored in the cadastre and land register for real estates located in the West-Warsaw District – Przegląd Geodezyjny, 2012, Nr 10, s. 3-8; 2. Ustawa (1989), „Ustawa z dnia 17 maja 1989r. Prawo geodezyjne i kartograficzne” Act of May 17,1989, The Surveying and Cartograhic Law, (Dz. U. 2010 nr 193 poz. 1287); 3. Ustawa (1994), „Ustawa z dnia 7 lipca 1994r. Prawo budowlane”, Act of July 7,1994, The Building Law (Dz. U. 2010 nr 243 poz. 1623); 4. Rozporządzenie (1995), „Rozporządzenie Ministra Gospodarki Przestrzennej i Budownictwa z dnia 21 lutego 1995r. w sprawie rodzaju i zakresu opracowań geodezyjno – kartograficznych oraz czynności geodezyjnych obowiązujących w budownictwie”, Decree of the Minister of Physical Management and Construction of February 21, 1995 on the types and scope of geodeticand-cartographic works and geodetic operations which are obligatory in construction industry (Dz. U. 1995 nr 25 poz. 133);

5. Rozporządzenie (2002), „Rozporządzenie Ministra Infrastruktury z dnia 12 kwietnia 2002r. w sprawie warunków technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać budynki i ich usytuowanie”, Decree of the Minister of Infrastructure of April 12,2002 on technical conditions of buildings and their location (Dz. U. 2002 nr 75 poz. 690); 6.

Rozporządzenie (2011), „Rozporządzenie Ministra Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji z dnia 9 listopada 2011r. w sprawie standardów technicznych wykonywania geodezyjnych pomiarów sytuacyjnych i wysokościowych oraz opracowywania i przekazywania wyników tych pomiarów do państwowego zasobu geodezyjnego i kartograficznego”, Decree of the Ministry for Internal Affairs and Administration of November 9,2011 on technical standards of topographic surveys and on elaboration and transfer of results of such surveys to the state geodetic and cartographic resources (Dz. U. 2011 nr 263 poz. 1572);

7.

Rozporządzenie (2013), „Rozporządzenie Ministra Administracji i Cyfryzacji z dnia 12 lutego 2013r. w sprawie bazy danych geodezyjnej ewidencji sieci uzbrojenia terenu, bazy danych obiektów topograficznych oraz mapy zasadniczej”, Decree of the Minister of Administration and Digitization of February 12,2013 on the database of the surveying inventory of the technical infrastructure network, the topographic objects database and the base map (Dz. U. 2013 nr 0 poz. 383).

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LANDSCAPE VALUE MAPPING IN SPATIAL MANAGEMENT Adam Senetra, dr. eng.

Department of Planning and Spatial Engineering University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

Agnieszka Szczepańska, dr. eng.

Department of Planning and Spatial Engineering University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Landscape, which comprises the visible features of an area of land, has a significant effect on planning processes that are part of spatial management. Land functions and development are planned based on landscape value. There is a scarcity of landscape maps which present the esthetic value and the current state of a landscape as the outcome of landscape components. Landscape values can be displayed graphically as isolines (contour lines) which show the distribution patterns of a given physical phenomenon. Landscape values are usually presented as sets of data points, while landscape is a continuous (linear) phenomenon. The paper presents maps showing the amenity values of landscape, compiled as a result of interpolation. The potential applications of such maps are also given. Keywords: landscape, landscape value, map of landscape amenity value, interpolation, inverse distance weighting, kriging. 1.

Introduction

Landscape, a spatial phenomenon, has a considerable influence on planning processes and spatial management. Land functions and development are planned based on the value of the local landscape. Amenity values of landscape can be presented in a variety of ways. There is a scarcity of landscape maps which present the esthetic value and the current state of a landscape as the outcome of landscape components. Maps indicating the economic, esthetic and demographic value of land are developed with the application of GIS tools, and they support the decision-making process in spatial management and development (Grabaum and Meyer 1998; Lee et al., 1999; Malczewski, 2006). Landscape is a continuous phenomenon, but landscape values are usually presented as sets of data points which create a regular or an irregular evaluation network. The value of all points in space can be determined by interpolating the values of investigated points without performing complex measurements in the analyzed area. In most cases, landscape components (water bodies, forests, etc.) are analyzed, and landscape maps, which are land cover maps, are developed based on aerial and satellite photographs without field observations. This paper analyzes the possibility of using land value maps, developed with the application of GIS software, at preliminary stages of the planning process. Spatial analyses were carried out with the use of ArcGIS 10 software for interpolating land values and automating the preliminary stages of spatial planning and development. Input data for interpolation were acquired by the point valuation method for assessing rural landscapes of two areas in the transition zone between the urban core of Olsztyn and its rural neighborhood. 2.

Landscape value and spatial planning

The term "landscape" has several meanings in the Polish language. Firstly, it denotes the view of natural scenery in a given location (mountainous, sea, spring, winter, forest, desert scenery, etc.). Secondly, it represents events and facts which are characteristic of specific phenomena and which contribute to those phenomena (e.g. a political landscape). Thirdly, the term may be used to denote an artistic depiction of natural (Sobol, 2002). Spatial management gives a special meaning to the

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first definition of landscape. The esthetic value of space plays a key role for property market participants who estimate the value of property based on, among others, scenic attributes of a given location. Urban planners are also guided by landscape value in the process of determining land functions. Landscape protection should constitute one of the primary goals of spatial management and planning. The correlations between natural features, processes and phenomena and spatial planning considerations are becoming increasingly important (Abreu and Mata Olmo, 2001; Antrop, 2000; Blazy, 2010; Brown and Brabyn, L, 2012; Brunetta and Voghera, 2008; Festas, 2002; De Groot et al., 2010; Maksin-Mićić, 2003; Opdam et al., 2001). According to Wańkowicz (Wańkowicz, 2010), landscape protection plays mostly a regulatory role without the underlying motivational mechanisms. The above observation suggests that landscape protection does not follow from our awareness of scenic value, but it is largely imposed by the law. Planning authorities' failure to account for the esthetic value of space leads to ineffective spatial organization, scenic degradation and environmental stress which affects the local residents' daily lives and decreases their living standards. From the planning perspective, landscape can be defined as a set of physical features (visual impression) and spatial management solutions that maintain the desired balance between natural features and anthropogenic elements shaped through planning activities. According to Czochański (Czochański, 2010), from the point of view of administrators and urban planners, landscape embodies a set of physical features, it constitutes living and working space, and it is an object of management which should be characterized by social, economic and environmental cohesion and physical harmony. Spatial planning and development solutions are based on land management principles, including urban planning and architectural requirements, architectural and scenic value, conservation requirements for natural scenery, cultural heritage, historical monuments and objects of contemporary culture. The Act on Spatial Planning and Development of 27 March 2003 (Journal of Laws of 2012, No.647, item 951) defines land management as spatial arrangement that creates a harmonious whole and accounts for, among others, compositional harmony and esthetic attributes in orderly relations. The objective of spatial planning is to manage space in a manner that ensures the achievement of organized spatial patterns that protect valuable landscape attributes through the maintenance of compositional harmony. Landscape value should be regarded as a reference point in the planning (Brown, 2006). Land functions and land management solutions should be designed based on the amenity value of landscape. Land management policies can preserve or radically change the local scenery. It should also be noted that landscape value is an important factor which determines the location of different land functions. For this reason, landscape assessment plays a very important role in the process of land valuation. Planning documents should take into account all landscapes that will be modified as a result of planning activities. Investment projects bring about permanent and mostly irreversibly changes, which is why location decisions should be preceded by detailed analyses of landscape value. Hasty planning decisions limit the diversity of natural and cultural landscape, leading to its degradation and destruction. From the point of view of spatial planning and development, landscape stability can be evaluated as a continuous process of balancing natural and anthropogenic elements of space (Czochański, 2010). The stability criterion determines the degree of integrity between man-made elements and the natural environment. The planning process has two fulfill two contradictory goals: space has to be managed in a way that protects the environment, while at the same time, the fulfillment of social and economic needs requires specific land management solutions. Social and economic demands on space often prevent landscape protection. Planning authorities are thus faced with the difficult task of prioritizing goals in the area of landscape protection or the fulfillment of the local community's social and economic needs. Landscape and space are bound by a feedback relationship. Spatial planning shapes the surrounding scenery, while the existing landscape should affect planning decisions. For this reason, new advances are needed in landscape assessment research. The correct identification of valuable attributes supports the protection of natural and cultural landscape. Once it is lost, scenic value is very difficult to recover. 3.

Landscape value mapping

Landscape values can be displayed graphically as isolines which show the distribution patterns of a given physical phenomenon. Landscape values are usually presented as sets of data points, whereas landscape is a continuous phenomenon. The value of all points in space can be determined by interpolating the values of measurement points. Spatial planning activities rely on GIS tools for

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analyzing tangible and intangible phenomena in space. GIS applications support fast transformations of qualitative information into quantitative data. Interpolation methods can be deployed in a GIS environment to develop value maps of various phenomena, including landscape value maps (Brown, 2004; Brown and Brabyn, 2012; Carver et al., 2009; Longley et al., 2005; Lee et al., 1999; Malczewski, 1999; Paolillo et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2007). Isolines represent landscape boundaries. In reality, those boundaries are not clearly defined. The characteristic features of landscape boundaries, defined as zones of varied width which separate areas of different environmental value, have a significant influence on landscape function (Kulczyk, 2005). Landscape function affects our perceptions of surrounding scenery which, in turn, determines the value of space and its elements. Unclear boundaries do not imply that spatial phenomena can be freely interpreted. The majority of boundaries shown in maps are not reflected in the physical geography of terrain. The transition zone between the urban core of Olsztyn and its rural neighborhood is an example of the above. The point where the city "ends" and the rural area "begins" is not marked in reality, but an administrative boundary separating those spatial systems is shown on the map (Szczepańska et. al, 2010). In maps, administrative boundaries fit a line (graphic symbol), whereas in reality, they are zones permeated by the characteristic features of neighboring units. Boundaries denoted by graphic symbols are perceived differently in reality. The boundary zone is more explicit when the separated spatial units have a higher rank and when a broader set of delimitation tools is available (Armand, 1980). Landscape value mapping requires the determination of non-arbitrary boundaries (lines) regardless of the separated units' rank and the applied regionalization methods. Maps with arbitrary boundaries are not suited for practical use (planning, land management, environmental protection). According to Armand (Armand, 1980), linear boundaries are manifestations of subjectivism: they assume an absolute character, which is inconsistent with the main attribute of the epigeosphere – continuity. The assumption that every geocomplex stands in absolute isolation defies the continuity of the anthroposphere/epigeosphere and its functioning as a structure that combines open sub-systems (Pietrzak, 1998). The study was conducted using two interpolation methods - inverse distance weighting (IDW) and kriging. 4.

Inverse distance weighting

The value of a variable at an interpolation point is determined as the weighted average of the surrounding scatter points. Let us assume that interpolated point x is surrounded by measurement points xi. A variable at interpolation point z(x) is determined based on measured values zi (1). Scatter points are assigned weight factor (d i) which is inversely proportional to the distance between xi and x (2) (Longley et al. 2005). The weighted average at point x is calculated based on the following formula:

wi zi i

zx

wi

(1)

i

The calculated value at an interpolated point is a weighted average of scatter points. Inverse squared distance is the most popular weighting factor. This means that the weighting factor decreases four-fold with a two-fold increase in distance:

wi

1 d i2

(2)

The IDW (inverse distance weighting) algorithm is a special interpolation method. The variable is calculated based on measurement data whose value is preserved. If an interpolated point overlaps a measurement point, the weighting factor equals infinity due to zero distance. The value at an interpolated point falls within the range determined by the values of measurement points. Values higher or lower than extreme field values cannot be obtained. Interpolation errors can be produced when points are sparsely distributed in undulating terrain. In approximate interpolation methods, calculated values can deviate from measured values, and the interpolated area is smoothed to represent the general trend in value distribution.

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5.

Kriging

Kriging is a geostatistical estimation method which accurately estimates the values of the analyzed variables. Kriging estimates are assumed to be a weighted, linear combination of random regionalized variables (3). The following value is a kriging estimator represented by a random function Z(si): n

Z * s0

(3)

wi Z si i 1

where wi are kriging weights. The weights are calculated on the assumption of minimum variance is estimation errors. In ordinary kriging, the sum of weights has to be equal to one. (Paez, 2009). 6.

Landscape value map – urban area

Interpolation methods were used to determine landscape value in the area of Lake Skanda in Olsztyn. The surveyed territory with an area of 40 ha is a transition zone between the urban core and rural areas within the city's administrative boundaries. The described area was chosen for the study due to its diverse relief features and landscape. The applied analytical methods were inverse distance weighted interpolation (Figure 1) and kriging (Figure 2). In selected locations, landscape value was assessed with the use of the Wejchert impression curve which was adapted to the specific requirements of an open landscape (Table 1). The curve presents an observer's impressions in a time-space sequence. The observer registers images at time or distance intervals which are determined by relief features. Four groups of elements were evaluated: diversity, degradation, infrastructure density and compositional harmony. Groups of elements were awarded 0 to 3 points, and the overall evaluation was performed on a 13-point scale in the range of 0 to 12 points. Measurements were performed at 31 sites separated by a distance of 200-500 m. The sites were situated along roads. Seven criteria of landscape attractiveness were used. Table 1 Criteria for evaluating the esthetic value of landscape Points Diversity

Parameters for landscape evaluation Degradation Infrastructure density

0

monotonous, homogeneous

more than 50% degraded area

1

monotonous with individual elements that enhance the landscape

degraded in 10-50%

2

diverse landscape, numerous single trees, groups of shrubs

degraded in up to 10%

3

highly diverse landscape, numerous single trees, groups of shrubs

no degradation

Compositional harmony lack of harmony

more than 50% of the landscape consists of infrastructure elements 10-50% of the landscape some elements consists of contribute to infrastructure elements compositional harmony, while others do not fit in, absence of harmonious vegetation up to 10% of the most elements landscape consists of contribute to infrastructure elements compositional harmony, only individual components require adjustment no infrastructure all elements form a harmonious whole, infrastructure components fit into the landscape

Source: Cymerman et al. 1988. An analysis of the two measurements revealed highly similar results despite the use of different interpolation formulas (Figure 1 and Figure 2). The above validates the theory that interpolation methods can be used to assess landscape value at all points in space and to identify landscape boundaries in space.

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Figure 1. Landscape value map of Olsztyn's transition zone (inverse distance weighted interpolation) Source: own compilation.

Figure 2. Landscape value map of Olsztyn's transition zone (kriging) Source: own compilation.

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5

Landscape value map – rural area

The second example of interpolation is a landscape value map of Bartoszyce's suburban area (Figure 3). Landscape value was assessed with the use of the Wejchert impression curve. Measurements were performed at 96 sites separated by a distance of 150 m and mutually displaced by half the side-length (brick grid) to create a regular valuation network. Inverse distance weighted interpolation was performed, and three categories of landscape attractiveness were adopted.

Figure 3. Landscape value map of Olsztyn's suburban areas (inverse distance weighed interpolation) Source: Senetra and Rostek, 2009. At the next stage, interpolation results were mapped onto the analyzed territory divided into land parcels. A database for analyzing the attractiveness of the studied parcels was thus produced. A parcel was allocated to a landscape value category which occupied the largest section of that parcel. This approach supported transformation of qualitative information into quantitative data. The analysis involved parcels which were covered by interpolation results in at least 50% (Figure 4).

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Figure 4. Assessment of the landscape amenities of land parcels. Source: Senetra and Rostek, 2009. As a result of the analysis, the investigated are was divided into three landscape value categories. The majority of 55 land parcels were classified into the first landscape value category (160.91 ha), 24 parcels were classified into the second category (50.69 ha), and only one parcel was classified into the third category (3.41 ha). The results point to a relatively low level of landscape diversity in the analyzed area. In the applied method, such results are usually obtained in areas characterized by relatively low landform variation. Conclusions Landscape value maps constitute a useful tool in the planning process, and they support the determination of the amenity value of landscapes in areas which are subject to spatial development (landscape units are determined in a non-arbitrary manner). Land functions are planned in view of the amenity value of landscape, and this approach supports the protection of areas characterized by the greatest scenic value. GIS tools are used to transform landscape value points into continuous values covering the entire analyzed area (qualitative information is rapidly transformed into quantitative data), and they contribute to the automation of the initial process of determining the amenity value of landscape. Landscape value maps determine the amenity value of landscape in a non-arbitrary manner. The value of landscape is estimated as a result of interpolation. Such maps indicate areas that should be protected due to the potentially highest amenity value of the local scenery. The choice of evaluated landscape elements can be modified subject to needs and the specific features of the local landscape.

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Blazy, R. (2010), „Wpływ planów zagospodarowania przestrzennego na wartości środowiska kulturowego regionu (spójność polityki przestrzennej z planami różnego szczebla)”, Architecturae et Artibus Selected, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp.28-34.

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Brown G. (2004), “Mapping spatial attributes in survey research for natural resource management: methods and applications”, Society and Natural Resources, 18(1), pp.17-39.

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Brown G. (2006), “Mapping Landscape Values and Development Preferences: a Method for Tourism and Residential Development Planning”, International Journal Of Tourism Research, No. 8, pp. 101-113, Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.562, available at: http://www.landscapemap2.org/publications/gregbrownintjournPDF.pdf (accessed 20 May 2013).

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Brown, G., Brabyn, L. (2012),” The extrapolation of social landscape values to a national level in New Zealand using landscape character classification”, Applied Geography, Vol. 35, No.1, pp.8494.

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Carver, S., Watson, A., Waters, T., Matt, R., Gunderson, K., Davis, B. (2009), “Developing computer-based participatory approaches to mapping landscape values for landscape and resource management”, In: Planning support systems best practice and new methods, Springer, Netherlands, pp. 431-448.

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18. Maksin-Mićić, M. (2003), “Some problems of integrating the landscape planning into the spatial and environmental planning in Serbia”, Spatium, (9), pp.28-33. 19. Malczewski, J. (1999), GIS and multicriteria decision analysis. Wiley 20. Malczewski J. (2006), “GIS-based multicriteria decision analysis: a survey of the literature”, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, Vol. 20, No. 7, pp. 703–726. 21. Opdam, P., Foppen, R., Vos, C. (2001), ”Bridging the gap between ecology and spatial planning in landscape ecology”, Landscape ecology, Vol.16, No.8, pp.767-779. 22. Páez A. (2009), "Recent research in spatial real estate hedonic analysis", Journal of Geographical Systems Vol. 11 No 4, pp.311 – 316. 23. Paolillo, P. L., Baresi, U., Bisceglie, R. (2012. Cartographic circuits inside GIS environment for the construction of the landscape sensitivity map in the case of cremona. In: Computational Science and Its Applications–ICCSA 2012 Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 331-346. 24. Pietrzak, M. Syntezy krajobrazowe: założenia, problemy, zastosowania. Bogucki Wydaw. Naukowe, 1998 25. Senetra A., Rostek J., 2009. Możliwości wykorzystania GIS w procesie szacowania nieruchomości. Mapa wartości krajobrazowych. Wycena, Vol. 89, No.4, pp.11–22 26. Sobol, E. (Ed.) (2002). Nowy słownik jezyka polskiego. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. 27. Szczepańska A., Senetra A., Rostek J., (2010),” Wykorzystanie metod interpolacji do numerycznego kreślenia map walorów krajobrazowych”, Spatial Economy for Society, Vol.1, Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, pp.231-241. 28. The Act on Spatial Planning and Development of 27 March 2003 , Journal of Laws of 2012, No.647, item 951 29. Wańkowicz W. (2010), „Planowanie przestrzeni o wysokich walorach krajobrazowych, problemy ekonomiczne”, Prace Komisji Krajobrazu Kulturowego, Vol.14, pp.352-359. 30. Wu Y., Bishop I., Hossain H., Sposito V. (2007), “Using GIS in Landscape Visual Quality Assessment”, Applied GIS 2 (3): pp. 18.1–18.20. DOI: 10.2104/ag060018, available at: http://www.epress.monash.edu.au/ag/ag060018.pdf (accessed 20 May 2013).

