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Published in the series: School mapping and local-level planning

Reaching the unreached through participatory planning: School mapping in Lok Jumbish, India R. Govinda

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Published by: International Institute for Educational Planning/UNESCO 7 - 9 rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris ISBN: 92-803-1180-8 © UNESCO 1999

International Institute for Educational Planning

2


http://www.unesco.org/iiep

School mapping and local-level planning

Reaching the unreached through participatory planning School mapping in Lok Jumbish, India R. Govinda

International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris

National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi

3

The views and opinions expressed in this booklet are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of UNESCO or of the IIEP. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this review do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO or IIEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. The publication costs of this study have been covered through a grant-in-aid offered by UNESCO and by voluntary contributions made by several Member States of UNESCO, the list of which will be found at the end of the volume.

Published by: International Institute for Educational Planning 7 - 9 rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris Cover design: Pierre Finot Composition and printing: IIEP Publications ISBN : 92-803-1180-8 © UNESCO March 1999 4



CONTENTS page List of abbreviations Acknowledgements Foreword

7 9 13

Chapter I. Introduction

19

The context

20

Goals of Lok Jumbish

21

Institutional framework for Lok Jumbish

22

Main strategies of Lok Jumbish

24

School mapping as a core component

24

Specific objectives of the present study

25

Methodology

26

Sample

27

Chapter II. Exploring the contours of school mapping in Lok Jumbish: a conceptual analysis

33

School mapping and universalization of elementary education

34

Placing the Lok Jumbish approach to school mapping in a national perspective

35

Characteristics of school mapping under Lok Jumbish

37

Evolution of the school-mapping framework: a reconstruction

41

References

49

Chapter III. The process of school mapping

51

Component steps in the school-mapping process

52

Data generation from the field and preparation of school map

58 5



Contents

The Village Education Register, the Statistical Abstract and the Village Retention Register

67

School mapping data as a benchmark for follow-up action

71

Observations

78

Chapter IV. School mapping and community participation

91

Environment building

93

Village-level committees

97

Consultation and consensus-building processes

99

Observations

104

Chapter V. Access and participation in primary education: the changing scenario

113

Macro-perspective on changes in primary education in Lok Jumbish areas

115

Changes observable in the sample villages

121

Changes in participation in primary education

124

Change as perceived by the actors

129

Observations

135

Improved access to primary education

136

Chapter VI. Major findings and conclusions

147

The present study: objectives and methodology

148

Major findings and conclusions

152

Looking ahead

174

Epilogue

183

Appendix

185

6



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BGVS

Bharat Gyan Vigyan Jatha

BNS

Bhavan Nirman Samiti – school building construction committee

BSG

Block Steering Group – the co-ordinating body set up by LJ in each block

KSPS

Khanda Stariya Siksha Prabandhak Samiti – block-level education management committee

LJ

Lok Jumbish

LJP

Lok Jumbish Parishad

MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development MP

Micro-Planning

MS

Mahila Samooh – women’s group

NFE

Non-formal Education

NGO

Non-governmental Organization

NLM

National Literacy Mission

PD

Prerak Dal – core team of villagers

PEDO

People’s Education Development Organization

PR

Panchayati Raj

SK

Siksha Karmi

SM

School Mapping

SSK

Sehaj Siksha Kendra – Non-formal Education (NFE) Centre

VEC

Village Education Committee

VER

Village Education Register

WDP

Women’s Development Programme 7



8



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The idea of conducting a research study on School mapping in Lok Jumbish (LJ) emerged two years ago. By then LJ had already operationalized the programme in the field and made considerable progress in defining the framework of school mapping. The reports of LJ indicated that the concept and purpose of school mapping in LJ differed in several ways from the earlier attempts. Exploring the new framework presented, and analyzing the dynamics of the participatory planning process embedded in the new approach to school mapping adopted by LJ, appeared to be an academically challenging task for professionals at the IIEP and NIEPA, who have been closely involved in the training of professionals in school mapping. Thus began the present study on school mapping in Lok Jumbish as a joint project of the IIEP and NIEPA. At that juncture, LJ itself was struggling to come to terms with the details of implementing the various tasks involved in school mapping and improving them and it showed tremendous openness when subjected to an empirical investigation by external researchers. Throughout the study, there was no hesitation on the part of the LJ authorities to share relevant information with the researchers. It may be mentioned, at the outset, that the study was not designed to be an evaluative one. The purpose was to understand the processes involved and characterize the school-mapping framework adopted in LJ. The report consists of six chapters. The first chapter introduces the study and specifies the methodological details. The next chapter is a conceptual analysis of the framework of school mapping in LJ. The following three chapters contain empirical data and their interpretation on the three major dimensions of school mapping: school-mapping processes, community participation and the changing scenario of primary education. The last chapter presents a summary of the entire study, highlighting some of the major findings and conclusions. 9



Reaching the unreached through participatory planning – School mapping in Lok Jumbish

I should record my sincere thanks to Mr Anil Bordia, Chairman, Lok Jumbish Parishad, for his continuous support in conducting the research study. Discussions with him were always enlightening and gave a valuable insight into the way school mapping was conceived and how it evolved under LJ. In fact, LJ staff at all levels readily co-operated in the collection of empirical information from the field. In this connection, I must especially thank Dr Ajay Rai, who was always at my side in organizing the fieldwork and ensuring that data collection and analysis went smoothly. All the operational costs of the study were borne by LJ, while the IIEP and NIEPA offered the faculty time for conducting the study. I am thankful for this support from LJ, without which the study would never have materialized. My colleague, Ms Françoise Caillods, at the IIEP, has been an integral part of the research team right from its inception. Distance barred her from being actively involved in the field study. She, nevertheless, remained in touch with developments and gave valuable suggestions at various stages of its implementation. I am indebted to her for sparing so much time in the midst of her heavy international schedule. I am also thankful to her for providing critical inputs in the formulation of the research design and for commenting on various versions of the report. Collecting quantitative and qualitative information from every village demanded that the researchers spend a long period of time in each village, which in the context of Rajasthan was not an easy task. I should like to express my thanks to my colleagues in the research team, who underwent the difficult task not only ungrudgingly but also with great commitment. In particular, I should mention Ms Fawzia Nadeem, who contributed extensively in data collection and analysis, as in writing the report. Perhaps, what held the interest of the research team in the remote rural villages was the infectious enthusiasm and readiness of 10



Acknowledgements

the villagers in sharing the information that they had. The research team is grateful to them for the kind hospitality and support provided during the data collection period. R. Govinda New Delhi

11



Research team R.Govinda, NIEPA, New Delhi Françoise Caillods, IIEP, Paris Research associate Syedah Fawzia Nadeem Research assistants Girija Nandan Sharma Tarun Karadi Noor Mohammed Vijay Goel