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NUMERICAL MAPS IN THE DESIGNING AND REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERING OBJECTS Krzysztof Bojarowski, Ph. D.

Institute of Geodesy University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

Dariusz Gościewski, Ph. D.

Institute of Geodesy University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Spatial information systems, adopted nowadays as an efficient tool for various purposes, may be also considered as an important factor integrating several professionals to solve numerous interdisciplinary problems of a local and of the global extent as well. The urban planning and designing of constructions, combined with the surveying elaboration of projects and completed by the registration of the already erected objects, based on spatial information systems, we would like to approach here as an example. This process has the interactive character, as the stage of planning and designing ought to be preceded by careful studies of the already existing spatial surroundings, while the newly constructed objects should be localized on the digital map and inserted into the data base. Keywords: 3D design, digital map, laser scanning. 1.

General principles of digital map construction

According to the classical definition, a digital map is the basis of all spatial information systems, irrespective of their purpose and it content. The rational design of an efficient and effective system therefore requires deciding on the form, structure, content and methods of development of the digital map. Coherent solutions should also be worked out to obtain the desired spatial information as a result of specific actions provided for in the system.

Figure 1. Determinants of digital map development.

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Modern digital maps, in fact similar to analogue maps before, represent the spatial layout of the environment at a specific moment in time when the information was recorded. However, this layout obviously undergoes constant changes, which entails the need for updating. In the times when analogue maps were the basic documents, this meant the need to print new, updated editions, with copies of earlier versions stored in archives. The development of spatial information systems and digital maps has created new possibilities in this area, especially for the selection of methods of information preparation and storage, taking into account its purpose.

Figure 2. Spatial system elements as functions of time. The effectiveness of spatial information systems depends to a considerable degree on the designed database structures and the organization of access to the information collected in the databases as well as on the methods of the presentation and visualization of the processing results. This refers particularly to dynamic systems, which include systems for the recording, collection, presentation and evaluation of changes in the spatial layout of the environment and the examination of displacements and deformations because the collection and visualization of the data contained in these systems requires taking into account the time factor and 3D graphical representation of spatial data is usually also necessary. 2.

Applications in the planning and design of investment projects

Modern methods for the design and geodetic development of communication route designs require the generation of 3D models of the existing state and the designed structures. The accuracy and fidelity of the representation of the real layout are determined mostly by the data acquisition method and the digital terrain model generation algorithms. The example presents the basic problems associated with 3D road upgrading development using the Autodesk Civil 3D system. The technology of road design in the Civil 3D system requires the generation of objects in a specified order, which are functionally connected and form a coherent set of design elements. The introduction of any changes in any element causes in this case an update of all the others, so the functional and geometrical relationships are preserved. Of course, a Civil 3D system should be prepared before starting to implement the design, this refers in particular to the definition of the coordinate system of the development, the determination of angular and linear units and the import of the point sets which are the geometrical basis of the design. The number and arrangement of layers can also be determined and the abbreviations for the description of objects used in the design can be defined and the so-called styles responsible for the manner of object visualization can be defined as part of system preparation. Some of these settings can be carried out during the creation of objects. The selected example was the preparation of land development consisting in the separation of areas with the same use function (Figure 3a), the preparation of a detailed land parcel division design with a communication system and the utility network. The planning and design work was preceded by spatial analyses performed in the Civil 3D system. The most important information, necessary for the design of a drainage system, was obtained based on the analysis of catchment areas. The source of information about the existing state of land ownership and use was the digital map of the Land and Property Register. It should be stressed that the new parcel configuration was created based on right-of-way generation functions and standard parcel division functions. The

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basic criteria to determine the new parcel borders were the designed area and the length of the front of the parcel along the road. The new configuration of parcel borders obtained by the execution of design works is presented in Figure 3b. A digital terrain model was created based on elevation data contained in the basic map. Elevation points, contours and breaklines were included in the model structure. The created digital terrain model was the basis for the elevation reference of the design of the road within the housing estate. The components of the road design were: the alignment representing the road axis, the longitudinal profile with vertical alignment, the normal section, the so-called corridor and crosssections. Elements collected in the road sub-assembly library were used to create the normal section. It should be stressed that the structure of the digital map and the design elements enables the creation of automatically updated functional connections. This creates the conditions and possibilities for the development of many variants and the selection of the best one taking into account the pre-assumed criteria.

Figure 3. Research object: a) spatial development plan, b) parcel design with the communication system. After finishing work connected with the communication system, the conversion of the utility network to the three-dimensional system was started. This was a necessary operation because of the need to connect the designed elements to existing structures. The digital terrain model and the existing technical infrastructure recorded in three-dimensional space are the basis for the design of the utility network, including the storm sewer system (Bojarowski, 2012). The development should be started by determining the list of parts making up the design, the criteria for the routes of pipes and cables and the parameters of the utilities. The elevation reference of the designed infrastructure was the design surface of the road pavement created from the corridor.

Figure 4. The communication system with the utility network: a) spatial road model, b) the utility network with the result of interference analysis. The designed network has functional connections, it can be represented in the longitudinal profile layout and in cross-sections, which improves the design and editing of network elements. The specification of network interference, which allows conflicts to be avoided in the design process, is a very useful function. Design development is automated to a large degree at each execution stage, from the recording of survey data in the database to three-dimensional visualization and simulation in the

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realistic view. The preparation of final documentation and the preparation of data necessary for moving the design into the implementation stage is conducted also using standard system functions. 3.

The digital map in the evaluation of the state of engineering structures

The determination of structure displacements and deformations is one of the most important tasks in engineering geodesy because the results of these actions are significantly decisive for human safety and structure durability (Bojarowski and Gościewski, 2012). The development of new survey methods and technologies have enabled substantial improvement of field work in this area and the results allow comprehensive evaluation of possible risks. The methods of spatial determinations, which enable joint determinations of displacements in the three basic directions, should be particularly noted. It is also worth noting new possibilities of analysis and presentation of determination results, whose development is connected with the application of spatial information processing systems in engineering geodesy. CAD group systems are particularly indicated, as computer-aided design systems, especially adapted to 3D visualization of engineering survey results (Bojarowski, 2004; Bojarowski, 2005; Bojarowski, 2006; Gościewski, 2005; Gościewski, 2012a; Gościewski, 2012b; Longley and Batty, 2003). The John Paul II Bridge in Gdańsk was selected as the example illustrating the possibilities of using a digital map in the examination of deformations of engineering structures. Bridge construction was started in August 1999 and finished in November 2001. The structure is a part of the Maj. Henryk Sucharski Thoroughfare. Its main task is to connect the Port of Gdańsk with the national road 7 and with the southern Gdańsk ring road. Figure 5 presents a view of the bridge during the performance of the laser scanner survey and the created GRID models of the bridge deck plate in individual survey periods.

Figure 5. John Paul II Bridge in Gdańsk: a) view of the bridge, b) GRID models of the bridge deck plate. The results of precise leveling and laser scanner measurements were used for the analysis of bridge deformations. A view of the bridge during the performance of the laser scanner survey was presented. Precise leveling was performed based on a network of benchmarks established on both sides of the bridge. The elevation was determined for 58 benchmarks distributed evenly on both sides of the bridge deck plate. GRID models were created based on the survey results (Figure 5b) and they became the basis for performing further analyses. First differential surfaces showing changes in the bridge deck plate between individual survey periods were created (Figure 6a) and the basic change statistics were determined using operations on GRID statistical surfaces (Figure 6b).

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Figure 6. Bridge deck plate analysis: a) differential surfaces, b) statistics of GRID models. The results of the laser scanner survey were used to perform the analysis of the geometrical state of the pylon (Figure 7a). The created 3D model allowed the position of the pylon’s symmetry axis to be determined at any level. Graphs of the deviation of the pylon’s axis from the vertical line were created based on the obtained values. Figure 7b presents example results, in this case, for the deviation of the pylon’s axis in the (x, z) plane.

Figure 7. Analysis of the geometrical state of the pylon: a) point cloud, b) deviations in the (x, z) plane. The presented examples show only to a small degree the possibilities of using the digital map in the planning, design and surveying service for investment projects. However, it should be noted that three-dimensional modeling and functional and structural connections of objects are becoming the standard. Combined with modern survey methods, the digital map can be an effective structure recording system and a tool for management and planning.. References 1. Bojarowski K. (2004) “Use of spatial GRID models for analysis of changes in surface structures”, Research Journal of the Maritime University in Szczecin No 2(74), Szczecin, pp. 59-66. 2. Bojarowski K.(2005) “Digital Model Terrain as a Tool of Spatial and Statistical Analysis” in The 6th International Conference Environmental Engineering, Vol. 2 No. 1131, Vilnius, pp. 819-822. 3. Bojarowski K. (2012) “Object modeling in the process of upgrading road and railway routes”, Research Bulletin of the Rzeszów University of Technology. Construction and Environmental Engineering. Bulletin No. 59 (1/2012/II). Rzeszów University of Technology Press, pp. 35-41. 4. Bojarowski K., Gościewski D. (2012) “Constructional elements evaluation of buildings objects usind digital model of curface”, Research Bulletin of the Rzeszów University of Technology. Construction and Environmental Engineering. Bulletin No. 59 (1/2012/II). Rzeszów University of Technology Press, pp. 51-60.

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5. Gościewski D. (2005) “Influence of measuring point location on selection of interpolation algorithm” in The 6th International Conference Environmental Engineering Vol. 2, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Press Technika, pp. 867–871. 6. Gościewski D. (2012a) The effect of the distribution of measurement points around the node on the accuracy of interpolation of the digital terrain model. Journal of Geographical Systems, DOI 10.1007/s10109-012-0176-x.2. 7. Gościewski D. (2012b) “Determination of the size of the GRID base network depending on the relief”. Research Bulletin of the Rzeszów University of Technology. Construction and Environmental Engineering. Bulletin No. 59 (1/2012/II). Rzeszów University of Technology Press, pp. 121-133. 8. Longley P.A., Batty M. (2003) “Advanced Spatial Analysis”. The CASA Book of GIS. Redlands, CA, ESRI Press.

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DIGITAL HERITAGE DOCUMENTATION USING TERRESTRIAL LASER SCANNING TECHNOLOGY Karolina Hejbudzka*, Msc. Department of Geodesy and Land Management University Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

Andrzej Dumalski, Ph. D. Department of Geodesy and Land Management University Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Terrestrial laser scanning has become one of the most popular technology in recent years. It allows to measure thousand points in second which give us a huge number of data of the scanned object in a short time. That is why this technology has become more competitive to traditional methods of documentation. This paper presents application of impulse laser scanner to heritage documentation during archeology works on a newly discovered object – a tower in Olsztyn in Poland. The authors present results of laser scanner measurements and also refer to archaeological and architectural documentations of this object. They also point out the advantages of the new technology, which can be successfully used to digital the heritage objects. The results obtained encourage to conduct further investigation on this topic. Keywords: terrestrial laser scanner, digital heritage, 3D documentation, point clouds

1. Introduction Nowadays, during the globalization process and enormous development of various technologies, one of the main problems of mankind is still fully unresolved - protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage. Some of great monuments, historical places survived so many years, even ages to our times reminding about important events, history of the past times and now they slowly disappears. Cultural artifacts are mostly keep indoor in museums, while outside cultural heritage sites are constantly at-risk to the contrary. They are exposed to the daily effects of the natural environment, from the seemingly benign: sun, wind, and rain; to the dramatic: earthquakes, fire, and human aggressions (http://archive.cyark.org). That is why there are a lot of foundations, scientific committees, non-profit organizations, various documentations and conventions, which main aim is to promote cooperation among nations to protect heritage around the world for current and future generations. One of the well-known is The International Scientific Committee for Documentation of Cultural Heritage (CIPA) which is one of the international committees of ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) and it was established in collaboration with ISPRS (International Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing) (http://cipa.icomos.org/index.php?id=3). Among other organizations, which are known it is worth to mention about UNESCO or CyARK. In most cases it is believed that heritage sites can be restored and protected only when they has been fully measured and documented. The improvement of methods for surveying historical monuments and sites, is an important contribution to perceptual monitoring of cultural heritage, to preservation and restoration of any valuable architectural or other cultural monument, object or site, as a support to architectural, archaeological and other arthistorical research. Until now, traditional handmade sketches, photogrammetric and total station measurements were mostly used for this task. The new technology, laser scanning, significantly revolutionized the existing methods. In most cases heritage and archaeological sites often take 46

irregular geometric shapes, which involves the difficulty and time-consuming in their documentation using traditional techniques of visual documentation. Although photogrammetric measurements are close to the scan but dense of 3D scanning provides information nearly in real time. Particular terrestrial laser scanning has been used as a general technique of documentary and an inventory of cultural goods. Due to the rapid data acquisition and possibility of obtaining point clouds at time of scanning, this technology became the alternative to photogrammetric measurements, and for the measurement of total station as well, which required more time on the bench and usually do not provide the same level of detail of the measured surface. Digital capture of the world's significant heritage sites ensures these places will be available for the future. Summation of most of the methods available for three-dimensional digitization that can be applied to digital the cultural heritage recording are presented in (Pavlidis at all, 2007). In literature it can be found various papers, in which the authors conduct experiments to compare the photogrammetric method with terrestrial laser scanning in documentation. In some (e.g. Gadou and Schreyer, 2011) laser scanning is more convenient for heritage documentation. In others (e.g. Grussenmeyer and Guillemin, 2011) photogrammetric method is still more useful for this kind of tasks. Due to the fact that laser scanning is still a new technology a lot of tutorials about conducting field works and processing data appears (Barber D. at all, 2011; Van Genechten 2008, Rüther et all 2011). What is more laser scanning technology is widely used in heritage documentation providing not only high accuracy and complete 3D data but mostly giving basic material for modeling, visualizations, animations etc. (Remondino and Rizzi,2010; Vacca et all, 2012; Abmayr et. all, 2011,Vela et all. 2010). Laser scanning can be used for analysis of geometric anomalies for ancient structures (Castagnetti at all, 2012), inventory of wooden church (Mitka , 2007)or even the old underground (Mikoś at all, 2011), for monitoring historical and architectural structures (Musat and Herban, 2010). In this paper authors present the application of terrestrial laser scanner in inventory of the historical sites. The filed works were conducted on newly discovered object during archaeological work - Tower in Olsztyn city in Poland. The paper describe the field works using laser scanning technology for documentation purposes. It also presents the post processing data obtained from terrestrial laser scanner. 2. Field works 1.1. Description of the object and main aims of the project The research was carried out under investment leading in a project entitled "Revitalization of the area between Old Town and the Town Hall in Olsztyn". The project included many aspects of different kind of research. The main aims of comprehensive research, under supervision of archeologist A. Mackiewicz, was to identify and describe the sequence of fortifications, complete recognition of the relics and to determine the nature and layout of the layers in the future investment, the setting of the original utility levels, the method and depth of foundations, to establish the relationship between the individual sections of the city fortifications, as well as to determine the current condition of the medieval fortifications section of Olsztyn. Laser scanning was performed as additional part of that project to achieve a very detailed and accurate 3D documentation of the discovered tower and also to compare the results with data obtained from archeological measurements and architectural documentation. The field works were conducted in the old town near the one of the famous monument - The High Gate (called also: The Upper Gate) (Fig.1) in the center part of Olsztyn city in Poland . The High Gate was built in the fourteenth century. It is the only remaining gate of the three that were within the defensive walls surrounding the city. The gate is located in the north-eastern part of the old town, on the axis of the outlet main route. During the archeological works, the remains of the city walls with the Tower were discovered (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 1 Location of the research area Source: http://maps.google.pl

Fig. 2 The High Gate and discovered Tower Source: Agata Wojciechowska- Grygo own collection 2.2.

Archeological measurements

The archeological measurements were performed from July to October 2012. Firstly the meter grid was established in respect with lines north - east, south - west, on extension of The Upper Gate east wall. The points in a grid were measured by a laser total station (Leica T 600). As a zero point in a grid the north - west corner of The Upper Gate was marked. For the purposes of accurate acquire of stationary subjects, three-dimensional system X, Y, Z was used. Elevation measurements were made on the basis of benchmark located in the neighborhood of the post office building. During the field works 2 benchmarks were established within the research area. All trenches were done manually with the participation of blue-collar workers, under the supervision of archaeologists. Earth was transported outside trenches, to enable on the full observation. Horizontal projections of the exposed relic walls (Fig. 3) were firstly documented photographically and afterwards by draw manually. In addition, the walls face and the trench excavation profile of the position of stratigraphic system were documented photographically and with draws. In total of the archeological works 420 photos (Fig.4) and 23 drawings of the field was done. Both plans and profile drawings of the objects were made on graph paper at a scale of 1: 20. The photographic documentation of the position was made with a digital camera and copied to CD (Mackiewicz 2012).

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Fig. 3 One of the walls face of the discovered tower Fig. 4 Inside part of the Tower Source: Agata Wojciechowska- Grygo own collection Source: Agata Wojciechowska- Grygo own collection 2.3.

Terrestrial laser scanning measurements

Terrestrial laser scanning is one of the latest technology that enables acquisition of coordinates in three dimensional space. The advantage of the laser scanner is that it can measure millions of points in a very short time. What is more the measurements are reflector less. The laser scanner provides XYZ coordinates in space, RGB values of the surface and data on the reflective properties of the surface. The X, Y, Z coordinates are calculated from measured distance and vertical and horizontal angles. One of the significant advantages of scanners is the fact that the measurement can be performed without disturbing the operation of machines, humans because of the speed and the number of the obtained points which is quite impressive. In this project, to measure the discovered Tower and the near area the terrestrial laser scanner ScanStation (Fig. 5) from Leica was used. This is impulse laser which allows to measure 4 000 point per second in range of 300m distance, making measurements very fast and efficient. For laser scanner measurements usually two people are enough to performed the field work. All operations concerning scanning were done by using laptop, which was connected by Ethernet cable with the scanner. The special software allows for easily and quick measurements. The whole research area was scanned in few hours. Before the measurements some kinds of parameters like proper temperature, pressure was input to the instrument. On the research area 3 scanner stations were chosen. On each station over a dozen scans were performed. Because obtained data from each position of the scanner is in local coordinate system of scanner a special High Definition Survey targets (further: HDS) were placed to register all data into one coordinate system. HDS targets allow also for accurate geo-referencing of scans to known control points. In practice it is used few types of HDS targets: black and white targets, sphere targets and blue and white targets. The last one we can divided into planar, tilt & turn targets, twin-target pole (http://hds.leicageosystems.com/en/Targets_19143.htm). For the purposes of the study blue and white targets (Fig. 6) were used. It is worth to mention that from each station, before scanning, a picture of measured area was taken. This action helped to select the proper area for scanning. Also photos were taken which were used after in processing data. One of the most important parameter during the scanning is resolution, which cause that the scanned object could be measured with less or more points. The scanning resolution for this heritage site was centimeter outside and few millimeters inside of the Tower. To refer to reference system two control points were scanned. One of the most greatest advantage of this technology is that the user can see the results of the scanning nearly in the real time at once in 3D. It enables to keep track of the status of the scanned object. Having 3D view on measured area it also allows to select next stations of the instrument in such way to avoid "black holes", which means the areas that for some reason, such as natural or artificial obstacles, cannot be scanned from a given position.

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Fig. 5 Terrestrial laser scanner ScanStation Source: Karolina Hejbudzka own collection

Fig. 6 HDS target situated on the discovered tower wall Source: Agata Wojciechowska- Grygo own collection 3. Data processing and results 3.1.

Archeological research

During the all works few concept concerning the shape and kind of object appeared. One of them was that the newly discovered object is barbican (Fig.7,8). Unfortunately, this conception was quite fast modify with the progress of the archeological works. In view of the increasingly deeper excavations proved that there is no transitions, which is a key element of the Barbican. Therefore excavated monument was defined as the tower (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7 The first concept of discovered area - Barbican Source:http://olsztyn.gazeta.pl/olsztyn/1,48726,12813523,Barbakan_odslania_swoje_tajemnice__Z obacz_WIZUALIZACJE.html

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Fig. 8 Handmade drawings: the current appearance (on the left) the concept of tower (on the right) Source: http://olsztyn.gazeta.pl/olsztyn/51,35189,13095850.html?i=0 After the material elaborated on archaeological excavations, the acquired information on the sequence of the fortifications in the area of the Upper Gate was designated. The studies also included drawings and photographic relics exposed walls (Fig. 9), a complete diagnosis of the relics. The conducted research provide information on the condition of the city's fortifications and define the nature and arrangement of the layers in the future investment. It also helped to establish the chronology of registered items fortifications. During the archaeological excavations at the Upper Gate in Olsztyn 121 was isolated objects made of bronze, copper, silver, lead, iron, wood and clay. The largest group of monuments was representing different types of buttons made of bronze, copper and wood (Mackiewicz, 2012)

Fig. 9 Inventory draw of the inside part of the tower Source: Mackiewicz 2012 3.2.

Laser scanning research

The measurements with terrestrial laser scanner give a huge number of points, which in literature is called “point clouds”. The processing and elaborating such a big collection of the data required not only good computer but also specialized software. All data was elaborated with special software from Leica – Cyclone v.5.6. The first step was data processing registration. From every station we received a set of observations in separate systems (by default - the local system scanner). The registration can be done in several ways, depending on the chosen method and fitting errors, which we want to receive. Several methods are used to register the observation e.g. with HDS target, point clouds, objects, traverse etc. To accurate registration of multiple scans to each other HDS targets were used. In all ScanWorlds (dataset from each station) HDS targets were modeled and given

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appropriate label – the same HDS target scanned from different stations was given one the same label. This action aimed to have common points to conduct the registration process. To register obtained data from different scanner positions 3 common points on the adjacent scans are required (Van Genechten 2008, Vosselman G and Maas H-G 2010). In most cases a special High Definition Survey targets were used as those which provide the smallest errors during registration process. In our case we had 3 HDS targets, which we used. The results were satisfactory, using HDS targets during the measurements the fitting errors for each target during the registration process was around 2-3 mm. The combined data is shown on Fig. 10. The obtained data was reference to the national coordinate system using two coordinate points. After having all data in one coordinate system the filtration process was conducted.

Fig. 10 Tower and Upper Gate in registered point clouds color from scanner Source: our own elaboration Filtration data is a very important step in the elaboration of point clouds obtained from the terrestrial laser scanner. It often happens that during the measurements with laser scanners the points, which do not belong to the object, are scanned e.g. pedestrian, vehicles, moving objects, which can disturbed measurements by recording inappropriate points. Filtration allows us to remove all kinds of "noise". It is important to eliminate incorrect observations due to the fact that they may interfere with the process of further elaboration of the data. Point clouds can give a lot of information about the objects, which could be hardly achieved using classical methods of survey. The point clouds can be represented in grey scale, intensity color or color from scanner (on the point clouds are put the colors from the photo) (Fig. 11).

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Fig. 11 Point clouds from Tower in color from scanner Source: our own elaboration Having registered and filtered data we can conduct all surveying part of elements that we need e.g. the size of bricks, distances between selected objects or points. We can also conduct the measurements each distances that we need (Fig.12).

Fig. 12 Example of measurements selected elements (point clouds) Source: our own elaboration Depending on requirements, we can conduct cross sections in any place of the object and in any plane –vertical, horizontal etc (Fig. 13). This significantly helps to performance various analyzes of structures, thickness walls etc.

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Fig. 13 Example of cross section (point clouds) Source: our own elaboration From the obtained point clouds we can model details or whole objects using basic 3D shapes available in the Cyclone software. However, on the software market, we can find more specialist software e.g. typically intended for architects, which are also suitable for to the processing point clouds. It is important to note that in all typical software scanners, you can export data in different formats. This gives us the possibility to the use of specific software not only from the scanners producers, but allows us to process data in other programs. The most common data formats are CAD files *. DXF and ASCII file format (XYZ, PTS, PTX). Having scanned object we make 2D drawings of selected elements, which give the similar results as archeological documentation, which was performed during excavations. One of the most interesting applications of the data obtained from terrestrial laser scanners are 3D views and animations of scanned area. It is not the point to only scanned objects but the point is to use the data and make it available for the users, especially when the case is related to the heritage. “Leica Cyclone PUBLISHER publishes point cloud data for web-based sharing and

viewing allowing access from anywhere in the world. Using the FREE Leica TruView panoramic point cloud viewer, users can view, zoom in, or pan over point clouds naturally and intuitively. Using a simple "panoramic" or "bubble" viewer approach, you see HighDefinition Survey™ point clouds on the computer screen just as if you were standing right where the laser scanner captured the scan data. Leica TruView software is for everyday professionals who want to easily view and measure rich, laser scan point clouds without having to be an expert in laser scanning, CAD, or 3D. TruView, users can extract real 3D coordinates and

accurately measure distances. Results appear right on the point cloud image. Markups are also easy to create, save and share with your peers, your service provider or with clients for more effective communications.”(http://hds.leica-geosystems.com/en/Leica-TruViewCyclone-PUBLISHER_64524.htm) 4. Conclusions It is clear that significant effort is needed in documenting heritage sites using digital documentation methods and the new 3D high definition capture tools. Terrestrial laser scanners are nowadays more and more used as instruments for various tasks in cultural heritage conservation. It gives us the opportunity to acquire a great number of precise data, which is measured in a very short time. The acquisition of accurate 3D models of archaeological sites, cultural heritage sites and monuments is very important. Three-dimensional documentation enables on very accurate historical documentation. Compared to traditional methods of documentation, the 3D scans more accurate sources of the information. Spatial data obtained during the measurements permit to conduct not only the reconstruction, but also it can be used as a basis for physical replicas of the scanned structure. In this paper authors present the possibility of applying the terrestrial laser scanner technology in documentation of historical places. Obtained results show that this new technology

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can be easily adopted in archeological works as one of the documentation method. Data obtained from terrestrial laser scanner was with millimeter accuracy, which is quite enough for this kind of archeological tasks. There are a lot of measurements advantages using laser scanner during the archeological excavations. One of them is short time of capturing the data, a huge number of points obtained directly in 3D space, accurate measurements even hard to reach places for humans. The completeness of the measurements and easy access to the obtained data provide simple access to the captured data even after a few or several years. This helps to make the analysis by comparing current state to the former situation and also helps reconstruction of the elements that over time have been destroyed. Information given from point clouds is of great value not only for the conservators but also for education and may be used by the general public. There is an opportunity to create a publicly accessible archive where visitors may visit and learn about cultural heritage sites from around the world, touring more sites than they could ever visit in a lifetime. References 1.

Abmayr T., Härtl F., Reinköster M., Fröhlich C. (2011), “Terrestrial laser scanning – applications in cultural heritage conservation and civil engineering”, ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning 2011, Volume XXXVIII-5/W12, 29 – 31.08, 2011, Calgary, Canada;

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Barber D., Mills J. et all. 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage (second edition) Advice and guidance to users on laser scanning in archeology and architecture, (2011), English Heritage Publishing;

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Castagnetti C., Bertacchini E., Capra A., Dubbini M.,(2012) “Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Preserving Cultural Heritage:Analysis of Geometric Anomalies for Ancient Structures” FIG Working Week 2012, 6-10 May 2012Rome, Italy,

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Gadou H., Schreyer U., (2011), “Laserscanning for cultural heritage and documentation”, Geomatics Technology in the City, First International Geomatics Symposium in Saudi Arabia, 10-13.05.2011 Jeddah, Saudi Arabia;

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Van Genechten B. (2008),Theory and practice on Terrestrial Laser Scanning: Training material based on practical applications, Universidad Politecnica de Valencia Editorial,

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Grussenmeyer P., Guillemin S. (2011), Photogrammetry and laser scanning in cultural heritage documentation: an overview of projects from INSA Strasbourg, Geomatics Technology in the City, First International Geomatics Symposium in Saudi Arabia, 10-13.05.2011 Jeddah, Saudi Arabia;

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Mackiewicz A., (2012), Sprawozdanie z badań archeologicznych, wyprzedzających realizację projektu „Rewitalizacja obszaru pomiędzy Starym Miastem a Ratuszem w Olsztynie” przeprowadzonych na Placu Jedności Słowiańskiej w Olsztynie (Dz. 11/5, 22/8, 23, 42, 43 i 44, obręb 64), stan XXIV, wykop 110, woj. warmińsko- mazurskie. Tom 1.

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Mikoś T., Pieprzyk-Klimaszewska K. Ciemiera, M.(2011) „Zastosowanie skanera laserowego do inwentaryzacji zabytkowych podziemi”, Budownictwo Górnicze i Tunelowe 2011, nr 1 pp. 9-15,

9.

Mitka B., (2007), „Możliwości zastosowania naziemnych skanerów laserowych w procesie dokumentacji i modelowania obiektów zabytkowych”, Archiwum Fotogrametrii, Kartografii i Teledetekcji, Vol. 17b, 2007 pp. 525-534;

10. Musat C. C., Herban I. S., (2010) “The Use Of 3D Laser Point Technologies for Monitoring Historical and Architectural Structures” RevCAD – Journal of Geodesy and Cadastre Vol. 2010 pp. 145-152; 11. Pavlidis G., Koutsoudis A., Arnaoutoglou F., Tsioukas V., Chamzas Ch., (2007) “Methods for 3D digitization of Cultural Heritage” Journal of Cultural Heritage No.8 (2007) pp.93-98; 12. Remondino F, Rizzi A, (2010), “Reality-based 3D documentation of natural and cultural heritage sites—techniques, problems, and examples” Appl. Geomat. (2010) 2:85–100; 13. Rüther H., Held Ch., Bhurtha R., Schröder R., Wessels S., (2011), “Challenges in Heritage Documentation with Terrestrial Laser Scanning”, The Africa GEO2011, 31.05-2.06.2011 Cape Town, South Africa ;

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14. Vacca G., Deidda M., Dessi A., Marras M. (2012) “Laser scanner survey to cultural heritage conservation and restoration” International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XXXIX-B5, 2012 XXII ISPRS Congress, 25.08– 01.09.2012, Melbourne, Australia; 15. Vela E., Babic L. , Dapo A., Kordic B., Pribicevic B., Medak D., (2010) Terrestrial laser scanning for the digital preservation of a Croatian historical village “Dobranje” FIG Congress 2010, 1116 April 2010Sydney, Australia,; 16. Vosselman G, Maas H-G, (2010), Airborne and terrestrial laser scanning. Whittles Publishing 17. http://hds.leica-geosystems.com/en/Targets_19143.htm access on 29.06.2013 18. http://hds.leica-geosystems.com/en/Leica-TruView-Cyclone-PUBLISHER_64524.htm on 30.06.2013

access

*Scholar of the project "Dr. INNO 3 PhD Scholarships "organized by the Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Olsztyn and co-financed by the European Union under the European Social Fund

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GIS AND 3D TECHNOLOGY FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE: SCIENTIFIC E-JOURNALS ANALYSIS Małgorzata Gajos, Ph. D.

Faculty of Computer Science and Materials Science University of Silesia in Katowice Sosnowiec, Poland Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Zygmunt Wróbel, Prof. dr. hab. engr.

Faculty of Computer Science and Materials Science University of Silesia in Katowice Sosnowiec, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract GIS and 3D technology which has been growing very dynamically in recent years allows one to enter, process and present various forms of data and provides great opportunities to create new forms of protect, archive and present cultural heritage. The purpose of this article is to explore directions of research in the field of multimedia applications for cultural heritage on the basis of articles in scientific journals to determine the share of GIS and 3D. The selection of magazines for research (Journal of Cultural Heritage, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, Multimedia Tools and Applications) has been done on the basis of the characteristics of the profile of the journal and on and the analysis of the table of contents. The chronological range of research covers the period of 2010 to 2012. Keywords: GIS, 3D, cultural heritage, e-journal. 1. Introduction In the field of cultural heritage United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established the following conventions: Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict with Regulations for the Execution of the Convention (First Protocol, Hague, 14 May 1954, Second Protocol, Hague, 26 March 1999), Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (Paris, 14 November 1970), Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Paris, 16 November 1972), Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (Paris, 2 November 2001), Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (Paris, 17 October 2003), Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (Paris, 20 October 2005); recommendations: Recommendation concerning the Protection, at National Level, of the Cultural and Natural Heritage (16 November 1972), Recommendation on the Safeguarding of Traditional Culture and Folklore (15 November 1989), Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape, including a glossary of definitions (10 November 2011); declarations: UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2 November 2001), Charter on the Preservation of Digital Heritage (15 October 2003), UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage (17 October 2003). Driving force behind all definitions of cultural heritage is: “it is a human creation intended to inform” (Feather, 2006). Cultural heritage can be distinguished in: built environment (buildings, townscapes, archaeological remains); natural environment (rural landscapes, coasts and shorelines, agricultural heritage); artefacts (books and documents, objects, pictures). Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings and historic places, monuments, books, documents, works of art, machines, clothing, and other artefacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual beliefs, artistic expression, language, knowledge, and other aspects of human activity), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, biodiversity, geodiversity, and tourist industry) (http://www.cultureindevelopment.nl/Cultural_Heritage/What_is_Cultural_Heritage).

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Aspects and disciplines of the preservation and conservation of tangible culture include: museology, archival science, conservation-restoration (art, architectural, film, phonograph record), digital preservation. Aspects of the preservation and conservation of cultural intangibles include: folklore, oral history, language preservation. Aspects of the preservation and conservation of natural heritage include: ethnobotany, rare breeds conservation, heirloom plants (Deacon et al., 2004; Hicks, 2010). Broad philosophical, technical, and political issues and dimensions of cultural heritage include: Cultural heritage repatriation; Cultural Heritage Management; Cultural property law; Heritage tourism; Virtual Heritage (Timothy and Nyaupane, 2009). Cultural heritage is unique and irreplaceable, which places the responsibility of preservation on the current generation. We live in a very dynamic development of multimedia technology, which provides great application opportunities for the protection of cultural heritage and which facilitates our duty to preserve the cultural heritage. Multimedia is media and content that uses a combination of different content forms. This contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material. Multimedia includes a combination of text, audio, still images, animation, video, or interactivity content forms (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Multimedia). Cultural heritage themed international conferences, workshops are held on the application of multimedia in this field such as: International Conference EuroMed; International Symposium on Virtual Reality, Archeology, and Cultural Heritage; International Workshop on Human-Computer Interaction, Tourism and Cultural Heritage (HCITOCH); Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities (LaTeCH). In the article entitled “A taxonomy of visualization strategies for cultural heritage applications” (Foni et al., 2010), published in January 2010, authors presented a general classification of the different approaches that might be employed to constitute a visual representation of a cultural heritage item, including the ones featuring the use of traditional tools as the ones exhibiting the inclusion of modern 2D and 3D digital technologies. In recent years, the development of information technology inclusive of multimedia has been very quick. The purpose of this paper is to determine the directions of research in the field of GIS and 3D applications for cultural heritage on the basis of scientific e-journals of late (2010 to 2012). 2.

e-Journals for investigation

In order to select journals for research into GIS and 3D for cultural heritage, a list of periodicals of international reach was taken searching categories such as multimedia and cultural heritage. Based on the journal title, 10 journals were selected and Impact Factor (IF) 2011 from Journal Citation Reports (JRC) has been specifies additionally: ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing Communications and Applications (0,850); IEEE Multumedia (0,438); IEEE Transactions on Multimedia (1,935); Multimedia Systems (0,729); Multimedia Tools And Applications (0,617); New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia (0,0577); Journal of Cultural Heritage (1,079); International Journal of Architectural Heritage (0,235); International Journal of Heritage Studies (-);Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage (-). Characteristics of thematic scope of these journals and scientific prestige factor IF have not been sufficient for journals selection for investigation. Additional analysis of contents of these journals have been necessary for journals selection. Characteristics of selected journals for detailed analysis are shown in Table 1. 3. Methods of investigation Scientific journals play an important role in the promotion of science and offer in themselves a source of data for research into the way research workers develop their interests. To study this both qualitative and quantitative methodologies are necessary. The literature review as a scientific examination method is used to review scientific works and for peer review. The essence of peer review is to adjust a new problem to the extant knowledge, thus analysis and criticism of the subject literature is indispensable. The objectives and functions of the literature review are: description and evaluation of current knowledge for a given topic (research status); arranging the knowledge through categorisation etc to identify any hitherto missed regularities, relations, facts, phenomena; reveal cognitive gaps uncharted areas; seek inspiration, research subjects; identify new research directions (Ankem, 2008).

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Bibliometry or bibliometrics is treated in the reference texts as a research method or discipline (scientific subdiscipline). This article treats it as a research method (bibliometric method). By the same token, bibliometry is a statistical application for quantitative studies of facts, phenomena and processes related to texts and information (Diodato, 1994). To classify articles to the appropriate topic and category classification method has been used. Classification may refer to categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification). Table 1 List of journals for GIS and 3D for cultural heritage research Title and title abbrevation of journal Journal of Cultural Heritage (JCH)

Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage (JCCH)

Multimedia Tools and Applications (MTA)

Scope and source Safeguard, Conservation and exploitation of cultural heritage; Analyses and preservation of biodiversity; Sociological and economical analyses; Computer sciences in Cultural heritage. The journal focuses on a specific new methodology in cultural heritage conservation or exploitation. It also presents the latest news concerning public administration bodies and the many activities proposed by international authorities. http://www.elsevier.com/journals/journal-of-cultural-heritage/12962074# Publishes papers of significant and lasting value in all areas relating to the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in support of Cultural Heritage. The journal encourages the submission of manuscripts that demonstrate innovative use of technology for the discovery, analysis, interpretation and presentation of cultural material, as well as manuscripts that illustrate applications in the Cultural Heritage sector that challenge the computational technologies and suggest new research opportunities in computer science. The field Cultural Heritage spans many distinct sub-areas, which may be divided into two major classifications: tangible heritage, such as the discovery, documentation, organization, interpretation and communication of artifacts, monuments, sites, museums, and collections (including digital archives, catalogues and libraries); and intangible heritage, such as music, performance, storytelling, and mythology. In addition, the increasing volume of digital cultural artifacts and collections is becoming an important body of heritage content in its own right. http://jocch.acm.org/ Multimedia Tools: - Multimedia Applications: - Prototype multimedia systems and platforms - Home - Education and Training - Operations Public - Business Office - Visual Information Systems. http://link.springer.com/journal/11042 Source: Websites of selected journals.