12



FOREWORD School mapping is a set of techniques and procedures used to plan the demand for school places at the local level and to decide on the location of future schools and the means to be allocated at the institutional level. This technique, which is also called school-location planning, finds its roots in France, where a special methodology was developed in 1963 to implement the country’s major educational reform, extending compulsory education until the age of 16. The various circulars, regulations, standards and procedures developed for guiding the decision-making process on where to locate new schools were known as the ‘school map’. Since then it has been extensively used in several countries to plan the location of primary and secondary schools. As a technique it requires four steps: first, diagnosing the coverage of the present educational service and the condition of the school network; second, projecting the number of pupils to be enrolled in each village and hamlet; third, defining the norms and rules governing the creation of new schools or the opening of a new section or class; such norms include the maximum distance that a child should be expected to walk to attend a primary, a middle or a secondary school; the minimum number of pupils required to allow the creation of a new primary school, a new middle or secondary school; the maximum number of pupils who should be enrolled in a class leading to the opening of a new section, etc.; the last step in school mapping is the preparation of the proposals or the local operational plan, that is to say, the proposals in terms of the number of primary schools to be opened, the number of classes and teachers to be planned; the number of classrooms to be built, or renovated; eventually, the number of classes or sections to be closed so as to respect the norm and the consequent redeployment of teachers. 13




At the explicit level, the definition focuses on rationalizing physical location of schools based on the demand perception within and between specified catchment areas and with a view to optimizing the use of human, material and financial resources. However, it implicitly refers to several other social and curricular aspects that call for the attention of the educational planner. In many countries where a school-mapping exercise has been initiated, the goals of school mapping were: (i) giving basic education to all children of school age and extending teaching beyond the end of the period of compulsory education within the limits of resources available and the country’s economic and social requirements; (ii) providing for equality of educational opportunity by a geographical levelling off and equitable distribution of human, material and financial resources as well as through an equal social opportunity for, and access to schooling; (iii) making the systems more effective by improving the ratio between costs and performance; and (iv) reforming structures, curricula and methods – a school map should help to determine the changes necessary in the schools so as to adjust the supply to the education system’s new characteristics as laid down in the reform programme. The scope of school mapping can, therefore, be further elaborated to include all types of educational institutions. The school map should be a forward looking and dynamic vision of what the educational services with their premises, teachers and equipment should be in future so as to enable education policy to be implemented. It is sometimes referred to as ‘educational map’ because it could plan for all types of educational activities, including out-ofschool literacy programmes, post-literacy courses, vocational training, etc.; also, because educational activities may also be carried out in churches, mosques, co-operatives and so on. This latter enlarged concept, enunciated above as educational mapping, is indicative of the potential of school mapping, but it has not yet been fully translated into action in any of the school-mapping exercises that have been 14



Foreword

carried out in different countries so far – except in the Lok Jumbish project. This is, perhaps, due to the fact that mapping is normally an activity carried out by ministries of education and their representatives, and that ministries of education have rarely so far organized in an articulated way formal and non-formal educational activities. The conventional technique focuses on supply; it is designed on the assumption that demand for education exists and that it suffices to open a school for children to enrol. And, indeed, in many countries, this is the case. In many backward regions of the world, however, educational demand has not been as forthcoming as it ought to be. The school may be there, but children do not attend; they drop out after a few months; or they are absent too many days in the school year so that they can no longer follow; they are required to repeat classes and eventually drop out. The conventional school-mapping techniques deal with this demand problem in as much as it makes suggestions to improve the teaching conditions in the schools and to equalize the number and quality of inputs (teachers and facilities) provided to different institutions, villages and localities. The assumption, which has been corroborated by several research studies, is that the better the quality of education, the better the teaching conditions – the more trained the teacher, the better the facilities – the better the pupils’ achievements and the more willing the parents are to invest in the education of their children. In certain places, in order to reduce drop out, the school-mapping proposals have gone as far as suggesting a change in the school calendar, so as to allow children to work in the fields or to assist their parents in their economic activities without being penalized. Being more and more concerned with issues of educational quality, of the types of inputs to be provided, with the mode of operation of schools and with educational demand, school mapping is gradually evolving from a simple exercise of school-location planning to a more 15




comprehensive exercise of planning for educational development at the micro level (micro-planning). In most cases, school mapping is an activity or planning exercise primarily carried out by the local school administration: the local planner or the district education officer; it is part of an exercise of ‘deconcentration’ of educational planning. This is a considerable improvement compared to the situation where all the decisions concerning the opening of schools, expanding them or closing them, and concerning the recruitment or redeployment of teachers, are taken at the central or state level. In order to engage in a more participatory process a number of countries have created schoolmapping commissions where the relevant administration, different political bodies and stakeholders (parents’ association, teacher unions, employers) are represented. Such commissions meet at local, regional and even central level: indeed decisions with respect to creating a school, expanding it, upgrading it to become a middle school, or for closing it are always political decisions. They require consultation and negotiation. Too often, however, the preparation of the school map does not involve members of communities, parents or potential parents: it does not, in particular, involve minority and disadvantaged groups, which are generally not organized and, therefore, not represented in local councils and other political bodies. To address the particular issue of a lack of educational demand, persisting low enrolment and low participation of girls, as in Rajasthan, India, the conventional method of school mapping, was not appropriate. The approach used in the Lok Jumbish project constitutes a major breakthrough and a departure from the traditional one in three major aspects: it pays particular attention to mobilizing demand; it specifically emphasizes the need to articulate formal and non formal education, to satisfy specific demands; and, last but not least, the basic principle defining the approach adopted relies on 16



Foreword

genuine participation at the local level and empowerment of the members of the community. School mapping in Lok Jumbish stresses the process as much as the product. The important thing is that the community and parents feel responsible for its preparation and are committed to its implementation. This is necessary to break the cultural blockages which are responsible for continuously low enrolment. Studying how these principles can be put in practice and the impact they have on pupils’ and girls’ participation is the object of the present study. Much is to be learned from the Lok Jumbish approach, which would be of great use in other areas of the world facing similar school problems, and having to develop specific strategies geared toward the disadvantaged population. Françoise Caillods Co-ordinator of Decentralized Programmes

17





CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION



INTRODUCTION The context Since the Constitution of India in 1950 to the most recent National Policy on Education issued in 1992, all policy documents in India assert the country’s commitment to ensure that: “free and compulsory education of a satisfactory quality is provided to all children up to the age of 14 …”. However, statistics reveal that a large number of children continue to remain outside the ambit of primary education. It has also been found that while some states have made better progress towards the goal of universal elementary education, others have remained backward. Rajasthan is one of those backward states of the country struggling to improve the participation of children in primary education. Yet in absolute terms, significant progress has been achieved in the state. Specifically, the number of primary schools has risen from 4,336 in 1951 to 30,005 in 19911. Correspondingly, the enrolment figures have also increased from 369,000 in 1951 to 4,652,000 in 1991. In spite of this, Rajasthan is one of the 10 educationally backward states of India with a literacy rate of 38.55 per cent (the national literacy rate being 52.21). The female literacy rate in the state is 20.44 – as low as 11.59 in the rural areas and 50.24 in the urban areas2. Added to the above are the facts that 55 per cent of 6-14 year-old children are out of school and 55 per cent drop out between classes I to V. Less than 30 per cent are able to complete primary education by the time they are 14 years of age. It is in this context that Lok Jumbish was initiated. The aim was to try and achieve the goal of universal elementary education in the state of Rajasthan. Lok Jumbish, or the ‘People’s Movement’, was launched in 1989 in an effort to mobilize support and participation, at the grass1.

Lok Jumbish: A movement for universalization of primary education in Rajasthan, Lok Jumbish Parishad, Jaipur, 1997.

2.

Selected Educational Statistics: As on 30 September 1995, Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi, 1996.

20



roots level, of the rural community in the primary education programme. It was not conceived as a separate project, rather as a means of revitalizing the existing programme of primary education to make it more responsive and more inclusive.

Goals of Lok Jumbish* Lok Jumbish (LJ) has a broad perspective on primary education as the combination of all possible efforts to provide basic education to all children; it is not limited to the formal primary school alone. The focus is on ensuring the education of all children in the age group 6-14. The project presupposes that the creation of a people’s movement for primary education would generate a stimulus for human development which, in turn, would contribute to basic socio-economic change. Lok Jumbish has set itself the following five goals: (a) Universalization of primary education, viewed as a composite programme of access to primary education for all children up to 14 years of age; universal participation until they complete the primary stage; and universal achievement, at least, of the minimum levels of learning. (b) Provision of opportunities to maintain, use and upgrade their education, and provision of facilities for development of skills, to all persons who are functionally literate and those who have received primary education. (c) Creation of the necessary structure, and setting in motion processes which would empower women and make education an instrument of women’s equality. (d) Making necessary interventions and creation of circumstances to enable the ‘lower castes’, the most backward of the tribal *

Contents of this section on Lok Jumbish, its goals, institutional framework and strategies are essentially extracts from the Appendix contained in Lok Jumbish : Second Report, Lok Jumbish Parishad, Jaipur, May 1993, pp. 48-50. 21




people and other poorest sections of society, to move towards equal participation in basic education. (e) Improving the content and process of education to better relate it to the environment, people’s culture and to their working and living conditions.

Institutional framework for Lok Jumbish (LJ) Lok Jumbish is visualized within a time-bound Project Framework even though the focus is not just on carrying out new activities but, more importantly, on strengthening and improving the existing system of primary education. The apex body for project planning and management is the Lok Jumbish Parishad (LJP), which was created as an independent autonomous society. LJP is vested with full powers for the creation of staff positions and the making of appropriate appointments as well as to approving the budget and incurring all expenditure in accordance with it. Block Steering Group A unique feature that distinguishes Lok Jumbish from most other project initiatives in India is its effort to build Blocks (normally consisting of about 100 villages) as the critical level for project management and decision-making in contrast to the district level (generally consisting of 10 or more blocks) or the state level. Accordingly, a Block Steering Group (BSG) is set up in each project block. Currently, LJ is in operation in more than 100 blocks of Rajasthan. The BSG consists of a project officer, who is in overall charge of all the LJ activities in the block. The BSG also includes two assistant project officers (a specialist in non-formal education (NFE) and another in teacher education) and a women’s activist. The block, for the execution of LJ, is divided into manageable clusters consisting of 20-25 villages. LJ activities are then operationalized through a local NGO or the BSG. For this purpose, a group of three-four fieldworkers is appointed in each cluster. 22



Introduction

Khanda Stariya Siksha Prabandhak Samiti (KSPS) A KSPS, which means a Block-Level Education Management Committee, is constituted in each block, with powers delegated to open new primary schools, upgrade primary schools to upper-primary level, create posts for teachers, etc. The Committee, normally headed by an educationist from within the block, consists of representatives from the local agency implementing LJ activities, teachers’ associations, women activists, etc. The KSPS members examine for approval all the village proposals that come to them through the cluster functionaries. Core Team and Women’s Group The village-level actions are formulated and co-ordinated by a small group called the Core Team or Prerak Dal, consisting of 10-12 animators (men and women in equal numbers), who are known for their interest in education. The cluster-level workers of LJ in each village set these up after initial contact and environment building. The core team receives training, which includes, among other things, techniques of school mapping (SM). A Women’s Group or Mahila Samooh is also set up in each village. It is envisaged that the women’s group, consisting of seveneight women in each village, would work for girls’ education, form an active group within the Village Education Committee (VEC) when constituted, and would also involve itself in other women’s development activities. A Building Construction Committee or Bhavan Nirman Samiti is set up with five-six community members for managing the repair and construction of the school building. Field centres are established in selected clusters as the base for the creation of a training and resource system for the core teams and women’s groups as well as VECs. The field centre is also expected to serve as a resource centre for NFE workers and schoolteachers.

23




Main strategies of Lok Jumbish As the purpose of LJ is to empower people, particularly women, and to revitalize basic education from below, much stress is laid on the processes and strategies which are to govern planning and implementation of the project. The main strategies envisaged are as follows: People’s participation – to mobilize the village community to undertake micro-planning, provide assistance in ensuring that all children receive primary education, and to make the basic education system accountable to it. Decentralized management – to devolve decision-making powers to the block and village levels in accordance with the norms and guidelines laid down by LJP. Involvement of teachers – to take measures aimed at the restoration of teachers’ status and the creation of professional pride among them, and also to see that their organizations are involved in decisionmaking at all levels. Training of personnel – to focus on changing the attitude of teachers towards educational reforms and to improve their skills; and also to provide training to the village community members to enable them to play their roles effectively. Quality improvement – to be achieved through improvement in teacher performance, provision of norm-based facilities and modifications in the content and processes of education. Evaluation – to be carried out as a continuing and in-built activity in the instructional process as well as in school management.

School mapping as a core component In pursuance of the broad set of goals of Lok Jumbish, school mapping is considered as a powerful instrument and as the foremost task to be implemented before initiating other actions for improving 24



Introduction

primary education. Given this prioritized position, Lok Jumbish has attempted to define the conceptual contours as well as the implementation processes of school mapping in a uniquely contextualized manner. School mapping is seen as a powerful means of mobilizing community members to participate in the programme of universal primary education. For carrying out school mapping, LJ has designed and used a number of instruments and techniques, and also outlined a number of processes to be followed. It is visualized that use of these instruments and techniques, along with the data generated through them by the people themselves, will help change the status of learners’ enrolment, attendance and also help influence the quality of the functioning of primary schools. Lok Jumbish does not view school mapping as a mere technical task to be carried out for diagnosing the situation and proposing a rational framework for school location planning. Rather, the school mapping process is deeply interlaced with almost every aspect of Lok Jumbish’s activities.

Specific objectives of the present study The overall purpose of the present study is to analyze and understand the way school mapping has been conceptualized and implemented under Lok Jumbish and its relationship with the goal of achieving universal primary education in Rajasthan. Specifically, the study attempts: • To describe the school-mapping process adopted in Lok Jumbish in terms of its conceptual and operational features; • To analyze the various techniques and participatory processes adopted in the preparation and implementation of school mapping; • To examine the role of school mapping in mobilizing and organizing the community for participation in primary education; and 25




• To assess the extent to which the basic objectives of school mapping, as enunciated under Lok Jumbish, have been attained, with particular focus on improvement in access to and participation of learners. The study was not visualized as an evaluative one. However, the outcomes of the study would be useful for improving the techniques of the school mapping and micro-planning adopted under Lok Jumbish. Also, it is envisaged that the study would help clarify the exact nature of the conceptual and operational aspects of the school-mapping process adopted under Lok Jumbish. This is attempted in the second chapter of the report. The three chapters thereafter focus on three important dimensions: school mapping, community participation and school-mapping processes, and changes in access to and participation of children in primary education consequent to school mapping. The last chapter consists of a summary of the whole study, presenting the major findings and conclusions.