4. Results According to the definitions and types of cultural heritage (CH) described in the introduction, two categories connected with cultural heritage have been defined for research: CH subject, CH preservation and conservation and individual topics in each of the category. Abstracts and full text of articles selected for the journal studies have been analysed using the literature review method and classified as the suitable category. Types of multimedia technologies applied have been indicated, too. Then, using the bibliometric method, a quantitative breakdown of articles is made for individual topics and categories. The classification result which presents directions of research in the field of GIS and 3D applications for cultural heritage is shown in Table 2.

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Table 2 Research in GIS and 3D for cultural heritage based on e-journals analysis Topic of CH

natural heritage

intangible

tangible

buildings, archaeological remains, monuments

artefacts

folklore, traditions language, knowledge landscapes bio and geo diversity tourist industry

tangible

museology

archival science conservation, restoration

Journal and Multimedia number of article in references CH subject JCH [35] 3D JCH [3] 3D, computer graphics JCH [5] 3D, photogrammetry JCH [20] GIS JCH [44] 3D, CAD JCH [26] remote sensing JCH [38] 3D, virtual reality JCH [43] 3D, photogrammetry JCH [49] 3D JCH [32] 3D JCH [9] 3D, virtual reality JCCH [39] photogrammetry JCCH [7] video JCCH [2] 3D JCCH [40] 3D MTA [27] 3D JCH [35], 3D JCH [30] 3D JCH [17] 3D, photogrammetry JCH [50] 3D JCH [4] 3D JCH [38] 3D, virtual reality JCH [11] 3D JCH [28] 3D JCH [22] 3D JCH [25] 3D JCCH [33] 3D, visual-audio JCCH [31] 3D JCCH [13] 3D, CAD MTA [21] image, text JCCH [36] video, image, audio, text JCCH [34] video JCCH [10] 3D JCCH [8] 3D, virtual reality JCCH [37] interactive booklets, smartpen -

Number of articles in topic of CH and category 45 16 40

-

CH preservation and conservation JCH [41] 3D, virtual reality JCH [42] virtual reality JCH [16] interactive multimedia JCH [11] virtual reality JCH [9] 3D, virtual reality JCH [25] 3D JCCH [33] 3D, visual-audio JCH [17] 3D, photogrammetry JCH [23] audiovisualisation

0

JCH [35] JCH [30] JCH [28] JCH [50] JCH [5] JCH [20] JCH [44] JCH [43]

9

3D 3D 3D, virtual reality 3D 3D, photogrammetry GIS 3D, CAD 3D, photogrammetry

60

14

3

5

2 0 0

0

33 7

2

30

natural intangible heritage

digital preservation

folklore oral history language ethnobotany rare breeds conservation heirloom plants

MTA [27] JCH [3] JCH [4] JCH [26] JCH [38] JCH [11] JCH [49] JCH [29] JCCH [31] JCCH [1] JCCH [13] JCCH [10] MTA [21] JCCH [36] JCCH [34] JCCH [37] -

3D 3D, computer graphics 3D remote sensing 3D, virtual reality 3D 3D 3D 3D digital library 3D, CAD 3D image, text video, image, audio, text video interactive booklets, smartpen -

-

-

12

2 0 1 0 0

3

0

0

Source: Websites of selected journals. 5. Conclusions Based on journals, especially on-line versions, one can effectively explore the formation of interests and developing research trends, professional and researcher communities associated with a specific field and the directions of its development, and differentiation of project subjects. The analysis of selected items in the application of multimedia in the protection of cultural heritage in terms of the research directions of the recent years has shown that the vast majority of the research relates to the use of 3D technology to create virtual reality. This technology is used in the protection of almost all cultural heritage subjects analysed in chosen articles. It is followed by the use of satellite and GIS technology to collect, process and visualize data on cultural heritage. Forty journals have been chosen for analysis, mostly from Journal of Cultural Heritage. Some of them concerned two or three topics (e.g. monuments, artefacts and digital preservation). In the category CH subject, multimedia have been applied comparatively for buildings, archaeological remains, monuments and for artefacts. Some articles were connected with folklore, traditions and language. In the category CH preservation and conservation, multimedia have been applied mostly for digital preservation, than conservation, restoration and museology. The analysis of literature, apart from indicating research directions, is also an effective method to determine which items of cultural heritage are under-researched, or have not yet been studied. In anaysed journals natural heritage (as a part of CH) has not been studied. The analysis carried out in this article, although illustrating a range of research is only fragmentary. A more complete picture can be obtained by increasing the number of respondents journals and increasing the chronological range. One can then, in addition to lines of research in the use of multimedia in the protection of cultural heritage, characterize the development of such research. References 1. Aletras, N., Stevenson, M., Clough, P. (2012), “Computing similarity between items in a digital library of cultural heritage”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 5 (4), doi: 10.1145/2399180.2399184. 2. Aliaga, D. G., Bertino, E., Valtolina, S. (2011), “DECHO—a framework for the digital exploration of cultural heritage objects”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 3 (3), doi: 10.1145/1921614.1921619. 3. Andrade, B. T., Mendes, C. M., de Oliveira Santos, J., Jr., Pereira Bellon, O. R., Silva, L. (2012), “3D preserving xviii century barroque masterpiece: Challenges and results on the digital preservation of Aleijadinho's sculpture of the Prophet Joel”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (2), 210-214.

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4. Andrade, B. T., Pereira Bellon, O. R., Silva, L., Vrubel A. (2012), “Digital preservation of Brazilian indigenous artworks: Generating high quality textures for 3D models”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (1), 28-39. 5. Andrés, A. N., Pozuelo, F. B., Marimón, J. R., de Mesa Gisbert, A. (2012), “Generation of virtual models of cultural heritage”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (1), 103-106. 6. Ankem, K. (2008), “Evaluation of method in systematic reviews and meta-analyses published in LIS”, Library and Information Research 32 (101), 91-104. 7. Ashley, M., Tringham, R., Perlingieri, C. (2011), “Last House on the Hill: Digitally remediating data and media for preservation and access”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 4 (4), doi: 10.1145/2050096.2050098. 8. Bellotti, F., Berta, R., De Gloria, A., D'ursi, A., Fiore, V. (2012), “A serious game model for cultural heritage”. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 5 (4), doi: 10.1145/2399180.2399185. 9. Bruno, F., Bruno, S., De Sensi, G., Luchi, M. L., Mancuso, S., Muzzupappa M (2010), “From 3D reconstruction to virtual reality: A complete methodology for digital archaeological exhibition”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11 (1), 42-49. 10. Callieri, M., Chica, A., Dellepiane, M., Besora, I., Corsini, M., Moyés, J., Ranzuglia, G., Scopigno, R., Brunet, P. (2011), “Multiscale acquisition and presentation of very large artifacts: The case of portalada”. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 3 (4), doi: 10.1145/1957825.1957827. 11. Carrozzino, M., Bergamasco, M. (2010), “Beyond virtual museums: Experiencing immersive virtual reality in real museums”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11 (4), 452-458. 12. Carrozzino, M., Scucces, A., Leonardi, R., Evangelista, C., Bergamasco, M. (2011), “Virtually preserving the intangible heritage of artistic handicraft”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (1), 8287. 13. Das, V. M., Garg, Y. K. (2011), “Digital reconstruction of pavilions described in an ancient Indian architectural treatise”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 5 (1), doi: 10.1145/2001416.2001417. 14. Deacon, H. (et al.) (2004), The Subtle Power of Intangible Heritage: Legal and Financial Instruments for Safeguarding Intangible Heritage, Human Sciences Research Council, http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415776226/. 15. Diodato, V. (1994), Dictionary of Bibliometrics, New York: The Haworth Press. 16. Dong, S., Wang, X., Xu, S., Wu, G., Yin, H. (2011), “The development and evaluation of Chinese digital science and technology museum”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (1), 111-115. 17. Duran, Z., Aydar, U. (2012), “Digital modeling of world's first known length reference unit: The Nippur cubit rod”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (3), 352-356. 18. Feather, J. (2006), “Managing the documentary heritage: issues for the present and future”, in Gorman, G. E., Shep S. J. (Eds.), Preservation management for libraries, archives and museums, Facet., London, pp. 1-18. 19. Foni, A. E., Papagiannakis, G., Magnenat-Thalmann, N. (2010), “A taxonomy of visualization strategies for cultural heritage applications”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 3 (1), doi: 10.1145/1805961.1805962. 20. Gontz, A. M., Maio, C. V., Wagenknecht, E. K., Berkland, E. P. (2011), “Assessing threatened coastal sites: Applications of ground-penetrating radar and geographic information systems”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (4), 451-458. 21. Grana, C., Borghesani, D., Cucchiara, R. (2011), “Automatic segmentation of digitalized historical manuscripts”, Multimedia Tools and Applications, 55 (3), 483-506. 22. Guarnieri, A., Pirotti, F., Vettore A. (2010), “Cultural heritage interactive 3D models on the web: An approach using open source and free software”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11 (3), 350-353.

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23. Hauttekeete, L., Evens, T., De Moor, K., Schuurman, D., Mannens, E., Van de Walle, R. (2011), “Archives in motion: Concrete steps towards the digital disclosure of audiovisual content”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (4), 459-465. 24. Hicks D. (2010), “The Material-Cultural Turn: event and effect”, in Hicks D., Beaudry M. C. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Material Culture Studies, Oxford University Press. 25. Hunter, J. Gerber A. (2010), “Harvesting community annotations on 3D models of museum artefacts to enhance knowledge, discovery and re-use”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11 (1), 8190. 26. Kaimaris, D., Georgoula, O., Patias, P., Stylianidis, E. (2011), “Comparative analysis on the archaeological content of imagery from Google Earth” Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (3), 263269. 27. Koch, A., Dipanda, A., République C. B. (2012), “Evolutionary-based 3D reconstruction using an uncalibrated stereovision system: application of building a panoramic object view”, Multimedia Tools and Applicaions, 57 (3), 565-586. 28. Koutsoudis, A., Pavlidis, G., Liami, V., Tsiafakis, D., Chamzas C. (2010), “3D Pottery content-based retrieval based on pose normalisation and segmentation”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11 (3), 329-338. 29. Koutsoudis, A., Stavroglou, K., Pavlidis, G., Chamzas, C. (2012), “3DSSE – A 3D Scene Search Engine: Exploring 3D scenes using keywords”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (2), 187-194. 30. Lanitis, A., Stylianou, G., Voutounos, C. (2012), “Virtual restoration of faces appearing in byzantine icons”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (4), 404-412. 31. Laycock, S. D., Bell, G. D., Mortimore, D. B., Greco, M. K., Corps, N., Finkle, I. (2012), “Combining Xray micro-CT technology and 3D printing for the digital preservation and study of a 19th century cantonese chess piece with intricate internal structure”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 5 (4), doi: 10.1145/2399180.2399181. 32. Lerones, P. M., Fernández, J. L., Gil, Á. M., Gómez-García-Bermejo, J., Casanova, E. Z. (2010), “A practical approach to making accurate 3D layouts of interesting cultural heritage sites through digital models”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11 (1), 1-9. 33. Ma, W., Wang, Y., Xu, Y. Q., Li, Q., Ma, X., Gao, W. (2012), “Annotating traditional Chinese paintings for immersive virtual exhibition”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 5 (2), doi: 10.1145/2307723.2307725. 34. Mallik, A., Chaudhury, S., Ghosh H. (2011), “Nrityakosha: Preserving the intangible heritage of Indian classical dance”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 4 (3), doi: 10.1145/2069276.2069280. 35. Manferdini, A. M. Baroncini, V., Corsi, Cristina (2012), “An integrated and automated segmentation approach to deteriorated regions recognition on 3D reality-based models of cultural heritage artifacts”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (4), 371-378. 36. Matthews, P., Aston, J. (2012), “Interactive multimedia ethnography: Archiving workflow, interface aesthetics and metadata”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 5 (4), doi: 10.1145/2399180.2399182. 37. Obonyo, V., Troy, D., Baldwin, D., Clarke, J. (2011), “Digital smartpen technology and revitalization of the Myaamia language”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 4 (4), doi: 10.1145/2050096.2050097. 38. Pecchioli, L., Carrozzino, M., Mohamed, F., Bergamasco, M., Kolbe, T. H. (2011), “ISEE: Information access through the navigation of a 3D interactive environment”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (3), 287-294. 39. Pisa, C., Zeppa, F., Fangi, G. (2011), “Spherical photogrammetry for cultural heritage—San Galgano Abbey and the Roman Theater, Sabratha”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 4 (3), doi: 10.1145/2069276.2069278.

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40. Reuter, P., Riviere, G., Couture, N., Mahut, S., Espinasse, L. (2010), “ArcheoTUI—Driving virtual reassemblies with tangible 3D interaction”, Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 3 (2), doi: 10.1145/1841317.1841319. 41. Robles-Ortega, M. D., Feito, F. R., Jiménez, J. J., Segura, R. J. (2012), Web technologies applied to virtual heritage: An example of an Iberian Art Museum, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (3), 326331. 42. Rojas-Sola, J. I., Castro-García, M., del Pilar Carranza-Cañadas M. (2011), “Content management system incorporated in a virtual museum hosting”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (1), 74-81. 43. Stojakovic, V., Tepavcevic B. (2011), “Image-based modeling approach in creating 3D morphogenetic reconstruction of Liberty Square in Novi Sad”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (1), 105-110. 44. Styliadis, A.D., Sechidis, L.A. (2011), “Photography-based façade recovery & 3-d modeling: A CAD application in Cultural Heritage”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 12 (3), 243-252. 45. Timothy D. J., Nyaupane G. P. (Eds.) (2009), Cultural Heritage and Tourism in the Developing World. A Regional Perspective, Routledge. 46. What is Cultural Heritage, http://www.cultureindevelopment.nl/Cultural_Heritage/ What_is_Cultural_Heritage (accessed 15 May 2013). 47. Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia. Classification, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification (accessed 15 May 2013). 48. Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia. Multimedia, (accessed 15 May 2013).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia

49. Yan, W., Behera, A., Rajan, P. (2010), “Recording and documenting the chromatic information of architectural heritage”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11 (4), 438-451. 50. Zhang, X., Blaas, J., Botha, C., Reischig, P., Bravin, A., Dik J. (2012), “Process for the 3D virtual reconstruction of a microcultural heritage artifact obtained by synchrotron radiation CT technology using open source and free software”, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13 (2), 221-225.

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A PROPOSAL OF AN ALGORITHM FOR LINKING ADDRESS POINTS AND NUMBERING RANGES WITH LINES REPRESENTING STREETS[1] Piotr Cichociński, Ph. D. AGH University of Science and Technology Department of Geomatics Krakow, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Geocoding is t process of determining the location, usually expressed in the form of point coordinates, of the object described by the address. This is done by comparing the relevant elements of address information with a reference material. Geocoded information can be the basis for mapping and geographical analysis. To effectively carry out the process of geocoding, one need to have the appropriate source material, that determines the location of the address. Address information is stored, among others, in OpenStreetMap database. OpenStreetMap (OSM) is an international project aimed at creating editable and available without restrictions map of the world. Addresses are often allocated to buildings and numbering ranges are also created along street segments, separately on the right and left side. To be able to use OpenStreetMap for geocoding, one must link address numbers assigned to buildings or numbering ranges placed on the map with corresponding street segments. To automate this action, the paper proposes algorithms, using analytic functions available in GIS software, allowing determining the name of the street, which is related to the address point and to identify and assign street segments to numbering ranges. The algorithms were tested and their parameters were chosen based on the sample data collected for a number of different places in Poland, to take into account local specifics, the diversity of source data and a variety of ways in which individual authors interpret the rules for building the database. The proposed method could be used both for collection of reference data for geocoding, and to automate actions during completion of OpenStreetMap database contents, which may contribute to its faster development. Keywords: address geocoding, data quality, free software, OpenStreetMap, Quantum GIS, spatial analysis, SpatiaLite. 1.

Introduction

Geocoding is the process of determining the location, usually expressed in terms of (point) coordinates of the object described by the address. This is done by comparing the relevant elements of address information with source material. Addresses can be written in many different forms. In Poland, for towns in which the streets have names, it is usually assumed that the address includes the name of the street, followed by the sequence number of the building (and possibly the number of the apartment). In addition, the zip code and the name of the city, town or village are given. This set of information can uniquely identify a particular location anywhere in the whole country. Geocoded (located in space) information can be the basis for mapping and geographic analysis. One can specify spatial relations existing between specified points and examine relationships between attribute values and the position of objects. Analysis of the spatial distribution of property (Cichociński, 2011), the study of health issues (Rushton et al., 2006), or the analysis of crime (Ratcliffe, 2004) can be provided as examples of using location information obtained by geocoding. Geocoding can be performed in two ways. In the recent years portals such as Geocoder.us, Google, Microsoft, MapQuest and Yahoo! (Roongpiboonsopit and Karimi, 2010, Karimi et al., 2011), allowing to find and present the map location specified by the address have gained wide popularity. Their characteristics include ease of use and free access (provided that they are used for private purposes and not on a large scale). More advanced users, having appropriate software, can

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automatically geocode entire data sets. The system should find the best matched addresses without operator intervention. The quality of data obtained in the process of geocoding is important, as they are often the basis for decision making. The quality of geocoding is affected by the characteristics of the source database, such as (Karimi et al., 2004): completeness, correctness, temporal validity, accuracy of the location, and in some cases interpolation technique. Even an attempt was undertaken (Davis and Fonseca, 2007) to define a quantitative indicator determining the reliability geocoding, as a function dependent on the type and completeness of the available reference data and geocoding method used. Geocoding is a process which consists of three major steps (Charif et al., 2010): 1) The structuring and standardization of searched addresses in order to identify individual components in the entered complete address (house number, street name, postcode, city, etc.) 2) Finding a matching address in the source database by comparing the corresponding elements of the searched address. 3) Proper geocoding, which determines the coordinates of the identified address. There are three basic methods for determining the location of an address. The most accurate one consists of getting the coordinates of the point object. Another popular method is coordinate interpolation performed along a linear object, assuming a range of numbers assigned to each of these objects. The basis for performing the third method is determining, by any means, a point within a polygon or line. The oldest and best-known method of geocoding requires a set of line segments representing the streets to which a name and numbering ranges on their left and right sides are assigned in the form of attributes. Geocoding, in this case, consists of first finding a matching street, then determining the segment the numbering range of which includes the relevant building number and finally, interpolating the position on the line on the basis of number range limits. This method is called street geocoding. Its application involves a lot of problems, widely reported in literature (Zandbergen, 2007, Zandbergen, 2011, Zimmerman and Li 2010). As to the advantages of the street geocoding, one can mention the lower sensitivity to the incompleteness of a database, since the sought address may not be found directly and thus, stored in the database, but it is sufficient when the range it is included in will be available. Geocoding on the basis of points is rated more positively (Zandbergen, 2008, Vieira et al., 2010) due to its excellent positional accuracy. It also provides an additional check of the entered address data as it requires finding the real address in the source database and is not based on the numbering range that may be incomplete in the field. Considering the availability of appropriate software and, despite the above comments (Karimi et al., 2004), stated comparability of algorithms used, the basis for successfully carrying out the geocoding process is to have an appropriate source material, which will determine the location of the address. 2.