Methodology The study was based on a critical review of existing documents as well as on in-depth analysis of the processes of people’s mobilization and school mapping, and the consequent changes in the primary education situation in a selected sample of villages. The objectives and mode of operation under Lok Jumbish, in general, and with respect to school mapping, in particular, were analyzed on the basis of existing documents. Reviewing different documents such as the Handbook of school mapping and micro-planning, prepared and revised over the years, allowed for the analysis of how these objectives and the mode of operation evolved over time. The three major focal points of the study, namely, the processes involved in school mapping, the process of people’s mobilization and community participation, and the changes emerging in the primary 26



Introduction

education situation, were analyzed through field observation and a series of in-depth interviews and questionnaires in a limited number of villages. In all, 16 villages were selected for these purposes from four different clusters, one each from four different blocks, details of which are given below.

Sample Empirical evidence for addressing the different points mentioned above was collected from four blocks, which were selected in such a way as to represent different categories in terms of their geographical and terrain conditions and according to the moment at which LJ was initiated in the particular block. Basic information on the blocks and clusters selected, as well as the mobilizing agency involved in each case, is given in Table I.1. Table I.1. Selection of sample villages for in-depth study

Block

Cluster

Phalodi

Khichan

Villages

1. Junejon ki Dhani 2. Bapini 3. Moria 4. Munjasar Lunkarnsar Lunkarnsar 1. Mokhampura 2. Phuldesar 3. Sehniwala 4. Dhani Bhopalaram Talera Suhasa 1. Jalodi 2. Ganeshpura 3. Dehit 4. Bhavanipura Bichiwara Galandhar 1. Manipur 2. Laxmanpura 3. Baka Kada Beed 4. Jalukuan

Mobilizing agency Women’s Development Programme (WDP)

Block Steering Group (BSG)

Block Steering Group (BSG)

People’s Education Development Organization (PEDO) 27




Criteria for sample selection Districts of Rajasthan, where Lok Jumbish is in operation, represent a fairly wide variety, in terms of terrain conditions, the population groups living there, and also in terms of the agencies managing the process of mobilization and school mapping. Keeping this in view, the selection of different units for study was designed to be a multi-stage process, involving at least three stages. In the first stage, selection of the four blocks was done on a stratified basis representing four different categories of blocks on the lines described below. Accordingly, one of the blocks selected was Lunkarnsar, which is located in a desert area in Bikaner district, where all the blocks have been fully operationalized. Bichiwara block, in Dungarpur district, was selected as representing a block with a predominantly tribal population. In this block, implementation of school mapping has been done through an NGO, namely, the People’s Education Development Organization (PEDO). In Phalodi Block in Jodhpur district, which was the third block selected for the study, implementation of school mapping is being done through the Women’s Development Programme (WDP), a government-supported project. The fourth block, namely, Talera, in Bundi District, represented a block where the process of implementation had just begun and, therefore, could give us an opportunity to witness various activities involved in mobilization, village survey and school mapping. Within each block one cluster was selected. It was ensured that the selected cluster in each block met the above-stated criteria for selecting the blocks. For in-depth study of various processes, four villages were selected in each cluster. The selection of the villages within the cluster was made in such a way as to represent villages with different levels of educational facilities. Generally, the sample included a village which has an upper-primary school; a village which has only a primary school; a village which has no school but has justification for having a primary school in terms of its population size; and a village which has no school and is too small to have a primary school. The selection process also 28



Introduction

took into consideration the existence of non-formal education centres (NFE) in the selected villages. Table I.2 gives an overview of the characteristics of the sample villages, with respect to the status of implementation of SM processes and educational facilities available. Table I.2. Characteristics of sample villages Year of school mapping

Formation of Lok Jumbish committees =1

Educational institutions =2

CT

WG

PS

UPS

NFE

BCC VEC

Phalodi Junejon ki dhani

June 1994

✓

✓

no

no

no

1

1

Bapini

April 1995

✓

✓

no

no

1

no

no

Munjasar

November 1995

✓

✓

no

no

1

no

2

Moria

June 1994

✓

✓

no

no

no

1

1

Mokhampura

April 1993

✓

✓

✓

*

1

no

2

Dhani Bhopalaram

September 1994

✓ ✓

1

no

2

February 1993

✓ no

*

Phuldesar

✓ ✓

no

1#

1

no

Sehniwala

February 1993

✓

✓

✓

no

1

no

3

Ganeshpura

February 1996

✓

✓

no

no

1

no

1

Dehit

Incomplete

✓

no

no

1

1

no

Bhavanipura

May 1995

✓

✓ no

no

no

1

1

2

Jalodi

July 1996

✓

✓

no

no

1

no

no

Baka kada beed

February 1995

✓

✓

no

no

no

no

1

Manipur

February 1994

✓

✓

no

no

1

no

1

Laxmanpura

April 1994

✓

1

no

2

May 1994

✓

✓ no

no

Jalukuan

✓ no

no

no

1

no

Lunkarnsar

Talera

Bichiwara

* In progress; # girls school; one centre closed since February 1997; 1 CT: core team (prerak dal); WG: women’s group (mahila samooh); BCC: building construction committee (bhavan nirman samiti); VEC: village education committee; 2 PS: primary school; UPS: upper-primary school; NFE : non-formal education centre (sehaj siksha kendra).

Different groups of people were interviewed in each selected village. This included primary-school teachers, NFE instructors, members of the core team and women’s groups, village leaders and parents. Apart 29




from these, Lok Jumbish workers at the cluster and block levels, authorities of the Women’s Development Programme, representatives of PEDO, which is the NGO implementing school mapping in Bichiwara, and officials of the Education Department were also interviewed. The number of respondents from whom data were collected under each category is given in Table I.3. Table I.3. Number of respondents according to category

Category of respondents

Number of respondents

Primary-school teachers

40

NFE instructors

16

Core team members

67

Women’s group members

36

Village leaders

29

Parents

94

Cluster-level LJ workers

09

BSG workers

11

Education extension officers

08

Core team trainees

23

School mapping trainees

27

The use of school-mapping instruments and the consequent changes in primary education access and participation were documented through a careful analysis of existing documents, survey schedules and registers available at the school, the cluster and the block levels for the selected villages. This analysis was complemented by interviews of different people involved in the preparation of survey schedules, maps, and data registers. In villages, where the process of school mapping was currently under implementation, efforts were made to actually 30



Introduction

observe the activities involved and the ways and means adopted for the purpose were recorded. Two training camps – one each for core team and school mapping training – were also visited and reactions of the participants were sought, so as to be able to assess exactly how capacity building for school mapping is done and the perception of the participants regarding the effectiveness of the training. Data were collected primarily in the months of March and April 1997. The research team visited all the villages and held extensive discussions with the various categories of people involved and associated with school mapping. Also, two researchers stayed in each village for a period of around one week per village. Apart from collecting information from the school and sources such as the village education register, empirical data were also collected during this period through interviews with various stakeholders. The list of instruments used for data collection is given in Table I.4. Table I.4. List of instruments used for data collection 1. School profile 2. Village profile 3. Information schedule on school-mapping processes 4. Questionnaire for schoolteachers 5. Questionnaire for NFE instructors 6. Interview schedule for villagers 7. Interview schedule for parents 8. Interview schedule for core-team members 9. Interview schedule for women’s group members 10. Questionnaire for Lok Jumbish cluster personnel 11. Questionnaire for BSG personnel 12. Questionnaire for cluster-level workers undergoing SM training 13. Interview schedule for core-team members undergoing orientation in SM 14. Interview schedule for Education Department personnel at block level 31




In addition to collection of information from the field using these structured instruments, interviews were conducted with several members of the staff of LJ at district and state levels. Investigators also maintained a diary noting their observations and interaction highlights on a day-to-day basis. This was found extremely useful for understanding in its proper perspective the structured information collected through questionnaires and interview schedules. Several problems had to be overcome in collecting information at the village level. For instance, the villager-respondents were available usually only in early mornings or late evenings. Also, many of the female respondents were hesitant to talk to the male researchers and the help of women volunteers, generally from the same village, had to be sought.

32



Introduction

CHAPTER II EXPLORING THE CONTOURS OF SCHOOL MAPPING IN LOK JUMBISH: A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

33



EXPLORING THE CONTOURS OF SCHOOL MAPPING IN LOK JUMBISH: A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS School mapping and universalization of elementary education Provision of schooling facilities at appropriate locations is an essential prerequisite to achieving universal primary education. But, mere provision is insufficient to ensure that all children attend school and complete primary education. This, in fact, is the predicament in which Rajasthan is placed. Official statistics indicate that schooling facilities are made available within a reasonable distance for all children. Interestingly, while Rajasthan covers about 10 per cent of the total area of the country, its population share in the total is less than 5 per cent. This shows that the population density is quite thin in the state and habitations are small and often placed far from one another. Thus, even the assumption of availability of schooling facilities within reasonable distance needs closer examination. School-mapping and micro-planning techniques have traditionally been used to rationalize school location to overcome such problems of access to schooling facilities. While the rational allocation of educational facilities may help bridge the gap of physical distances between the learners and the school, it may still leave out a large number of children from the purview of primary education. This, in fact, is the case with respect to Rajasthan. The barrier in this case is not one of physical distance, but of social, economic and cultural blocks. Thus, if bringing all children to school and ensuring that they complete the whole cycle of primary education is the objective, merely preparing distance matrices through school-mapping exercises will not solve the problem. The school-mapping exercise has to go beyond the realms of technical computation, address social and cultural factors, and incorporate locally relevant social and cultural parameters into the planning framework. Lok Jumbish attempts such an elaboration of the 34



Exploring the contours of school mapping in Lok Jumbish: a conceptual analysis

technical exercise of school mapping to base both diagnosis and decisionmaking on local community parameters, in addition to distance and economic rationale. The overall aim of the present study is to examine this broadened approach to the school-mapping process adopted under Lok Jumbish. It is important to note here that the ‘school mapping’ concept and practice have been in use internationally as well as in India for quite some time. Therefore, it would be pertinent to review the connotations that ‘school mapping’ has come to acquire outside Lok Jumbish.

Placing the Lok Jumbish approach to school mapping in a national perspective School mapping entered the discourse on educational planning in India through a national workshop on the subject, organized at the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration in 1984. The Workshop adopted a traditional definition: “School mapping is the process of the mapping of an area for expansion as well as the rationalization of educational facilities in accordance with defined norms. It covers not only locational aspects but also the provision of proposed and existing schools”. The definition essentially focused on norms for spatial growth of educational facilities. It may be mentioned that the need for specifying distance norms for locating primary schools had caught the attention of educational planners in India much earlier, based on the outcomes of the Second All-India Education Survey conducted by the National Council of Educational Research and Training in 1968. Following the survey, government began pursuing the goal of establishing a primary school within a ‘walking distance’ of 1.5 km, and a middle school within a distance of 3 km. for all villages. The latest assessments indicate that the above specifications have been met in more than 95 per cent of the villages in the country. In spite of this norm-based supply of educational facilities, the goal of universal participation of children in primary education has remained elusive in many parts of the country. 35




When LJ began its operations in 1992, primary education in Rajasthan was apparently well developed in quantitative terms, where the provision of a primary school within ‘walking distance’ of each village was concerned. But a closer analysis revealed that this macro perspective on provision had serious limitations in providing universal access to primary education in the real sense. First, the distance had been seen with respect to the main village without any consideration for the location of hamlets, which were invariably less accessible and often separated from the main village by a considerable distance and difficult terrain conditions. Second, this ignored the fact that, in general, the division of the village into different hamlets or habitations closely corresponded (and continues to do so) to social groupings, invariably to the disadvantage of certain communities and caste groups; and it was mostly children belonging to these groups who remained outside the fold of formal primary education. Third, it considered provision of primary education in a monolithic fashion as consisting only of formal primary schools, generally rigid in terms of the school calendar and timings, curriculum and textbooks, and teacher requirements. Lok Jumbish chose to adopt school mapping as an effective means of overcoming some of the infirmities of centralized planning in providing primary schools, which had failed to ensure universal access and participation in Rajasthan. However, the definition of school mapping merely as an exercise in rationalizing the physical location of schools was inadequate in meeting the requirements of planning for education for all children. It was against this backdrop that Lok Jumbish began its efforts to design a programme of school mapping which differed significantly from the prevailing notions of school mapping. School mapping under LJ, in terms of its conceptual contours as well as operational procedures, is seen as an evolving phenomenon continuously shaped and reshaped by those who actually carry out the school-mapping processes. 36




Characteristics of school mapping under Lok Jumbish For defining school mapping in a broader perspective, as discussed above, no significant guidance in terms of experiential knowledge could be found in the existing literature and practices of school mapping, as they mostly consisted of spatial-planning exercises for blocks and districts, building distance matrices for school location. The only relevant experience available was that of a relatively small-scale experiment done by the Indian Institute of Education, which involved the preparation of village education maps. Exercises carried out under this Project came close to some of the ideas that LJ wanted to operationalize through SM in Rajasthan. Thus, LJ had to practically begin de novo in designing a method of school mapping which emphasized the process not the product and intended to make school mapping a simple exercise that the ordinary villagers could carry out by themselves. The search for such a framework for school mapping, perhaps, continues even now. One can, nevertheless, discern some important characteristics that go to define school mapping under LJ in a mould significantly distinct from the one commonly adopted. In fact, LJ has brought out, over a period of time, a series of Handbooks for School Mapping and Micro-planning, which elucidate some of these principles and present guidelines for implementation by the fieldworkers. SM as a technical diagnostic exercise In order to ensure that all children get the benefit of attending a primary school, the first task is to carry out a diagnostic exercise. In this sense, school mapping is a technical exercise to analyze and assess the requirements for improving access and participation rates in primary education. An important characteristic of SM under Lok Jumbish is to carry out such a technical exercise. In fact, this is so even in the conventional Indian approach to school mapping. However, a school-mapping exercise generally consists of a spatial exercise, 37




involving blocks or districts as basic units, which are often too large to allow for an in-depth analysis of the situation and for assessing the needs for the future. Departing from this trend, school mapping in LJ involves conducting diagnostic assessment, treating each village as the basic unit of analysis. In fact, information is collected from every household in the village. The diagnostic survey is not, therefore, limited to examining the location of a new school. Instead, the focus is on mapping all schoolgoing children within each village in terms of their participation status. The diagnosis attempts, on the one hand, to locate all the children of school-going age and find out if they are attending school, and on the other, find out the exact reason or reasons for the non-participation of some of the children. This is considered essential in order to ensure their participation, if necessary, through an alternative means of delivery. SM as a visual database The main product of any school-mapping exercise is the information base created on the status of primary education vis-à-vis the availability of primary education facilities in the neighbourhood. In Lok Jumbish, such an information base has to be created for every village. The purpose of setting up such a village-level information system is to use it as the basis for planning consequent actions to bring all children into the fold of primary education. It is envisaged that the information thus collated acts as an effective instrument for social action, motivating people to contribute towards the goal of universalization. Will this happen if the product is in the form of numbers and tables? This question was quite pertinent in the context of rural Rajasthan, where only a small number of adults are able to read and write. Keeping this in view, LJ generated a school map for each village in the form of a visual database. The handbook for school mapping presents elaborate guidelines to draw the map of the village and represent the findings of the diagnostic survey through the use of a variety of symbols (see Appendix). 38