Sources of address information

As part of building the infrastructure for spatial information in Poland (Ustawa, 2010) a database of address points is yet to be developed (Rozporządzenie, 2012). It is based on the address of a building which consists of the names of the state, county, municipality, town, street (and its respective identifiers), ordinal number and postcode. Every ordinal number will be assigned to the address point determined by the approximate center of the wall of the building facing the street or square, which is related to the ordinal number of the building, or the approximate center of the entrance to the building. The point address will be described by a pair of coordinates, specifying the position of the address point. However, in accordance with the provisions of the INSPIRE Directive (2007), this database will probably not be available to the public and free of charge to use. Although at present address points are elements of basic map (Główny Geodeta Kraju, 1998), the drawback that prevents their direct application in geocoding is that information associated with them relates only to the number of the building whilst the second required component, the name of the street, is missing. An interesting alternative to the above-mentioned data sets can be OpenStreetMap (Haklay and Weber, 2008) – a community project aimed at creating editable and available without restriction map of the world. Such a map is created based on data from handheld GPS, aerial photographs and other available data sources, as well as sketches made in the field. The project was created because most of the maps, which are generally considered free, actually have legal or technical restrictions

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on their use. Data to be added to the base of OpenStreetMap database should be correct, verifiable and cannot be subject to copyright or the person entering the data must have full rights to them. The data is stored in the OSM database in the form of tagged geometric primitives. They belong to one of three types: point (node), line (way) and relation. Surfaces are represented by the closed line (first point is identical to the last). More complex structures (for example, areas with enclaves) are constructed with the help of relations. Each of these types may be related to the tags which take the form of key-value pairs and act as attributes. There is detailed list of acceptable tags and values, which may be extended by members of the community voting. Additionally, although this is not recommended, it is acceptable to use tags and values from outside of this list. OpenStreetMap resources are made available under Open Database License (ODbL), which states that one is allowed to copy and distribute the database and create derivative databases providing attribution in the manner specified in the license, and disseminating the newly created database only under the same license. Because this database is built by volunteers, they are no plans formulated for its systematic development. Adding new data depends on the willingness of individuals to perform the appropriate field measurements or vectorization of available aerial photographs. However there are the cases that companies or institutions that have variety of data in their resources decide to give them free of charge to OpenStreetMap community. Globally, there are significant permits granted by Yahoo and Microsoft for unlimited usage of data (especially aerial photographs) presented in their mapping portals. In Poland, some local governments have decided to make data they possess available for the OSM: Siedlce (Zaborowski, 2010), Szczecin (Zaborowski, 2011), Wroclaw, Bytom, Police and Lodz (Czernik, 2012). Address information is stored, to some extent, in OpenStreetMap database. In addition to the address points, addresses are often allocated to buildings (as surface objects, rather than points). Numbering ranges are also created along street segments, separately on the right and on the left side. The address information for points and buildings is written simply using two tags: “addr:housenumber” and “addr:street”. The structure becomes more complicated for address ranges. They are stored in the form of lines with the tag “addr:interpolation” having two possible values: “even” and “odd”, to inform about whether numbers are odd or even, accordingly. Additionally, these lines are connected, through relations, to the points that carry only information on the starting and ending numbers in given range. When such data are imported from external databases, the address information is mostly complete, which means that the address point is described by both the house number and street name it is located on. This is not the case with data added manually by users. There are cases when some part of the address is omitted, the most commonly street name. 3.

Proposed methodology

There are already tools that indicate locations of potential errors, and suggest how to fix them. OSM Inspector is one of these tools, that allows to check the completeness of the address information. It is a web based debugging tool for advanced OpenStreetMap users. On a map one can see several themed views, each with several layers, showing specific details of the OSM data, often with highlighted errors. Layers can be switched on and off, details about any feature are available on mouse click and links lead to favorite editor so that users can fix problems easily. For addresses, it indicates those that do not have the street name and also draws on the map a line connecting the address point and the closest street (Figure 1). However, that is all it can do. Any corrections must be entered manually, which means waiting for the person willing to complete the database in this regard. This is why the author proposes mechanisms that will allow not only the detection of errors occurring in the OpenStreetMap database, but also will attempt to automatically correct them. The proposed method is based on the assumption that the address point is located closest to the centerline of the street, to which it should be assigned. Near function (Esri, 2011) can be used here, which determines the distance from each feature in the input features to the nearest feature in the near features, within the search radius. The following two fields are added to the attribute table of input data set: the identifier of the nearest feature and the distance from an input feature to the nearest feature.

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Figure 1. OSM Inspector. Source: http://tools.geofabrik.de/osmi The second proposal relies on the use of one of the functions of raster analysis, namely Euclidean Allocation (Esri, 2011), which calculates, for each cell, the nearest source based on Euclidean distance (as opposed to cost distance). Every cell in the output raster is assigned the value of the source (in this case street) to which it is closest. This way the whole space is divided into areas closest to the individual streets. If the value given to every pixel will be the identifier the nearest street, the conversion of these areas to vector polygons, and then spatial join will allow to determine which street is closest to every address point. Addresses assigned to buildings can cause some problems, as a building may be located in more than one zone. The solution to this problem is to generate centroid for each building and to test its position instead of the entire building. Finally, by identifier found the link is established between the address point and the nearest street, which allows to assign a name of the street to this address point and thus to solve the task. 4.

OpenStreetMap data downloading

Chosen parts of the whole OpenStreetMap (OSM) database can be downloaded in two ways. The easiest way is to use “Export” tab, available in the map window (Figure 2). After determining an interesting range (by giving the coordinates or drawing the rectangle) an XML file containing features from the specified area is created. Another possibility to obtain the OpenStreetMap data is to use one the following websites: http://download.geofabrik.de or http://metro.teczno.com. On the first site a region can be selected: the whole world, a continent or a country. The second site offers parts of the OpenStreetMap database for major world cities and their surrounding areas. The goal of these so called metro extracts is to make it easy to make maps for major world cities, even if they cross state or national boundaries. These sites provide data also in shapefile format (Esri, 1998), which can easily be read by most GIS software, but its content is somehow limited. So it is often necessary to use OSM–specific format which requires a program to convert to one of the common GIS formats. Fortunately the popular and open source Quantum GIS software is equipped with OpenStreetMap Plugin which adds support for OpenStreetMap raw vector data, bringing it in as a layer from .osm XML file. It also permits editing and upload back the OSM server. Another interesting proposal in this regard might be SpatiaLite spatial database management system. SpatiaLite is developed by Alessandro Furieri, basing on another one–man project – SQLite. SQLite is actually a library implementing the self–contained, serverless and zero–configuration transactional database engine, managed through SQL commands. Because it operates on individual files, to some extent it can be compared to Microsoft Access, but its source code is in public domain. SQLite is the world's most widely used database, as it can be found in such popular programs.

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SpatiaLite extends SQLite with the ability to store geometric characteristics of objects and to perform spatial queries. In practice, it consists of several programs, performing various specific tasks, executed from command line. One of them is a tool spatialite_raw that converts a file saved in OpenStreetMap XML format to the spatial database. Moreover, there are two more general tools, having a graphical user interface: spatialite_gui and spatialite_gis. The first one is a typical program for database management, allowing database creation and editing, shapefile import/export, SQL queries formulation and results displaying. The second program is a simple spatial data browser, allowing the visualization of query results in the form of simple maps.

Figure 2. “Export” tab, available in the OpenStreetMap window. Source: http://openstreetmap.org For the purposes of described below practical activities OSM data available on the server http://metro.teczno.com for the two biggest Polish cities: Krakow and Warsaw, were downloaded. Streets (linear objects with non-NULL “highway” attribute value and having a name) and all points and polygons having non-NULL value for the attribute “addr:housenumber” (that is address points and buildings having addresses) within the administrative boundaries of the cities were selected and saved as shepefiles using Quantum GIS software and its plugin. Results of basic evaluation of the address data are shown in Table 1. Table 1 Statistics for address points and buildings with addresses city

data type

Krakow Krakow Warsaw Warsaw

address point building address point building

total number of objects 21386 8336 85269 24136

number of objects without the street name 75 337 151 128

Source: own work More complex actions were required to obtain information about the numbering ranges. First, databases containing spatial data set for individual cities, but in raw form, were created using spatialite_raw. The following SQL query

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SELECT count (t.way_id) as n, t.way_id as id, r1.sub as sub1, r2.sub as sub2, t.k as inter, t.v as odd_even, r1.node_id as node_id1, x(n1.Geometry) as x1, y(n1.Geometry) as y1, a1.k as house1, min(a1.v) as nr_pocz, r2.node_id as node_id2, x(n2.Geometry) as x2, y(n2.Geometry) as y2, a2.k as house2, max(a2.v) as nr_kon, makeline(n1.Geometry, n2.Geometry) as the_geom, degrees(azimuth(n1.Geometry, n2.Geometry)) as azymut, max(a3.k) as street, max(a3.v) as ulica FROM osm_way_tags as t, osm_way_refs as r1, osm_way_refs as r2, osm_nodes as n1, osm_node_tags as a1, osm_nodes as n2, osm_node_tags as a2, osm_node_tags as a3 WHERE t.way_id = r1.way_id and t.way_id = r2.way_id and t.k = "addr:interpolation" and r1.node_id = n1.node_id and n1.node_id = a1.node_id and a1.k = "addr:housenumber" and r1.sub = 0 and r2.node_id = n2.node_id and n2.node_id = a2.node_id and a2.k = "addr:housenumber" and r2.sub > 0 and n1.node_id = a3.node_id and (a3.k = "addr:street" or a3.k = "addr:housenumber") GROUP BY t.way_id HAVING max(r2.sub) > 0 allowed the construction of objects that represent ranges of addresses, which were then exported to a shapefile. Identified deficiencies in address information for the ranges are shown in Table 2 Table 2 Statistics for address ranges city Krakow Warsaw

total number of ranges 83 97

number of ranges without the street name 8 22

Source: own work 5.

Results of experiments

Practical activities were carried out in ArcGIS software. First, using the Euclidean Allocation function areas closest to all the streets in the analyzed cities, were created. The result of this operation is a raster image, so it was necessary to decide on the size of the pixel used. Initially pixel size of 10 meters was assumed, corresponding to the size of the average single family house, but this value proved to be too high. After a few attempts the size of 2 meters as a reasonable compromise between accuracy and size the resulting file was selected. Then raster was converted to vector polygons. The value of each pixel, converted to attribute of each polygon, corresponded to the identifier of the street closest to the polygon. Attribute join with streets layer allowed to assign corresponding street name to each zone. Proper action was started from checking the proposed methods for address ranges. According to the above mentioned procedure, in order to avoid ambiguity in assigning individual ranges to the zones, their centroids were determined. These centroids were used in the next step, which involved determining the zone in which they were located, and thus the street name which was located the most closely. Since the purpose of this research is to test the correctness of the proposed methods, obtained results were compared with street name stored in the input data, instead of searching for the missing street names. In case of Krakow only two differences occurred. One of them the most probably resulted from an error in the OSM data, while the second was due to the fact that address range was located by unnamed branch of the appropriate street (Figure 3). Whereas, from nine errors observed in the area of Warsaw, only one resulted from a position of the address range closer to another street, but it can be assumed that the remaining were the result of mistakes made by the authors of the OSM (probably ranges were placed by the street different from street being a part of the address). The results of applying the Near function to find the street nearest to each of ranges were much worse. In this case 6 errors occurred in Krakow and 32 in Warsaw, respectively. Visual analysis showed that most of the errors in this case resulted from the fact that one end of the line representing the address range was closer to another street. Larger number of errors in Warsaw resulted from different from Krakow’s pattern of buildings. Also in Warsaw, errors in the OSM

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database consisting of drawing too long ranges intersecting perpendicular streets were seen (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Example of address range located by unnamed branch of the appropriate street. Source: http://tools.geofabrik.de/osmi

Figure 4. An example of too long numbering range intersecting perpendicular streets. Source: http://tools.geofabrik.de/osmi Subsequently analyzes were conducted for address points and buildings. Just as before, in order to avoid ambiguity in assigning individual buildings to areas, their centroids were calculated. All points were analyzed to determine their belonging to the zones closest to particular streets. For Krakow there were 2415 (that is as much as 29%) building centroid differences observed. On preliminary examination it turned out, that large part of discrepancies were related to addresses defined by the name of housing estate rather than the street (which is typical for the Nowa Huta district). The rejection of such cases reduced the number of discrepancies to 1394 (nearly 17%). Since then housing estates were always rejected. For address points in Krakow 2925 (almost 14%)

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discrepancies were recorded. In case of Warsaw there were 6451 (almost 27%) discrepancies for centroid of buildings, and 18248 (just over 21%) for address points respectively As the last one, study for buildings was performed using Near function in order to find the closest streets. In case of Krakow 1467 (nearly 18%) streets closest to buildings turned out to be not those that were referred to in the address information. For Warsaw, this value amounted to 7079 (just over 29%). Unfortunately, it seems that at this stage, these errors are unavoidable. Some of these errors arise from the diversity in the ways of storing street names derived from names in OSM database. Two main variants could be distinguished: forename and surname or surname only. Another group of errors is attributable to flaws in the proposed method, the main criterion of which is the distance from the street. It appears that the address points (and buildings) analyzed are not always located closest to the street to which they are assigned. There would certainly be less such errors if the address points were located within the buildings closest to the appropriate street. It would also ease visual extraction of information from maps. Unfortunately, the algorithm used to determine the centroid lacks the intelligence in this area. There are also cases of buildings located at some distance from the street to which the address is assigned and still close to the other. 6.

Conclusions

The studies performed led to the identification of not only the places with incomplete data, but also pointed out locations where although the data is complete, it can be suspected that the numbering ranges have been assigned to the wrong street. None of the tools previously known to the author provide such functionality. However, validation of these assumptions will require checking in the field or finding more reliable data (although it may be that the OSM license will not allow using them). Another problem is the issue of the diversity in the ways of storing street names derived from (people's) names. Unfortunately, the conception of the OpenStreetMap does not provide any form of dictionaries for street names and other objects, and there is also no recommendation as to how to record people’s names. Obtained results show that the address ranges are better source material, because they are used in cases of series of buildings located close to the streets. On the contrary, single buildings (at least in Poland) can be located far enough away from the street, and thus determination of the interrelatedness of these objects can be difficult. However, the address ranges in their original form are inconvenient to use, since their endpoints can be found closer to the other streets, thus falsifying the result. Therefore, it is better to pre-determine the centroid and use this point for further actions. Although the centroid, in the case of buildings with a complex shape, is not a good option too, because it can be located outside the building, which in specific cases may suggest different from the actual location of the building. ArcGIS software has the option of determining points inside the buildings, but in contrast its application results in locating points in an unpredictable way for objects of simple shapes. Therefore, it would be worthwhile to develop an algorithm defining a point near the approximate center of the wall of the building facing the street. For unambiguous visual connection with the street, similar way of placing address points should be suggested to the users performing manual editing of the OSM database. Despite the author's initial suspicions, that caused this research, it turns out that in the scale of the analyzed cities, address information can be considered quite complete, because the number of defects is on average at the 0.5%, although in some cases it goes over 20%. This of course does not mean that the completeness of the database could not be at a higher level. The author hopes that the algorithms proposed in this paper will help to increase this level. Large number of discrepancies between the actual and found address, resulting from the closest street, indicates that the proposed algorithms are not perfect. An inclusion of additional factors besides distance should be considered in the future. the direction of a longer side of the building which should be close to the direction of the street seems to be such a natural parameter. On the basis of the works performed some guidelines for numbering of buildings could also be formulated. At least in some cases, would seem from a map that the building should be assigned to a different street than it is at the moment. But one has to admit that the assessment of the situation only on the basis of a map can be misleading, as the major determinant for assigning number to an existing building is the location of the main entrance.

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Charif, O., Omrani, H., Klein, O., Schneider, M. and Trigano P. (2010), “A method and a tool for geocoding and record linkage”, CEPS/INSTEAD Working Paper Series 2010-17.

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Cichociński, P. (2011), “Porównanie metod interpolacji przestrzennej w odniesieniu do wartości nieruchomości” (“Comparison of spatial interpolation methods for real estate values”), Studia i Materiały Towarzystwa Naukowego Nieruchomości 2011, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 120–132.

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Czernik, Z. (2012), “Samorządy powoli zauważają OSM”, In: Portal polskiej społeczności OpenStreetMap, http://openstreetmap.org.pl/osm/2012/samorzady-powoli-zauwazaja-osm/

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Davis, C.A. and Fonseca, F.T. (2007), “Assessing the Certainty of Locations Produced by an Address Geocoding System”, Geoinformatica (2007) 11:103–129.

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Esri (1998), ESRI Shapefile Technical Description, An ESRI White Paper, Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands.

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Haklay, M. and Weber, P. (2008), “OpenStreetMap: User-Generated Street Maps”, IEEE Pervasive Computing, October–December 2008, pp. 12-18.

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Karimi, H.A., Durcik, M. and Rasdorf, W. (2004), “Evaluation of uncertainties associated with geocoding techniques”, Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering 19 (2004) 170– 185.

10. Karimi, H.A., Sharker, M.H. and Roongpiboonsopit, D. (2011), “Geocoding Recommender: An Algorithm to Recommend Optimal Online Geocoding Services for Applications”, Transactions in GIS, 2011, 15(6): 869–886. 11. Ratcliffe, J.H. (2004), “Geocoding crime and a first estimate of a minimum acceptable hit rate”, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 18(1):61–72. 12. Rushton, G. et al. (2006), “Geocoding in cancer research : a review”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30(2):16–24. 13. Roongpiboonsopit, D. and Karimi, H.A. (2010), “Comparative evaluation and analysis of online geocoding services”, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, Vol. 24, No. 7, July 2010, 1081–1100. 14. Rozporządzenie Ministra Administracji i Cyfryzacji z 9 stycznia 2012 r. w sprawie ewidencji miejscowości, ulic i adresów, Dziennik Ustaw z 2012 r., poz 125. 15. Ustawa z 4 marca 2010 r. o infrastrukturze informacji przestrzennej, Dziennik Ustaw nr 76, poz. 489. 16. Vieira, V.M., Howard, G.J., Gallagher, L.G. and Fletcher, T. (2010), “Geocoding rural addresses in a community contaminated by PFOA: a comparison of methods”, Environmental Health 2010, 9:18. 17. Zaborowski, A. (2010), “Szczecin najbardziej kompletnym miastem”, In: OpenStreetMap i okolice, Wolne dane w praktyce, http://blog.openstreetmap.pl/2010/szczecin-najbardziejkompletnym-miastem. 18. Zaborowski, A. (2011), “Hiszpański kataster uwolniony”, In: OpenStreetMap i okolice, Wolne dane w praktyce, http://blog.openstreetmap.pl/2011/hiszpanski-kataster-uwolniony. 19. Zandbergen, P.A. (2007), “Influence of geocoding quality on environmental exposure assessment of children living near high traffic roads”, BMC Public Health 2007, 7:37.

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20. Zandbergen, P.A. (2008), “A comparison of address point, parcel and street geocoding techniques”, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 32 (2008) 214–232. 21. Zandbergen, P.A. (2011), “Influence of street reference data on geocoding quality”, Geocarto International Vol. 26, No. 1, February 2011, 35–47. 22. Zimmerman, D.L. and Li, J. (2010), “The effects of local street network characteristics on the positional accuracy of automated geocoding for geographic health studies”, International Journal of Health Geographics 2010, 9:10.

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UTILIZATION OF TIE DISTANCES FOR THE MODERNIZATION CADASTRE Paweł Hanus, dr. engr. Faculty of Mining Surveying and Environmental Engineering /Department of Geomatics AGH University of Science and Technology Krakow, Poland: e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Modernization of cadastre is currently conducted using various methods. In the cartometric method calibrated raster maps are used. At the initial stage, the input data from survey reports is supplemented by vectorization data. In this process the linear data from measurement sketches, for which no connection with surveying network exists, is often not used. Nevertheless, such measurements often define explicitly the shape of the land plot and determine the linear relationships between adjacent points. In this article a procedure for including raster record maps in the vectorization process, used for modernization of cadastre and tie distances is presented. In the attached example a method based on overlaying the conditions, considering the field-measured distances included in the archive material of land-surveying and cartography store, is presented. The conditions overlaid on approximate coordinates of boundary points of land plots (obtained in the process of digitalization), resulted in increased reliability and accuracy of data in the land and building registry. In many cases, the method presented leads to optimization of cadastral boundary without the need to perform the additional field measurements. Keywords: Modernization of cadastre, coordinate adjustment, tie distances, accuracy of boundary point location 1.