SM as a social mobilization process In the conventional approach, the task of school mapping is mainly seen as a rational means of generating an empirical information base on the number of school-age children, which should in turn guide the location of primary schooling facilities. In Lok Jumbish, the value of school mapping is considered to lie as much in the process of generating the information base as in its product, namely, the information base. Rationalizing the location of new primary schools based on the data generated through the school-mapping exercise is only one of the concerns of school mapping in LJ. As has already been pointed out, the real problem of universalization in Rajasthan is not one of supply of provisions, but that of unutilized capacities as indicated by low enrolment and participation rates. This was evident from the fact that only a few literate men and women could be found, even though some of the villages had had primary schools for several decades. The problem of non-participation and apathy towards organized schooling had become a chronic phenomenon among the community members. It is with this backdrop that LJ views school mapping as an effective means of raising the awareness of people towards the value of primary education and motivating them to ensure that their children participate in primary education. In practical terms, LJ adopts the methodology similar to Participatory Rural Appraisal (Chambers, 1983; 1993) for generating a process of social mobilization. It is this overriding emphasis on the process dimension and on the need for generating demand for primary education that characterizes all component tasks of school mapping in Lok Jumbish. SM as village-level planning for primary education The fourth characteristic of school mapping under LJ arises out of a broadened framework of action, which includes not only participatory appraisal of the needs but also preparation of consequent action plans. The villagers again do this as a participatory exercise themselves through 39




an elaborate process of consultation and consensus building. Thus, the core principle of SM under LJ is to rely on the people themselves to diagnose the problems and articulate their demands. As the school mapping handbook states: “... the village community should be able to review the educational system in the village and also take all the responsibilities of planning as well as of improving it. All educational needs should be evaluated and decisions taken on them only at the village level. The decision unit should as far as possible remain close to the village level and place all its proposals on the basis of what is received from the village.”(Lok Jumbish, 1996, p.9) This basic principle emerged as a reaction and corrective measure to the generally prevalent strategy in which decisions regarding the location of the school, its maintenance and upgrading, its staffing, etc., are made by the Education Department, based on the recommendations of the District Education Officer. Yet, this has not fully succeeded in providing equitable access to primary education to all sections of the society. Although the school may have existed in the village or in the neighbourhood for many years, the level of enrolment has remained low, as does the literacy level of the population. The school remains outside of the community; decisions are taken elsewhere; the teacher often lives outside the community; in effect, there is no real sense of ownership. Seen from this angle, school mapping in LJ is considered as a means of investing leadership and control in the hands of the villagers themselves so that a sustainable feeling of ownership emerges among the community members.

40




Evolution of the school-mapping framework: a reconstruction The characterization of school mapping under LJ made in the preceding paragraphs should not be interpreted as a mere theoretical exercise carried out and imposed upon the fieldworkers and villagers to follow. The conceptual and operational characteristics themselves evolved over a long period of time through extensive trials, empirical analysis and discussion, involving the people directly engaged in the process of school mapping. This is amply demonstrated by the five successive revisions that the school mapping handbook has undergone since it was put together for the first time several years ago. The different versions of the handbook capture, on the one hand, the spirit of participation and adaptation, based on feedback from the field and, on the other, help maintain an institutional memory in a documented form of the reflections and empirical explorations that influenced the emergence of the current version of the handbook. An attempt is made in the following to retrace the journey made by Lok Jumbish from its conception to its present framework. The reconstruction is mainly based on an insider’s narration (during personal interviews as well as through written inputs) recounting the various events that led to the present concept and practice of school mapping as adopted in Lok Jumbish. Some antecedents Several developments in the country formed the backdrop for formulating the objectives and component strategies of Lok Jumbish when it was conceived towards the end of the last decade. The fact that, even though the enrolment figures had registered considerable progress, the number of out-of-school children continued to remain very high was a matter of serious concern at the national level. This was particularly so with regard to some of the states, including Rajasthan. Recognizing the need for tackling this problem effectively, the National Policy on Education – 1986 called for meticulous micro-planning to ensure that all children are enrolled and that they complete primary education. 41




Around this time, the national government had also launched several Technology Missions, one of which was the National Literacy Mission (NLM) launched in 1987-88. One of the important achievements of the first couple of years of NLM was the massive environment-building campaign carried out on a nationwide scale with the help of Bharat Gnyan Vignana Samiti (BGVS). The BGVS had the benefit of experienced activists from Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad and the People’s Science Movement and could concretize techniques for mass education, where the people themselves were involved, and mobilize these same people to generate a demand for literacy and basic education. While recapitulating the background to school mapping under Lok Jumbish, it would be appropriate to mention some useful experience gained in Rajasthan in 1983-84. With the help of colleagues from the Social Welfare and Research Centre, Tilonia, the Government of Rajasthan had undertaken an experiment in youth mobilization for analysis of the prevalent delivery system in different social sectors such as health care, co-operative societies, drinking water, and education. The experiment did not succeed in large-scale mobilization or improvement of the delivery system, but it did give some insight into the training of village people and in developing an understanding of practical strategies for enabling the village youth to attempt an analysis of the existing delivery system. Besides these national and state-level developments, there were two sets of experiences available at the international level. One was the experience of the International Institute for Educational Planning in designing and trying out school-mapping exercises to help the developing countries in their endeavour to expand the basic education system in a rational manner. The second relevant experience was that of the Participatory Rural Appraisal which had, over a period of time, gained acceptability as a strategy for involvement of the community, in enabling it to assess its assets, problems and needs. This method was 42




being used in several developing countries; and in India, the strategy was considered as the basic approach for planning with community involvement. Alongside, there was a growing trend to move from macroplanning to micro-planning strategies for reaching inputs to the beneficiary groups more directly and efficiently. Manifestation of these developments in India was in the form of the ‘tribal sub-plan approach’ and the introduction by the Planning Commission of a large number of beneficiary-targeted schemes. How did it begin? When the initial documents of Lok Jumbish were prepared during 1989-91, it was not clear as to the shape that school mapping and microplanning should take. There was, however, considerable clarity on certain basic issues: that local-level educational planning is to be undertaken with the participation of the people; that systematic steps have to be taken for environment building, particularly in generating demand for primary education; that the decision-making process with respect to the opening of schools or other facilities has to be decentralized; and that an appropriate strategy has to be worked out for undertaking planning for enrolment and retention involving both parents and children. Lok Jumbish began its operations in July 1992. The first review and planning meeting (RPM) took place in that month and school mapping was one of the agenda items. In order to design the process of school mapping, it was decided to undertake a tour of the first five blocks selected for implementation of LJ, namely, Pisangan, Arain, Lunkarnsar, Garhi and Kishanganj. Fieldworkers and those who had started setting up village contact teams were consulted regarding school mapping. A short document was prepared to begin the School Mapping (SM) work. This document referred mainly to preparation of the village map through a ‘core team’ of villagers who would be given a short training 43