Introduction

Due to maintaining the cadastre in Poland over many years the source data used for conducting and updating is of diverse nature. Assessments of accuracy of such data and efforts to improve it have been undertaken repeatedly. The classification of methods and assessment of their accuracy was provided in (Dąbrowski, Doskocz, 2005). Vectorization of raster maps is one of the least accurate of the methods analysed. However, it is the most cost-effective, and therefore the most often used method in the process of land and building registry modernization. In (Maślanka, Latoś 1998), the classification of vector maps was proposed, according to data sources for boundary point coordinates. A digital map, whereby data was obtained by analogue map digitalization, as a result of its gradual supplementing by the data coming direct measurement of boundary points in the field, would be gradually converted into a numeric map, whereby the data is obtained entirely by direct measurement, preceded by setting boundaries in the field in the presence of the parties involved. Such a process is, however, long-lasting. Another method is based on establishing the boundaries and measuring them during modernization of the cadastre. Unfortunately, due to high costs, only few coordinates of boundary points can be obtained in this way, The application of digitalization of maps following their prior transformation to the operative coordinate system entails numerous problems. This refers mainly to the area of land plots, for which, if the boundary point coordinates do not meet the accuracy requirements relevant for group I details, the area found in the database differs from the area obtained from the boundary points coordinates disclosed in the database (Regulation, 2011). It is the consequence of the low level of accuracy of the land plot area, calculated on the basis of coordinates obtained through digitalization. This results from significant standard deviation of points obtained using this method (e.g. for analogue maps at 1:2000 scale it is usually assumed at the level of 0,6m). This problem is discussed in more detail by (Hanus, 2012) and (Doskocz, 2011). Nevertheless, as a result of modernization, in many cases the area arising from the land

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registry map and the area registered in the land and building registry could be compatible in spite of the approximated values of boundary point coordinates. Such case can occur when materials for a given land plot are available in the form of field sketches containing linear measures. Such sketches include linear measures, wall dimension measurements of land plot boundaries measured in the field, often in the presence of the parties. Such data is accurate and reliable. However, the reference of such measurement to the geodesic structure is missing. On the basis of data arising from such sketches it is usually impossible to calculate boundary point coordinates, therefore, such data is often omitted in the process of cadastre modernization. Utilization of such sketches would enhance the reliability of the registry data in the modernised cadastre, consequently reducing the number of inconsistencies within this system. It is worth mentioning that reliability and accuracy are among the most important features of modern cadastral systems, their importance being regularly emphasised, among others in (Bogarets et al. , 2002) (Williamson et al., 2010). The conditional method used in this article for optimization of the process of cadastre modernization was described in the works of (Czaja, 1997), (Wiśniewski, 2005). 2.

Possibility to utilize tie distances in the process of cadastre modernization The empirical analysis

Source materials consisting of field sketches, including tie distances for which, for various reasons, it is not possible to calculate boundary point coordinates, can be divided into: sketches with tiedistances explicitly defining the shape and area of a land plot, and sketches which are not sufficient to define explicitly the shape of a land plot and, accordingly, its area. In the first case the linear field measurements between boundary points allow for defining the shape of a land plot in an unambiguous manner. It usually results from the fact that additional measurements are conducted, for example, the diagonal of a land plot. Although such sketches do not allow for defining the point coordinates in the operative coordinate system, those coordinates can be obtained by digitalization of analogue maps. Such coordinates can be also treated as approximated coordinates of accuracy defined through the BBP attribute (point location error). Although theoretically, in the described case the accurate calculation of area of such land plot is possible, due to the binding regulations (Order, 1969) the area of such land plots in rural locations shall be rounded to a full are (100 square metres). In the second case, the lack of additional control measurements impedes the explicit defining of the shape and, accordingly, also the area of the land plot. It usually refers to cases of land plots where only distances between boundary points on the land plot bypass were measured Diagonal measurements are not available. The second case can also occur in a simplified form, where single tie distances are indicated in the field sketch , defining only dimensions of a fragment of the land plot bypass. Assuming boundary point coordinates, obtained as a result of raster map vectorization as approximated coordinates, and by defining the conditions for area (Hanus, 2012) as well as for linear measurements, it is possible to create the model for determining the boundary point coordinates in the process of modernization of land and building registry. 3.

Functional conditions for surveying values defining real property boundaries

As mentioned before, in the process of modernization of cadastre, it is often needed to consider functional relationships for land plot area and for the distances between boundary points (tie distances) measured directly in the field. Boundary point coordinates may be determined on the basis of direct field measurement results or, for instance, on the basis of vectoring a calibrated raster of the registry map. The accuracy of determining these coordinates for such measurement procedures varies significantly, therefore it is crucial to take into account the relevant weights of inaccuracies in the process of setting their correlations. Relationships applied to boundary point coordinates might constitute functional conditions for observation or pseudo-observation equations which must be met by the determined (model) values of those coordinates. Assuming that each value, representing boundary point coordinates, meets the random model, which means , (1) Where component.

means the model value of the

value because

, and

is a random

If the functional relationships occur among values of boundary point coordinates, 76

then those relationships shall be precisely fulfilled by the (2)

, model values which means

whereas denotes the value of function calculated for the model values of boundary point coordinates. In general, functional relationships of type (2), related to the distances between boundary points (tie distances), occur in non-linear form, therefore, using the first expressions of Taylor series, they should be converted into linear form, which means that: (3) The best approximation of the model values of boundary point coordinates is achieved from their values established by direct field measurements, or on the basis of vectoring of calibrated raster of the registry map. After the relationship is taken into account, it results that differentials for the model values constitute adjustments to the coordinates of boundary points. Therefore, the equation (3) can be expressed in the following linear form: (4) After transposing the known value of S function to the right side and assuming the designation (5) the functional relationship of type (4) will take the following form: (6) If the partial derivatives are determined as in the above mentioned dependence, each conditional equation for boundary pints coordinates takes the following symbolic form: (7) In the modernization of land and buildings registry the functional condition is most often used for point coordinates in closed figures, defining the area of land plot and the distances between boundary points measured in the field. If, at the stage of establishing the cadastre or subsequent subdividing of properties or restoration of their boundaries, distances between boundary points often stabilized are measured, the functional conditions for boundary point coordinates of the registered land plot take the following form: (8) If differentiation of (8) function against the specific boundary points is performed, the linear form of this condition will be obtained expressed by the following condition (9) where: - approximated values of the coordinates of p and k points of the section considered

- differentials (adjustments) to the approximated coordinates of p and k

points. - the difference between the observed length and its approximated value , calculated on the basis of the approximated values of the coordinates of P and K points, which constitutes the absolute term in this equation. The equation arrangement (9) can be composed for all bounds or for a specific group of registered plots and even for single properties. If the number of these equations is determined as n, and the number of the estimated parameters (adjustments to the approximated boundary point coordinates) is designated by u, the following two cases can occur:

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Case I, where nu - i.e., the number of equations, is higher than the number of unknown quantities, If the number of equations is lower than the number of unknown quantities (nu - the estimation of adjustments in approximated point coordinates can be conducted according to the parametric Gauss-Markov model. Solving the equation system of type (9), which leads to the estimation of differentials for boundary point coordinates and then to defining the model values of those coordinates, is the main goal of the problem raised in this article. 4.

Estimation of the model boundary point coordinates for Case I (nu)

If the number of type (9) equations is higher than the number of unknown quantities (n>u), then the estimation of corrections against the boundary point coordinates should be performed using the parametric Gauss-Mrkov model. For this purpose the equations (9) are presented in the form of equations for pseudo observation, which are represented by lengths of sections between the boundary points, which means that:

(18) Estimation of the vector of adjustments (differentials) against the boundary point coordinates will be performed using the method of least squares (LSM), which means, by taking into account the minimum of the function for the sum of squares of random deviations for pseudo observations, representing lengths of linear values between the boundary points, which means that (Czaja, 1997), (Wiśniewski, 2005): (19)

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whereas the diagonal matrix represents the inverse of variants of the considered pseudo observations. For the distances measured the variance should be at the level of 0.01 m 2. After processing the operations indicated in dependence (19), the following form of function for LSM is obtained: (20) The first derivatives equated to zero constitute the prerequisite for the existence of the minimum for function (20) , which in the matrix record leads to the standard equations of the following form: (21) If matrix is non-singular, then the solution of the system od equations (21) may be recorded in the following form: (22) where constitutes the pseudo inverse of B matrix, which for the considered case will always be a square vertical matrix. When , then the system of equations (21) may be solved using generalized inverse of matrix , which means (23) The methods for calculating the generalized inverse can be found in the literature (Czaja, 1997), (Wiśniewski, 2005). It should be noted, that the formulas (22) and (23) specify unbiased estimators of dZ vector, thus the covariance matrix of this vector expressed by the dependence (24) may define mean errors of parameters or their functions. The unbiased estimator of variance of random vector is determined on the basis of the square form (20),which, after taking into account the relation (23) takes the following form: (25) wherefrom

(26) whereas n defines the number of equations considered and u constitutes the number of estimated adjustments against the boundary point coordinates of a registry land plot. 6.

Numerical example of the estimation process of corrective adjustments against the boundary point coordinates

To illustrate the estimation process of corrective adjustments against the boundary point coordinates a fragment of bounds will be considered, which comprises 6 registered plots, where the coordinates of 4 boundary points are subject to adjustment, while the coordinates of 8 boundary points are represented by the outer outline of the considered bounds, which is illustrated in Figure1.

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Figure 1. The case analysed. The points for which corrective adjustments are calculated are bolded. Wall dimension measurements measured in the field are sketched. The boundary point coordinates determined for the registered land plots considered and their standard deviations (mean errors), resulting from the measurement technology, are shown in Table 1. The coordinates of points 4, 5, 11 and 12 were obtained through the vectorisation of the scanned and transformed analogue maps at 1:2000 scale. Therefore, the attribute BPP=3 was obtained, which represents the standard deviation of 0.6 m. The coordinates of the remaining points were measured in the field after prior establishing of their localization in the presence of the parties (BBP=1). Table 1 Coordinates of boundary points for the registry plots considered Point no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

X [m] 200.00 300.00 390.00 390.00 360.00 350.00 270.00 200.00 190.00 200.00 300.00 280.00

Y [m] 100.00 110.00 100.00 160.00 270.00 410.00 400.00 390.00 270.00 160.00 160.00 250.00

BPP 1 = 0.1 m 1 = 0.1 m 1 = 0.1 m 3 = 0.6 m 3 = 0.6m 1 = 0.1 m 1 = 0.1 m 1 = 0.1 m 1 = 0.1 m 1 = 0.1 m 3 = 0.6 m 3 = 0.6 m

σ[x] [m] 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.424 0.424 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.424 0.424

σ[y] [m] 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.424 0.424 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.424 0.424

Assuming that point numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 represent boundary points of the selected bounds, then the four points: 4, 5, 11 and 12 should be corrected.

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For the estimation of adjustments to the coordinates of points 4, 5, 11 and 12, the conditional equations will be developed for six registered plots holding numbers: 111, 112, 113, 114, 115 and 116. On the basis of the boundary point coordinates contained in Table 1 wall dimension measurements were calculated, resulting from the coordinates, and compared to the measurements obtained in the field. The results obtained are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Comparison of tie distances of the cadastre plots.

section

4-5 11-12 5-12 4-11 5-11

Wall dimension measurement calculated from approximated coordinates [m]

Wall dimension measurement measured in the field [m] di

114.018 92.195 82.462 90.000 125.300

114.200 92.000 82.200 90.100 125.100

Difference

0.182 -0.195 -0.262 0.100 -0.200

B matrix for the system of five conditional equations of type (18) containing 8 adjustments to the coordinates of four points contains the following elements:

P matrix is the inverse of the variance for the particular coordinates of the boundary points considered, which means that after taking into account the standard deviations listed in Table 1, it takes the following form:

Elements of t matrix constitute the difference of wall dimension measurements or particular blocks, compared in Table 2, which means:

Solution of the system of equations according to formula (16). with minimization of function (13), yields the following resulting matrices:

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The model coordinates of boundary points are defined as the sum of coordinates of these points, included in Table 1 and the corrective adjustments calculated, which is illustrated in Table 3. Table 3 Corrected coordinates of boundary points for the boundary points considered Point no

x [m]

y [m]

dx [m]

dy [m]

[m]

[m]

4

390.00

160.00

0.085

-0.116

390.085

159.884

5

360.00

270.00

-0.174

0.002

359.826

270.002

11

300.00

160.00

-0.015

0.143

299.985

160.144

12

280.00

250.00

0.104

-0.030

280.104

249.970

The tie distances between points, calculated on the basis of the coordinates adjusted according to the method described above, correspond to the values obtained during field measurements. In the land and building registry modernised in this way, the linear measurements and areas of such land plots will be consistent with what the field measurements performed years ago and presented in the field sketch. As mentioned before, due to the fact the corrective adjustments of coordinates will be made in the field, the variant for the estimated model should not be determined on the basis of the value of function. Assuming m2 and using the dependence 17 and 17a, the variance values obtained for all of the measured linear measurements will amount to 0.09 m, Which corresponds to the accuracy of length measurements, conducted with the use of linear gauges. 7.

Conclusions

Tie distances always make one of the control field measurements. Nonetheless, situations occur when those measures provide the only measurement data, and the lack of correlation between the measurements and the structure makes calculation of the boundary points of a land plot impossible. Therefore, as mentioned in the introduction, those measurements are often ignored by land surveyors in the process of cadastre modernization. In case the boundaries of such plot were established at a later stage, such sketches, not used for the modernization, would have to be taken into account by a land surveyor. The procedure presented allows to consider such sketches and to adjust boundary point coordinates, determining the registered plot, on their basis as early as at the stage of modernization of cadastre. Errors in the location of boundary points resulting from this process will not decrease, but the boundary points will be related to each other through linear measurements. A possible modification of the location of one of them would have to entail the modification of the location of other points associated by linear relationships, the value of which has been defined as a result of the measurement. In case the tie distances define the shape of a land plot explicitly, it can be noted that the error in calculating the area of such plot will significantly improve, despite the relatively inaccurate calculation of the boundary point coordinates which create them. In such situation, it seems unjustified to apply a criterion derived from Gauss formula for determining error of such area, presented in the Regulation of 2011 for the error in area calculation will be significantly lower. It is an example of the high internal reliability of a plot (reliability of the geometry of the plot itself) and the relatively low external reliability (defining the location of the plot in the space). It would be appropriate to add the BPD attribute to the modernized cadastre (next to the BPP attribute - the

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error of boundary point location and ZRD - source of point-related data) - the error of plot area, which will not always depend only on the plot configuration and the value of BPP attribute for the points which determine it. References 1.

Bogarets, T.& Williamson I. P.& Fendel E. M.(2002). The role of land administration in the accession of Central European countries to the European Union. Journal of Land Use Policy 19:29-46

2.

Czaja J. (1997). Modele statystyczne w informacji o terenie (Statistical Models in Land Information). Krakow: Wydawnictwo AGH

3.

Dąbrowski W., Doskocz A. (2005) Ocena dokładności położenia szczegółów sytuacyjnych

4.

pozyskanych z map numerycznych (Accuracy estimation of land details obtained from digital maps). Technical Science, Supplement No 2, s. 309-320.

5.

Doskocz A. (2011) Dokładność obliczania pola powierzchni ze współrzędnych płaskich prostokątnych (Accuracy of area calculation by means of rectangular horizontal coordinates) Acta Sci. Pol., Geodesia et Descriptio Terrarum 10(3) 2011, 29-44

6.

Hanus P. (2013). Correction of location of boundaries in cadastre modernization process. Geodesy and Cartography Vol 62 No 2,

7.

Hycner R. (2004). Podstawy katastru (Fundamentals of Cadastre). Krakow: Wydawnictwo AGH

8.

Latoś S., Maślanka J. (1998). Analiza dokładności map numerycznych i cyfrowych (Analysis of Accuracy of Numeric and Digital Maps) . Zeszyt Naukowy Geodezja, tom IV, zeszyt 2, Wydawnictwo AGH, Kraków, s. 163-177.

9.

Mikhail E. M., Ackermann F. (1976). Observations and Least Squares, New York: IEP - A Dun Donnelley Publisher

10. Regulation of the Minister of Regional Development and Construction of 29 March 2011 concerning the Land and Building Register (Journal of Laws of 2001, No. 38, item. 454). 11. Regulation of the Minister of Interior and Administration of 9 November 2011, concerning the Technical Standards of Performing Detailed Surveys and Working Out and Sending Results of these Surveys to Country Surveying and Mapping Store (Journal of Laws of 2011 no 263 item.1572). 12. Williamson I., Enemark S., Wallace J., Rajabifard A. (2010). Land Administration for Sustainable Development. (Zarządzanie gruntami dla zrównoważonego rozwoju). USA California: ESRi Press Academic Redlands 13. Wiśniewski Z. (2005). Rachunek wyrównawczy w geodezji (z przykładami) (Calculation adjustment in geodesy – with examples). Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu WarmińskoMazurskiego, Olsztyn 2005

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2.

CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE

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MEASUREMENT AND LOAD TESTING ANALYSIS OF THE ROOF OF THE OPERA LESNA IN SOPOT Waldemar Kamiński1 Krzysztof Bojarowski1 Krzysztof Mroczkowski1 Artur Janowski1 Krzysztof Wilde2 1. Institute of Geodesy Faculty of Geodesy and Land Management University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn ul. Oczapowskiego 1 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] 2. Department of Structural Mechanics and Bridge Structures Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Gdańsk University of Technology ul. Narutowicza 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Determination of structure displacements and deformations is one of the most important tasks in engineering geodesy because the results of these actions are critical for human safety and structure durability. The development of new measurement methods and technologies has enabled substantial improvement of field work in this area and obtained results allowing comprehensive evaluation of possible risks. The methods of spatial determinations which enable joint determinations of displacements in the three basic directions should be particularly noted. It is also worth noting new possibilities of analysis and presentation of determination results, whose development is connected with applications of spatial information processing systems in engineering geodesy. CAD group systems are particularly indicated, as systems especially adapted to 3D visualization of engineering measurement results. This paper presents the course for load test measurements of the roof covering of the Opera Lesna in Sopot and a result analysis method based on the analysis of 3D models of the studied structure. Keywords: the Opera Lesna in Sopot roof, terrestrial laser scanner, test loading, displacements 1. Introduction The determination of displacements and deformations of engineering structures is one of the most important tasks in modern engineering geodesy. The results obtained from such measurements are critical for structure durability and, consequently, the public safety. The application of modern 3D measurement methods and technologies for this purpose has improved and increased field work accuracy. The use of modern spatial information processing systems to analyze observation results and their fast visualization allow real-time comprehensive evaluation of possible risks. It is worth noting in this context a modern technology for performing measurements – laser scanning. Laser scanning can be carried out with a stationary instrument (a so-called terrestrial laser scanner, TLS) or an instrument placed on a moving platform. Airborne laser scanning – ALS (the scanner placed on a plane or helicopter) and mobile laser scanning – MLS (the scanner is placed on a car or on a

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moving platform) are distinguished in this second situation. Terrestrial laser scanning technology was used for the purposes of this paper. Terrestrial laser scanning, as the method for fast 3D acquisition of a large number of points (called point clouds) currently has very broad application. The many applications of this interesting technology also include the use of TLS in the acquisition of data necessary to determine the displacements of engineering structures. The high accuracy obtained using TLS measurements also require the application of modern programs enabling the analysis of their results represented by point clouds. CAD group systems, adapted to 3D analyses of engineering measurements, are particularly interesting. This paper presents the problems of determining roof displacements of the Opera Lesna in Sopot based on observations obtained from a Leica ScanStation terrestrial laser scanner. The measurements were taken during test loading carried out to check the strength of the roof structure. A result analysis method based on the analysis of 3D models of the studied structure was also proposed. The obtained results encourage further, more detailed, analyses, both theoretical and empirical. 2. Description of the research object The research object was the roof of the Opera Lesna in Sopot. The roof is composed of left and right sides stretched on two steel arches (Photo 1,2). The bases of the structure are pipes made in Germany and the appropriate archings were made in England.

Photo 2. View from inside Photo 1. Roof of the Opera Lesna in Sopot (photos from the collection of the authors of the paper) The roof structure was designed from industrial fabric less than 1 mm thick stretched on the two above-mentioned steel arches. The roofing is composed of two symmetrical leaf-shaped surfaces supported by steel arches and pillars. Because of the terrain conditions, the arch spans differ and are 102.96 m and 93.20 m, respectively. The load-bearing arches were designed as pipes with a diameter of 1300 mm and wall thickness of 70 mm, inclined to the horizontal at an angle of 510 and connected with a truss. The arches approach each other at the highest point at a distance of 6.0 m. The longitudinal axis of the roof structure is at the same time the axis of the auditorium and the stage. Each membrane segment is stretched on load-bearing ropes and a support arch. Additionally, the edges are ended with edge ropes attached to the pillars. The load-bearing ropes are stretched between the arches and the steel pillars. The whole roof is symmetrical (Makowska, 2012; Wilde et al., 2012). The maximum roof span is 104 m. The approximate surface area of each part of the roofing is 1800 m2. The maximum height calculated from the reference level is 27.935 m (Makowska, 2012). 3. Leica ScanStation scanner The measurement of the Opera Lesna roof to determine its displacements was performed with a Leica ScanStation laser scanner currently used at the Institute of Geodesy (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Leica ScanStation Source: http://www.leica-geosystems.us/en/News-Archive-2006_80959.htm?id=1247 Technical parameters selected from the scanner’s operating manual are: full horizontal field of view – 360°, full vertical field of view – 270°, biaxial compensator with a range of ± 5’ and an accuracy of 1’’, angle determination accuracy – 0.003°, distance measurement accuracy – 4 mm, maximum scan range – 300 m, laser spot diameter – 4 mm at 50 m. 4. Performance of measurements during load tests Efficient field work organization, high accuracy of results and the manner of their analysis are of significant importance in control measurements of engineering structures because of the special requirements as to the reliability of this type of structures. The possibility of determining the displacements of the examined structure arising over the period considered is conditioned by performing observations of selected points on the structure at the beginning and at the end of this period. Assuming the results of one of the measurements as initial and the results of the next as current, the values of displacements arising during this period can be computed. The periodically determined values of displacements should be characterized by the following basic features: 1. Correctness, i.e. consistency of the determined values with the actual changes in the position of the observed points, within the effect of random measurement errors. 2. Minimum measurement accuracy, justified by the needs, set by specialists evaluating the obtained values of displacements for individual types of structures. 3. Up-to-dateness, characterized by the period between the start of each periodic measurement and the passing of these values to specialists shortened to a justified minimum. The need to ensure these features requires the use of an appropriate measurement and computation methodology. In the case of conducting experiments, as in this situation with load testing, the organization of measurements is limited only by the possibility of creating appropriate dynamic structure systems. In the discussed case, all measurements could be conducted in one measurement process (single ScanStation) from one instrument stand, so there was no need to establish a control network. The Leica ScanStation scanner measurement stand and the authors of this paper are presented in photos 3, 4.

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Photo 3. Preparation for the measurement

Photo 4. Performance of the scanner measurement

(photos from the collection of the authors of the paper) Fig. 2 visually presents the location of the scanner stand relative to the structure and the point cloud resulting from the measurement of the original state (without loads).

Fig. 2. Point cloud. Measurement result for the state without loads with the instrument stand location The performed geodetic measurements concerned the current state of the Opera Lesna roof. For this purpose, each panel was loaded with 75 kg and 150 kg loads independently at three points at ¼, ½ and ¾ of its length. The measurement covered the three main panels, so it comprised 36 scans as a whole. The distribution of the points at which the loads were applied is presented by Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3. Panel loading points In Figure 3, the notation 5.1 means respectively: 5 – panel, 1 – measurement point. 5. Analysis of results - determination of displacements New possibilities of the presentation and interpretation of the results of obtained displacements have emerged in connection with the development of spatial information systems. The following stages of desk research were proposed for the purposes of this paper: Stage 1 – Preliminary work The preliminary stage of work on the point cloud obtained from the measurements in the Forest Opera was data preparation for the creation of 3D models. For this purpose, the direct measurement results saved as a text file were exported to the Autodesk Civil 3D system. A subset from the point cloud used for detailed research was then selected. This part of work was provisionally called “scan cleanup”. The points representing the roof covering were divided into the panels, which formed a structure called a point group in the graphical database. The panels were then saved in the appropriate layers of the Autodesk Civil 3D system. Stage 2 – Main work Performing the next stage of desk research, a 3D model of the whole roof covering was created, by reproduction of its geometrical configuration in the form consistent with the state without loads (original measurement). The extent of individual panels was specified in this model, which was then the precondition for the separation of envelopes in the successive loading phases and conducting comparative analyses of the models. Six models were then created for each panel with loads of 75 kg (3 models) and 150 kg (3 models). Table 1 compiles the results of roof covering displacements along the Z component at the loaded points.

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Table 1 Summary of roof covering displacements at the loaded points Displacements (in mm) Designation of panels and points At 75 kg load At 150 kg load 1.1 62 114 Panel 1 1.2 55 102 1.3 44 094 2.1 67 116 Panel 2 2.2 57 114 2.3 48 97 3.1 48 105 Panel 3 3.2 48 97 3.3 49 85 4.1 56 113 Panel 4 4.2 57 106 4.3 38 82 5.1 60 109 Panel 5 5.2 57 105 5.3 57 101 6.1 56 93 Panel 6 6.2 50 101 6.3 48 93

Stage 3 - Visualization of displacements Standard functions of the Autodesk Civil 3D v. 2013 software were used for the graphical presentation of the obtained results allowing clear documentation of controlled point displacements. It was assumed after preliminary analyses that separate distinguishment of the three examined states of the structure was advisable because their joint presentation would cause considerable limitation in the clarity and interpretation of figures. The structure of the graphical database was also designed so as to enable any compilation and presentation of test measurement results and conducting specialist spatial analyses. The conducted research mainly aimed at the determination of roof covering deflection under the influence of loads. The determination of the Z component of displacements was therefore of primary importance. Using the differential surface creation functions of the Civil 3D system, 36 models were generated in which the base surface was a TIN model representing the roof covering without loads and the reference surfaces were the models at set loads. Hypsometric deformation models can be obtained using surface analyses and the appropriate visualization method. Figs. 4a– 4f present the created differential surfaces. The models were obtained as the difference between the surface of the state without loads and the corresponding models of the structure after loading with 75 kg (Fig. 4a–4c) and 150 kg (Fig. 4d–4f).

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Fig. 4. Visualization of changes under the influence of test loads In Fig. 4, characteristic circles (contour lines) can be observed on all panels. The contour lines occur near the points subjected to loads and characterize the values of the obtained vertical displacements as well as the area of their disappearance. Information about the spatial range of the displacement is therefore obtained. A condition for the correct functioning of the roof structure is, among others, a regulated flow of water and snow accumulating during precipitation or melting and icing. Fig. 5 presents in brown the contour lines of each analyzed panel in the initial phase (without loads). Water flow directions obtained based on the obtained course of the contour lines are marked in blue.

Fig. 5. Visualization of the water flow function Commenting on the obtained results, we can conclude that except for panel 4 (right bottom panel) the flow of water is regular in all the other roof parts. Panel 4 attracts attention because it can be seen that water can accumulate on this panel in its lower and upper parts. It is valuable information, especially during the winter weather fluctuations, when the temperature is above zero by day and below zero by night with abundant snowfall or sleet. This situation may lead to higher

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loading of these parts of the roof structure. Particular attention should then be paid to this part of the structure during the conducted monitoring. 6. Conclusions Selected parts of the comprehensive research presented in this paper have demonstrated the high efficiency of the applied measurement technology using TLS and determination of displacements with the Autodesk Civil 3D system. Although this paper contains only analyses of the Z component of displacements, the possibility of determining displacements in 3D space without the need to determine points inaccessible for this type of measurement should be considered a basic advantage. The advantages of the applied measurement technology can be fully used if efficient spatial information processing methods are used for the analysis of results. This refers above all to the possibility of generating structure models, performing analyses and interpreting the results in 3D space. It can be concluded based on the performed detailed theoretical and empirical analyses, of which only a small part is presented in this paper, and after verification by specialist–designers, that the roof structure of the Opera Lesna in Sopot has been correctly executed. References 1. Makowska, K. (2012), “Monitoring system for the roof structure of the Opera Lesna in Sopot. Design, implementation and analysis of the accuracy of geodetic measurements”. Engineering diploma thesis, Gdańsk. 2. Wilde, K., Gostański, P., Wilde, M., Rutkowski, T., Groth, M., Makowska, K., et al. (2012), “Technical monitoring system for the structure of the Opera Lesna in Sopot”. Gdańsk. Web pages Source: http://www.leica-geosystems.us/en/News-Archive-2006_80959.htm?id=1247 (accessed 21 March 2013).

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THE PROJECT "A NEW GIS PROCEDURE FOR THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LANDSCAPE IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY (TERRITORY OF TODAY PRIMORJE-GORSKI KOTAR COUNTY)" Vlasta Begović, Ph.D. Institute of Archaeology, Gajeva 32, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

Ivančica Schrunk, Ph.D.

University of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minnesota 55105, USA

Davorin Kereković, Prof. GIS Forum, Ilica 191 e, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

Abstract In the course of the ongoing research project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” the application of a new GIS procedure made it possible to make reconstructions of some Roman sites and past landscapes (landscape in classical antiquity) on the territory of present-day Primorje- Gorski Kotar, County of Primorje- Gorski Kotar. The County encompasses the territory of the northern Adriatic with the part of Istrian peninsula, coastal territory of Rijeka bay with its hinterland, the islands – Cres, Lošinj, Krk and Rab and the part of Gorski Kotar to the upper course of Kupa and Dobra rivers. The difference between sea level and mountain territory with highest points of Učka at 1401 m, Risnjak at 1528 m and Velika Kapela at 1534 m makes this area especially dinamic in landscape line. Important comunications and anciant roads lead from the ports and crossing the mountains, further to the great river valleys (Kupa, Sava, Drava, Dunav) connecting the Mediterranean area with the Middle Europe. The GIS approach to the study of changes in historical landscapes indicated that the greatest transformation of the landscape occurred in the Roman period, and are still visible today. Territorial creativity was high in the Roman time, when a completely new landscape identity appeared after the 2nd/1st century BC in Dalmatia and Histria. The new markers in the landscape consisted of: 1) Military camps; 2) Cities – colonies and settlements; 3) Roman villas; 4) A network of roads and aqueducts; 5) Roman ports. The most noticeable changes came in the Roman period with new exploitation of the land and the intensive planting of new cash crops - grape (vineyards) and olive trees. Roman cities were formed mostly at the pre-Roman settlements and ports and in the vicinity of hillforts. Roman villas as the centres of the agriculturally productive landscape were settled between the towns and forts along the main roads. The project "A New GIS Procedure for the Reconstruction of the Landscape in Classical Antiquity (territory of today Croatia)" is at the beginning. We started with the study of Roman architectural features as the markers in the landscape. We are presenting here the preliminary results of the first phase of our study. Key words: GIS, archaeological topography, historical landscape in classical antiquity, archaeological landscape, 4th century BC to 6th century AD Introduction Primorje Gorski Kota County The County is situated in the northern part of the eastern Adriatic and covers the coastal area, hilly terrain, valleys and mountain area with the part of Istrian peninsula and the islands Cres, Lošinj, Krk, Rab, Ilovik, Unije, Srakane, Sušak, Lopar, Vele and Male Orjule, Kozjak, Sv. Petar, Grgur, Prvić, Goli, Plavnik and Zeča. The territory consist of a relatively narrow elongated coastal area with valley of Vinodol in the south and mountain area with Učka in the west (highest point is Vojak, Učka at 1401 m above the sea level), mountain Risnjak in the north of the county (the highest point is

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Veli Risnjak, 1528 m) and mountain Velika and Mala Kapela (Roman Albius) on the east side (the highest point is Bjelolasica, 1534 m). The most important rivers are mountain streams, such as Rječina, which forms easy passing from its delta through the mountain pass to hinterland Gorski Kotar and river Kupa on the north border of the county. The other importan rivers are Dobra, Dubračina, Ričina, Ličanka and Lepenica . The importan valleys are formed along the rivers – Vinodol valley famous of its vineyards and the territory bordered by the rivers Dobra and Kupa in the north part. There are many lakes in the County, same of them - Lokvarsko lake, Bajer lake and Vransko lake on the island of Cres. The coast line leads from the eastern part of Istrian peninsula from the village Brseč (Učka mountain) to the village Sibinj Krmpotski in the south.

Figure 1 Map of North Adriatic with the islands Cres, Krk, Rab and Lošinj on the territory of today Primorje-Gorski Kotar County The biggest island is Krk with the highest point Obzovo 568 m above the sea level. The highest point on the island of Cres is 648 m; on the island of Rab - Kamenjak 410 m; on the island of Lošinj Televrina 589 m. The other above mentioned islands are smaller and without mountain peaks. There are seven bays and important ports – Rijeka bay, Bakar bay, Omišalj bay, Cres bay, Punat bay, Soline bay (Klimno), ans Baška bay (M. Blečić 2004, 166/7). They are situated on the deep Kvarner bay, known in anciant time as Sinus Flanaticus, famous of its strong north wind bura, dengerous for the maritime transport. In the Roman time a part of Gorski Kotar - the Mountain District - to the upper course of the Colapis River (Kupa) just on the border where the first slopes of the Alps begin, was included in the Roman province Pannonia, while the other part the coastal line with the islands and mountain Albius was in the Roman province of Dalmatia. History, the cultural monuments and the archaeological sites The Paleolihtic and Neolithic sites settled through the Bronze Age (same of them even later) are Oporovina above Medveja in Istria, Jami na Sredi on the island of Cres, and Vela Jama on the island of Lošinj. Hill fort settlements were the typical form of settlement during the Bronze and Iron Ages, many with proto-urban features. There are over a hundred of them on the territory of Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. They were provided with panoramic views to a large coastal and mainland area (Durman 2007, 30-33). Same of them have been archeologically explored: Mošćenice on the territory of Istria, Novi Vinodolski on mainland area at the end of Vinodol valley, Čunski on the

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island of Cres, Veli Kašlir in Punat and Glavica in Baška on the island of Krk, Kaštelin in Kampor and Trbušnjak in Lopar on island of Rab etc. In the Roman period many new Roman cities were founded, most of them on the pre-Roman settlements such as 1. Tarsatica (near hill fort Trsat, today Rijeka), 2. Volcera (Bakar), 3. Ad Turres (Crikvenica), 4. Apsorus (Osor), 5. Fulfinum (Omišalj), 6. Crexi (Cres), 7. Caput insulae (Beli), 8. Curicum (Krk) and 9. Arba (Rab). (Bolonić – Žic 1977, 370; B. Nedved 1988,33; M. Blečić 2004, 163/4)

Fig 2 The city of Rab In the Early Empire Roman high positioned officers and senatorial families built luxury residences outside the perimeter of the cities. Such villae maritimae and agriculture complexes - villae rusticae – were the centres of a larger rural properties. Three maritime villas were archaeologicaly explored 1.one in Selce, (R. Matejčić 1981; M. Rizner 2006, 285/6), 2. the other in Jadranovo on the peninsula Havišće, Lokvišće bay (R. Starac; M. Rizner HAG 3/2006, 285/6) and 3. the third on the island of Rab at Kampor, Kaštelina (Jurković, Marić 2005, 264-266).

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Fig 3 Roman maritime villa at Jadranovo promontory Havišće, Lokvišće bay (R. Starac 2007). The first one is connected with the owner of figlina (ceramic workshop) in Ad Turres (Crikvenica) Sextus Metilius Maximus who produced amphorae, pottery and building materials (roof tiles). The products from the figlina in Ad Turres were found on many sites in Istria and Dalmatia (G. Lipovac Vrkljan 2004, 165-166; G. Lipovac Vrkljan 2011, 3-5). There are numerous well-known villae rusticae sites in the mainland and on the islands – 1. on the island of Unije; 2. on the island of Krk at 3. Baška, 4. Njivice-Poje, 5. Pinezići, 6. Punat, 7. Jurandvor und the medieval church of St. Lucia and 8. Vrana; 9. on the island of Lošinj at Veli Lošinj; 10. on the island of Rab at Supetar and 11. Lopar; on the island Cres at 12. Hamlac, 13. Miholašćica, 14. Martinšćica,. 15. Cres, 16. Lovreški, Polacine; 17. Cres, Ustrine; 18. Cres, Punta Križa; 19. Lošinj, Liska bay; 20. Čunski; 21. Lošinj, Srakane, island Male Srakane; 22. Rijeka, Kostrena, Krk; 23. Omišalj, Blatna bay – Mohorov (Bolonić – Žic 1977). They were centres of the productive estates and had storage facilities with wine cellers, olive oil presses and olive oil cellars, fish ponds and basins for collecting of salt (salt works) and quarries. Territorial creativity was high in the Roman time, when a completely new landscape identity appeared after the 2nd/1st century BC in Dalmatia and Histria. The new markers in the landscape consisted of: 1) Military camps; 2) Cities – colonies and settlements; 3) Roman villas; 4) A network of roads and aqueducts; 5) Roman ports. The most noticeable changes came in the Roman period with new exploitation of the land and the intensive planting of new cash crops - grape (vineyards) and olive trees. Roman towns and Roman villas were the most important markers in the landscape of the changes brought by the Roman domination. On the territory of today Primorje-Gorski Kotar County were important safe ports and naval base and new roads leading from the sea to the crossing in the mountain, and further to the regional roads in the river basein such as Kolpus (Kupa), Dobra, Savus (Sava) and Dravus (Drava) and further to Danubio (Dunav). Along the main road Via publica Aquileia-Tarsatica there arose a system of smaller settlements, fortifications and way stations (statio, mutatio). Traces of a fortification system, the limes, remained from the late antique period. It stretched from Tarsatica across Grobnik Field to Prezid in Gorski Kotar. Roman milestone was found in Bakarac near Kraljevica. There are same remains of maritime routes and important ports visible in the results of underwater archeology investigations such as - 1. Mali Lošinj, horn Boko, Osor, Roman shipwreck, 1 century BC; Lošinj, Mali Lošinj, Pločice, roman shipwreck; Povile, 3-4 century AD, roman shipwreck; Baška, Krk, horn Dubno, roman shipwreck, 2 century BC; Rab, Glavina horn, Roman shipwreck; Krk, small island Galun, Roman shipwreck; Krk, Baška draga, roman shipwreck; The

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island of Rab, horn Sorinj, Supetarska draga village, the shipwreck from 2. century BC; Cres, horn Pernat, 2 century BC, shipwreck. (I. Radić Rossi 2004, 168/9) In Late Antiquity the fortifications of the cities were rebuilt and new fortifications systems were built because of permanent wars on the border of the Roman Empire. The new defence systems such as the Liburnian limes were built in order to protected the entry into the Italian territiory. It stretched from Tarsatica across Grobnik field to Prezid in Gorski Kotar (G. Lipovac Vrkljan 2004, 169-170; S. Durman 2007, 32). On the coastal and island territory there are remains of the Byzantine fortifications from the 6th century: Byzantine castrum on the little island of Palacol, Lopar in Novi Vinodolski, Badanj near Crikvenica and Bosor on the island of Krk.