of one or two days. A preliminary survey form was also developed for undertaking household surveys, mainly based on the forms developed in a Seminar on School Mapping at the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA). This preliminary SM document was discussed in detail in the second RPM, held in September, 1992. In those days, all the fieldworkers used to be invited to RPMs – their number being not more than 10 or 12. Other invitees included a resource person from NIEPA and people drawn from NGOs and research institutions. Some modifications were made in the first SM document and field personnel from each of the five blocks agreed to make a start with one or two villages. In order to work out further details, a one-day training workshop of all LJ field workers was organized in Jaipur in October, 1992. Some common symbols were worked out for preparation of a village map and the forms were again examined. Attention was also paid to the manner in which a ‘core team’ must be constituted and training organized for it. It was also decided that after a trial run in one village, another workshop would be organized in January, 1993. In this workshop a small booklet containing the following chapters on the subject was prepared: 1. Core team and its training; 2. Household survey; 3. Preparation of a rough map of the village and the symbols to be used; 4. Sharing with village community; 5. Preparation of proposals for schools and teachers.

44




Review and revision of the SM processes While school-mapping work was started on the basis of this document, steps were taken for the development of norms on the basis of which additional schooling facilities could be provided in these villages. The existing norms of the Rajasthan government, the norms laid down under Operation Blackboard, norms adopted under the Siksha Karmi project and other relevant information were taken into consideration in this exercise. It was decided that LJ norms should, by and large, conform to the existing norms of the state government. By May-June, 1993, outcomes of the initial SM exercises pointed to the need for primary education facilities outside the full-time formal primary school in the form of part-time non-formal education (NFE) centres. Accordingly, norms were also developed for the opening of such NFE centres. Another simultaneous development was the evolution of the instrumentalities of decentralized planning. Block Steering Groups (BSG) had become operational in the first batch of five blocks, as well as in the 10 blocks of the second batch. The latter set of blocks became operational in March, 1993. The concept of a Block-Level Committee for Educational Administration (KSPS) was developed in the course of RPMs in early 1993. Structure, functions, powers and authorities of the KSPS were formulated in October, 1993, and the state government issued orders delegating powers to KSPS to open and upgrade schools, to sanction additional teachers and to approve the opening of NFE centres. A two-day workshop was conducted in November, 1993, to review the progress made and develop specific parameters for the expanding work of school mapping. This workshop was attended by practically all block- and cluster-level staff, in addition to people from LJ headquarters, colleagues who were providing research support, NGOs involved as mobilizing agencies and the resource person from NIEPA. Visits to the field by LJ headquarters personnel and other people during the months 45




preceding this workshop had helped in identification of strengths as well as the problems faced in implementing the various processes involved. These observations were placed before the participants of the workshop and the field personnel were encouraged to make a rigorous review of the procedures based on their own experiences in the context of the basic philosophy and strategies of LJ. These discussions were critical in setting the stage for drawing up the final format for school mapping. The following questions are illustrative of the review and analysis that took place during the workshop: (a) As achieving gender equity is one of the basic strategies of LJ, are we conscious about the need to involve women in core teams, to contact women in families while undertaking household surveys, and do we pay particular attention to enlisting every girl during the household survey? (b) An important dimension of the concern for equity is that the poorest and the marginalized families should not escape being included in the survey – particularly those living at the fringe of the village or those who seasonally migrate. Are we paying adequate attention to this requirement? (c) A critical strategy of LJ being community involvement, questions were raised regarding the actual role of core teams. Are the conclusions of the survey shared with the larger community, or are we viewing SM only as a technique to be understood and employed mainly by LJ staff? (d) Another LJ work characteristic being a focus on quality, participants asked themselves whether the way SM work was progressing could be considered as of satisfactory quality. There were mixed answers to most of these and other similar questions and it became clear that more attention had to be paid to many of them. The ‘rough and ready’ handbook of SM that was in use 46




was reviewed, and the need was felt to take a fresh look at all the SM exercises done until then. It was also suggested that interactive training should be organized for all those involved in conducting the SM exercises. It became obvious that women’s groups would have to be set up in all the villages – both in order to strengthen the core team and to create a women’s lobby for girls’ education. Analysis of the field experience and the rewriting of the handbook The following six-seven-months period involved a rigorous review of earlier SM exercises concerning the village. It became necessary to redo the initial SM in more than half of villages – luckily, the total number of villages in which SM had been done until then was only about 450, and revision was necessitated in 250-290 villages. The subject of SM figured prominently in the annual camp at Mount Abu, held in July, 1994. BSG members from 15 blocks had come with the rich experience of applying the revised ‘handbook’, closely adhering to LJ strategies. After intensive discussion a decision was made to improve the handbook. It was also decided to develop a team of fieldworkers as master trainers and to organize a series of training workshops with their help. August 1994 was devoted to eliciting personal experiences and perceptions of all concerned through small groups and preparing a draft training handbook. This was followed by a workshop with field-level people to prepare them as master trainers for a series of training programmes to be organized. Thereafter, a two-day intensive workshop was organized from 31 August – 1 September, 1994, to undertake a quick review of the handbook and in order to understand the various points to be emphasized during the forthcoming training programmes. For all practical purposes the handbook was rewritten and the participants felt equipped to take on the challenging task of organizing a four-day 47




training session. The challenge was made all the more difficult as almost all the master trainers were cluster-level staff, while the trainees consisted of BSG personnel and headquarters staff. Emergence of the broad contours of school mapping During September-October, 1994, training programmes were organized in three batches of five training courses each, making a total of 15 programmes. Persons from Sandhan Shodh Kendra (which provides training and research support to LJ) attended all of the training courses. The training team as well as the trainees were also asked to record their observations, particularly with regard to improvements needed in the SM process, and also to indicate the manner in which the contents of the handbook could be made more useful. It was ensured that practically every LJ staff member attended at least one of these training programmes. With this round of the exercise, SM in LJ could be said to have emerged as a well-formulated strategy for analysis of the primary education situation, for effective community involvement, and for laying the ground for building other LJ activities. Several other LJ activities also evolved around this time. Need was felt to move from SM to micro-planning (MP) – including praveshotsav (welcome ceremony for participants), systematic maintenance of the Village Education Register (VER), preparation of Village Education Plans, and the Retention Register. It was also felt that the time had come when a VEC was ready to be set up in the villages where school-mapping work had been done properly and strong core teams and women’s groups had been constituted. This broadened perspective was kept in mind in the five-six training programmes that were organized in 1995 and emphasis was laid on SM as well as MP. Feedback from these experiences was incorporated in bringing out the version of the handbook which is in current use.