Fig 4 Byzantine fort Korintija at the island of Krk (Ž. Tomičić 1986) 1. On a small island Palacol there are the remains of byzantine fortification 40 x 40 m, vith visible walls 3.5 m high, from the 6th century AD 2. On Vrbnik, Glavina, Veli Grad, on the island of Krk there is a Byzantine fort , from the late antique period, Byzantine period (S. Ciglenečki 1987, 104-107) 3. Crikvenica, Badanj, late antique period, Roman fort, from the 4 century AD, enlarged in the 6 century AD (lasted till the 13 century AD), situated on the road along the river Dubračina (M. Rizner 2006, 285/6).

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Fig 5 Late Roman - early Bizantine fort Badanj near Crikvenica 4. On the island of Rab - Barbat, St. Damian hill, late antique, early Byzantine fort; Palit, late antique, early Byzantine fort and naval base; Horn Sorinj, St. Nicolo site, late antique early Byzantine fort and naval base; Lopar, late antique, early Byzantine military base; Kampor, Kaštelina, late antique - early Byzantine fort 5. Kastav, Istra, Roman fort Praetenture, 3-4 century AD 6. On the island of Krk - Baška, peninsula Sokol, Korintija, late antique - early Byzantine fort Bosar, 6 century AD; Omišalj, Krk, Fortica, late antique fort with cistern; Omišalj, Voz bay, late antique fort; Omišalj, island St. Marko, late antique fort. 7. Prezid, Gorski Kotar, Liburnian limes, Claustra Alpium Iuliarum, 3-4 century AD, fortifications 8. Novi Vinodolski, Lopar, late antique fort and near Novi Vinodolski, island St. Marin, late antique building matherial and pottary were found 9. Crikvenica, Kotor - Godač, late antique, early Byzantine pottary and metalwere found 10. Klana, Za Presikom, Studena, and Klana, Vranjeno, the remains of fortifications were found In Late Antiquity the territory was highly populated because of many refugees from Roman provinces of Pannonia and Noricum. From the 4th century many early Christian churches were erected in the area: 1. St. Martin near Martinšćica with a cruciform ground plan; the early Christian comlex at Mirine near Fulfinum (Omišalj) with a three nave basilica on the island of Krk; 2. Assumption of St. Mary, the cathedral of Curicum (Krk) was built on the Roman bath complex; 3. St Mark in Baška; 4. St. Mary the Great, the cathedral of Arba (Rab). 5.The church of St. John the Evangelist in Rab was likewise originally an early Christian basilica; 6. church of Sts. Cosmas and Damian above Barbat on the island of Rab; 7. St. Katherine and 8. St. Petar in Rudine on island of Krk; 9. St. George above Vrbnik and 10. St. Nicolas in Korintija on the island of Krk; and 11. church of St. John on Oruda. Same others: 12. Island of Krk, small island Košljun in the deep Punat bay, St. Mary church and monastery, late antique building matherial and roman portery were found. 100

Fig 6 The island Košljun in Punat bay with Roman remains and medieval monastery with church 13. Dubašica, island Rab, site Cickini, Sršići village, late antique complex with early christian architecture. 14. Sv. Nikola site, Mire, road Jurandvor-Baška, roman building, partly adopted for early christian church finished 5 century AD Three nave basilica with aps. In the room near aps, Roman mosaic was found with black and white geometric pattern and the inscription in the midlle of the mosaic, talking about Roman woman Saprila who erected the early christian shrime. 15. Supetarska draga, monastery St. Petar, Roman architecture and mozaik 16.. Krk, Omišalj, Mirine, necropolis 4-6 century AD, basilica with opus spicatum floor. In early medieval period, at the time of Slavic and Croatian immigrations into the territory of Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, this area was a borderline between the Byzantine Empire and the Frankish state. This was the time of great changes and the formation of the today European states. At that time many forts were rebuilt such as Trsat, Bakar; Hreljin in Vinodol valley, Drivenik, Bribir, Grižane and Badanj.

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Fig 7 The Gorski Kotar district, Lokve lake In Gorski Kotar and in the river vallies of Dobra and Kupa there were forts at Fužine, Delnice and Severin on Kupa. Famous medieval churches and monasteries were buit on Punat St. Donat; St. Grisogonus in Milohnići and near Glavotok on Cres; St. Peter in Supetarska Draga on Rab (belong to Benedictine abbey); the abbey of St. Petar in Osor; St. Michael on Susak; St. Petar on Ilovik, St. Lawrence in Krk; and St. Andrew on Rab. The Benedictine complex in Jurandvor in Baška on the island of Krk contained the famous Baška Tablet written in Glagolithic script around 1100. Conclusion The deep bay of Kvarner (Roman Sinus Flanaticus) named by the Liburnian and Roman city Flanona (Plomin) surounded by the high mountains such as Učka, Risnjak and Velika Kapela was the most dangerous part of the navigation routes in the Eastern Adriatic famous for its strong north wind bura. In Kvarner the archipelago of Easter Adriatic islands begin. Fortunately numerous bays and channels between the islands in Kvarner bay and between the islands and the, mainland offer safe shelters for ships. Pliny the Elder wrote that this part of the Adriatic coast was portunata – rich with ports. The safe ports played an important role in the navigation and specially those naturally protected harbours, such as Fulfinum bay (Omišalj), Volcera bay (Bakar), Punat bay, and Soline bay (St. Peter bay) and Krk bay. The others bays were supplied with stone-built piers and queys, possibly already in pre-Roman and Roman times to form anchorage for ships. They were the stopping points for the vessels in transit and they also offered the supplies of food and water and

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facilities for repairing vessels and ship equipment. The most important points were those where the longitudinal routes along the Adriatic coast were intersected with the transversal lend roads to the hinterland of Gorski Kotar and further on to the Central Europe such coastal crossroads were at Tarsatica (Rijeka), Volcera (Bakar) and Ad Turres (Crikvenica). The distribution of goods, travelers and military troups on these roads were essential. Roman cities such as Tarsatica (near hill fort Trsat, today Rijeka), Volcera (Bakar) and Ad Turres (Crikvenica) on the mainland and Apsorus (Osor), Crexi (Cres), Caput insulae (Beli), and Fulfinum (Omišalj), Curicum (Krk) and Arba (Rab) on the islands were the nucleis for the development of this region and important, marked orientation point. The goal of the project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” is to build a geocoded database of the archaeological sites on the territory of the present-day Republic of Croatia. The collaborative project "A New GIS Procedure for the Reconstruction of the Landscape in Classical Antiquity" has the objective to reconstruct ancient landscapes and study long-term changes in archaeological landscapes relative to the physical geography. The part of this is Reconstruction of Landscape in Classical Antiquity on the territory of today Primorje- Gorski Kotar County. In the initial phase we have focused on the Roman settlements (urban and rural, military and civilian) and on the Roman roads and aqueducts and studied their spatial interrelationship and their relationship to the physical geography. These were the most important markers in the landscape of the changes brought by the Roman domination. Most of the Roman towns are today important cities so these markers in the landscape are still there. Two Roman maritime villas those in Selce and Jadranovo, developed in medieval time into settlements, - today they arefamous tourist destinations. Roman villa rustica in Supetarska Draga on the island of Rab are transformed and developed in a medieval monastery and the villa rustica in Jurandvor near Baška (in the Vela Rika valley on the island of Krk) were transformed and developed into Benedictine monastery with St Lucia church. The Romans established in the provinces a communication network of waterways and land roads, both imperial highways and regional roads, whose traces are often found archaeologically. Local roads are the least visible in archaeological record, but could be reconstructed based on spatial relationship between rural villas and urban settlements. During the Roman Empire arterial roads were first built in river basins and consequently population centers grew in size. Navigable rivers have always been major communication arteries, connecting nucleated or dispersed settlements and entire regions. The maritime routes along the eastern Adriatic coast were the easiest way in connecting the Mediterranean region with the Central Europe. The archaeological topography of the Early Roman Empire is the best researched period, so far. The landscape of this period is studied on the base of several aspects: 1) The territory and agricultural area around cities and colonies (Roman ager); 2) The landscape around villas – agriculture and forestry area, riverside, coastal and island landscape, especially of maritime villas; 3) Agriculture and forestry landscape close to the Roman roads and aqueducts. The long-term change in natural landscape is most noticeable along the Eastern Adriatic coast, which has sunk about 2 meters in the last 2000 years. The consequences of this phenomenon are clearly visible on the now submerged Roman architectural features. Changes along the river banks and in the river courses are more difficult to document in archaeological record. In our study we noticed a significant difference between the Early Empire period and the late antique period in the economy and the exploitation of the land with consequences on the landscape. The today apearance of the coastal, islands and mainland territory is not far from that in the Roman time. It is more explored and with huge population, but still the main characteristics of the territory based on natural sources and physical geography are more or less the same. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

Arheološka topografija otoka Cresa I Lošinja, Izdanja HAD 7, Zagreb

2.

V. Begović, I. Schrunk 2008, Rising of the sea level on the eastern Adriatic coast since antiquity – evidence of Roman villas sites, Disaster Management and Emergency Response in the Mediterranean Region, First EARSeL Conference 2008, Zadar, 289-300

3.

V. Begović, D. Kereković, I. Schrunk 2009, The archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity, Roman Villas in Croatia (part of Roman Pannonia, Histria and Dalmatia), Time, GIS @ Future, Zagreb, 131-142

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4.

V. Begović, I. Schrunk 2010, Cultural Heritage Between the Mountains and the Sea in the Eastern Adriatic, Remote Sensing for Science, Education, and Natural and Cultural Heritage, EARSeL Conference 2010 Paris, 19-28

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R. Bennett et all, 2008, Eocene to present subduction of southern Adria mantle lithosphere beneath the Dinarides, Geology, vol. 36, Issue 1, 3-6

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M. Blečić 2004, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 1/2004, Zagreb, 163/4

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M. Blečić 2004, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 1/2004, Zagreb, 166/7

8.

Bojanovski 1974, Dolabelin sistem cesta u rimskoj provinciji Dalmaciji, Sarajevo

9.

N. Cambi 2000, Antika, Split

10. S. Ciglenečki 1987, Höhenbefestigungen aus der Zeit vom 3 bis 6 Jh. im Ostalpenraum, Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, Dela 31, Ljubljana, 104-107 11. Z. Brusić 1990, Otok Rab, rekognosciranje gradina, Arheološki pregled, Ljubljana 12. B. Cigrovski-Detelić, D. Tutić, D. Udovičić 2010 Nature Parks in the Republic of Croatia, GIS Forum, Space, Heritage @ Future, Zagreb, 82-92 13. Čaušević Bully 2005, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 2/2005, Zagreb, 268-270 14. J. Čus Rukonić 1982, Arheološka topografija otoka Cresa I Lošinja, Izdanja HAD, Zagreb 15. Durman 2007, One Hundred Croatian Archeological Sites, Zagreb 16. Faber 1986, Osvrt na neka utvrđenja otoka Krka od vremena prethistorije do antike I srednjeg vijeka, Prilozi IARH 3 I 4 1986-1987, Zagreb 17. Fučić 1960, Izvještaji o radovima u Jurandvoru kraj Baške na otoku Krku godine 1955 I 1957, Annali JAZU 64, Zagreb 168-200 18. Z. Gunjača 1986, Kasnoantička fortifikacijska arhitektura na istočnojadranskom priobalju I otocima, Materijali 22, Novi sad, 124-136 19. G. Hudec, V. Begović 1993 Mogućnosti primjene digitalne obrade aerosnimaka u pripremi arheoloških istraživanja – Possibilities of using aerial photos in preparations of archaeological excavations. Bilten savjeta za daljinska istraživanja i fotointerpretaciju, Croatian Academy of science and art, Zagreb 12 77-83 M. 20. Jurković, I. Marić 2005, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 2/2005, 264-66 21. Kirigin, E. Marin 1989, Arheološki vodić po srednjoj Dalmaciji, Split 22. Laszowsky 1923 Gorski Kotar I Vinodol, Zagreb 23. G. Lipovac Vrkljan 2004, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak, 2004/1, Zagreb, 165-166 24. G. Lipovac Vrkljan 2004, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak, 2004/1, Zagreb, 169-170 25. G. Lipovac Vrkljan 2011, Local pottery workshop of Sextus Metilius Maximus in Crikvenica – Crikvenica flat bottomed amphorae, Rimske keramičarske i staklarske radionice, Zbornik 1, Crikvenica, 3-18 26. R. Matejčić 1988, Prošlost I baština Vinodola, 27. R. Matejčić 1981, Zbornik Kastavštine II, Rijeka 28. R. Matejčić 1981, Vinodolski zbornik 2 29. R. Matejčić 1991 Spomenici kulture na području općine Crikvenica, Peristil, Split 30. R. Matijašić, 1998, Gospodarstvo antičke Istre, Pula 31. J. Medini 1987 Gradski zid i pitanje urbanog areala antičkog grada, Rapski zbornik, Zagreb 32. Mohorovičić 1957, Razvoj nastamba I naselja, Djela JAZU 49, Zagreb 33. Mohorovičić 1964, Bulletin JAZU, XII, 1-2, Zagreb 34. Nedved 1988, Felix Arba, Izdanja HAD 13/1988

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35. Pantlik 2005, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 2/2005, Zagreb, 266/68 36. K. Patsch 1990, Lika u rimsko doba (reprint of 1900 original) 37. Radić Rossi 2004, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 1/2004, Zagreb,168/9 38. M. Rizner 2006, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 3/2006, Zagreb, 285/6 39. R. Starac 2001, Od argonauta do Frankopana, Crikvenica 40. R. Starac 2005, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak, Zagreb, 2/2005, 255/6 41. R. Starac 2006, M. Rizner 2006, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 3/2006, Zagreb, 285/6 42. R. Starac 2006, Hrvatski Arheološki arheološki godišnjak 3/2006, Zagreb, 311/12, 297 43. R. Starac 2007, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak 4/2007, Zagreb, 346-348 44. M. Suić, 2003, Antički grad, Zagreb 45. Šiljeg 2007, Hrvatski arheološki godišnjak, 4/2007, Zagreb, 344-346 46. Šonje 1991, Putevi i komunikacije u prethistoriji i antici na području Poreštine, Poreč 47. Ž. Tomičić 1999, Panonski periplus - arheološka topografija kontinentalne Hrvatske, Zagreb 48. Ž. Tomičić 1986, Najnovija ranosrednjevjekovna istraživanja odjela za arheologiju, Prilozi 3 and 4 1986/87, Zagreb 49. Veliki atlas Hrvatske 2002, Mozaik knjiga, Zagreb 50. P. Vežić 1987 Prilog poznavanju tipoloških osobina starokršćanskih bazilika u Dalmaciji, Rapski zbornik, Zagreb 51. Vikić, M. Gorenc 1969, Prilog istraživanju antiknih naselja i putova u sjeverozapadnoj Hrvatskoj, Zagreb 52. M. Zaninović 2008 Rimska osvajanja Nagrada Ine za promicanje hrvatske kulture u svijetu za 2007, Zagreb, 55-57

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3.

SEA AND WATER MANAGEMENT

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USING OF GIS AND GPS TOOLS IN LAKES MACROPHYTES INVESTIGATIONS Hanna Ciecierska, Prof.

Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Botany and Nature Protection, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Piotr Dynowski, Dr. engr.

Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Botany and Nature Protection, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

Anna Źróbek-Sokolnik, Dr. engr.

Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Botany and Nature Protection, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

Joanna Ruszczyńska, Msc

Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Department of Botany and Nature Protection, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The use of simple GIS and GPS techniques as tools supporting field data collection in the process of macrophyte-based assessment and classification of the ecological status of lakes is described in the paper. Traditional water quality evaluation methods, including a transect-based method (recommended in the EU Water Framework Directive), mapping and a spatial method relying on sigmassociations, were applied in the study. The ecological status of Lake Wukśniki was determined with and without the use of the above tools. The method error was estimated and the benefits of new satellite positioning techniques were evaluated. A simple spatial information system, based on tables and thematic layers, was developed to record data collected during field surveys.

Keywords: Ecological State sigmassociations, mapping.

Macrophyte

Index,

EU

Water

Framework

Directive,

1. Introduction

In line with the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive of 2000, the ecological status of aquatic ecosystems should be assessed based on biological elements (phytoplankton, phytobenthos, zoobenthos, fish and macrophytes) which replaced the physicochemical properties of water in the evaluation scheme. In the current classification system, the ecological status of an aquatic ecosystem is assessed based on an individual evaluation of each biological indicator, followed by an integrated approach. All EU member states have to develop methods for the above assessment, involving different biological parameters, with respect to different types of water bodies (lakes, rivers, dams, and other) and abiotic factors within each water body type. In the process of developing and implementing methods for ecological status assessment, GIS has been increasingly used not only to acquire, process and store spatial information but also (as a supportive tool) to determine the values of the indicators proposed for water quality monitoring (Wiser, 2010). Attempts have also been made to use macrophytes for the latter purpose 109

(Caloz and Colllet, 1997). Rush vegetation communities can also be analyzed and described with the aid of aerial photography which provides an excellent basis for land mapping (Valta-Hukkonen et al., 2003; Leka, 2005). The objective of this study was to employ simple GIS and GPS techniques as tools supporting field data collection in the process of macrophyte-based assessment and classification of the ecological status of lakes. 2. Study area In 2011, data on the occurrence and distribution of macrophyte communities in Lake Wukśniki were collected by different methods. The lake is located in north-eastern Poland (54o58’ N, 20o15’ E), at an altitude of 111 m above sea level (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Localization of Lake Wukśniki. Source: own study. It was formed during the last glacial period (Würm glaciation), and it is one of the deepest lakes in Poland (Table 1). The lake’s immediate catchment is used for agricultural purposes, and its steep slopes are covered by forest vegetation. The lake is also used for recreation and diving instruction. The lake and its immediate surroundings are a designated Special Protection Area in the “NATURA 2000” network, listed under the name of “Lake Wukśniki”. Table 1. Morphometry of Lake Wukśniki Lake area (ha) Lake volume (m3) Maximum depth (m) Average depth (m) Maximum length (m) Maximum width (m) Shoreline length (m) Total catchment area (km2)

117.1 27 398.9 68 23.4 1850 900 5500 4.8

Source: Unpublished data (from years 1958-1963) received from Inland Fischeries Institute in Olsztyn, Poland

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3. Methods 3.1. Research methods applied before field surveys Prior to conducting field investigations in the study area, the number of transects to be surveyed was determined. The transects were plotted on a bathymetric map, including the full range of local conditions in the lake, catchment management and shoreline development (bays, islands, inlets, outlets, etc.). The number of transects was calculated using the formula proposed by Jensen (1977): lakes with a surface area of ≥ 0.2 km2 (20 ha)

MLT

Tmin 2

P Pmin Pmin

L P

(1) lakes with a surface area of