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REFERENCES Caillods, F. 1982. Intensive training course on micro planning and school mapping: report. IIEP and the Tanzanian Ministry of National Education. Caillods, F. 1983. Training materials in educational planning, administration and facilities. Educational Policy and Planning Division. Paris: UNESCO/IIEP. Chambers, R. 1983. Rural development: putting the last first. Harlow: Longman. Chambers, R. 1993. Challenging the professions: frontiers for rural development. London: IT Publications. Hallak, J. 1977. Planning the location of schools: an instrument of educational policy. Paris: UNESCO/IIEP. Lok Jumbish. 1992. Lok Jumbish: the first report. Jaipur: Lok Jumbish Parishad. Lok Jumbish. 1993. Lok Jumbish: the second report. Jaipur: Lok Jumbish Parishad. Lok Jumbish. 1994. Lok Jumbish: the third report. Jaipur: Lok Jumbish Parishad. Lok Jumbish. 1996. School Mapping and Micro-planning Handbook. Jaipur: Lok Jumbish Parishad. Lok Jumbish. 1997a. Lok Jumbish: the sixth report. Jaipur: Lok Jumbish Parishad. Lok Jumbish. 1997b. Lok Jumbish: a movement for universalization of primary education in Rajasthan. Jaipur: Lok Jumbish Parishad. NIEPA. 1986. School mapping: report of the national workshop. New Delhi: NIEPA. NIEPA. 1997. Workshop on school mapping and micro planning (29-30 July, 1997). New Delhi: NIEPA. Varghese, N.V. 1997. (Ed.) Modules on district planning in education. New Delhi: NIEPA. 49





CHAPTER III THE PROCESS OF SCHOOL MAPPING



THE PROCESS OF SCHOOL MAPPING It has to be recognized at the outset that getting all children in Rajasthan, most of whom would be first-generation learners, to attend primary education is undoubtedly an arduous task that cannot be achieved quickly. Each village will take a fairly long period of time to transform itself from the state of a predominantly illiterate society to a state where all people, at least the young ones, have completed primary education. Thus, school mapping may have to be repeated several times as part of this transformation process. In fact, several of the sample villages, at the time of this study, had already witnessed the second round of survey and school-map preparation. What are the steps involved in operationalizing such a school-mapping process? How have the different steps been implemented in clusters and villages with varying contextual factors? What kinds of action are being taken to utilize the data generated and achieve the goal of primary education for all? These are some of the questions addressed in this chapter.

Component steps in the school-mapping process The ‘school map’ under LJ means, in physical terms, a map of the village showing different households, the number of school-age children in each household and their participation status in primary school. Seen from this limited angle, the school-mapping process consists essentially of two steps: conducting a survey and locating the survey findings on the map. However, the school-mapping process as envisaged under LJ has a more elaborate agenda of actions going beyond the preparation of the school map. The Handbook on School Mapping and Micro Planning does not prescribe any pre-determined steps for carrying out the school-mapping process. But, one can discern some of the essential component actions that are suggested. The major steps involved are: (1) Environment building in the village; (2) Formation of village 52



The process of school mapping

committees (Prerak Dal and Mahila Samooh); (3) Training of village committee members; (4) Preparation of a rough map of the village; (5) Conduct of the household survey; (6) Preparation of the final school map indicating the survey findings; (7) Collection of information from the school; (8) Preparation of the village education register and the statistical abstract; (9) Presentation of the analysis to the villagers; (10) Preparation of a proposal on improved education facilities in the village for consideration by the KSPS (Block-level Education Management Committee); (11) Follow-up action for implementing the decisions on the proposal; and (12) Monitoring the progress in enrolment and attendance in primary education. These are only suggested steps derived from the handbook and, in reality, the steps and their sequence vary according to the local conditions. In fact, the work begins even before entering the village. The first task is to identify the rural settlement units that form villages under LJ. These are decided according to the population size of the village and their compactness for creating and utilizing primary education facilities. They are revenue-based village boundaries. For instance, a multi-settlement revenue village with a dispersed population may be treated as consisting of more than one LJ village; also, very smallrevenue villages, which are closely placed, are treated as one village for LJ purposes.

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Box 3.1. Definition of ‘village’ • All those villages, dharis, chalks, majaras, phalas, etc., have been defined as ‘village’ in school mapping for which a primary education institution (like a primary school or a Siksha Karmi School) is necessary. It is not necessary that that village has been defined as such by the Revenue or Census. • Such far-flung dharis/majaras/chalks, etc., which can neither be a part of any village nor can there be a rationale for a primary school or Siksha Karmi School, but has the possibility of establishing a Sehaj Siksha Kendra, will be looked upon as independent villages. (Excerpt from School mapping and micro-planning: Handbook for training and working at village level, Lok Jumbish Parishad, Jaipur, September, 1996, p.32.)

After identifying villages in a block based on the Lok Jumbish definition, they are grouped into clusters of 25-30 villages. Having done this, school mapping is taken up in a phased manner in each cluster. For instance, in a cluster of 30 villages, the school-mapping activity may begin in only 10 villages and in some clusters; it may take nearly two years to complete the first round of school-map preparation in the whole cluster. Once the prerak dal and mahila samooh are constituted, they form the main implementing body for the whole school-mapping process. Thus, in a way, activities carried out by the members of these bodies in the sample villages should give an overall picture of the types of activities carried out as part of school mapping. Information was collected in the present study on the various activities conducted by the prerak dal members. As can be seen from the data in Table III.1, three activities seem to form the core of the schoolmapping process. These are: Conducting a household sur vey, Preparation of the school map, and Preparation of the village education register. The second rung of activities in which most of the prerak dals are involved are: Preparing proposals for the consideration of KSPS and 54




providing support for school construction and repair activities. The third set of activities which have been implemented in at least half the number of villages surveyed relates to the establishment of an NFE centre and other related tasks such as identifying the instructor for the centre, enrolling girls in the centre and so on. NFE centres have not been created in all the villages and, therefore, it is obvious that tasks related to NFE have been mentioned only in those villages where they have been initiated. Thus, activities carried out as part of the school-mapping cycle depend on when the process was initiated and the stage at which it was at the time of the study. One can also observe unevenness across clusters and villages with regard to involvement of prerak dal members in different activities. For instance, only in five sample villages have PD members actively participated in environment building. This seems to have depended on the approach adopted by the mobilizing agency. In some clusters, as in the case of Bichiwara, which is managed by an NGO, the environment building has received little attention and the task has been undertaken by the cluster workers themselves. Also, the NGO workers have reported that the LJ tasks could be more readily introduced to the villagers as they had already been involved in other developmental activities. In some cases, the formation of village-level committees, including the prerak dal, has been done long after environment building and the organizing of village meetings. While some of the villages have taken moves towards undertaking a re-survey and the preparation of a revised school map, others have only recently completed the work and are following up on the findings through proposals for establishing additional facilities such as NFE centres or by adding a classroom to the existing school building. Some broad observations will be quite pertinent with regard to other activities listed in the Table. First of all, they are indicative of the variety of elements that are brought into the process of school mapping. This 55




obviously is dependent on the local circumstances, on the one hand, and on the resourcefulness and creativity of the local village and LJ leadership, on the other. It is interesting to find that the teams in some of the villages have taken a special interest in mobilizing funds locally and also in improving the infrastructure in the village school. Others have gone beyond the school and looked into other facilitating factors such as connecting the village with the main road. The fact that these are being done by the prerak dal members, in consultation with and through the participation of other villagers, indicates how the participatory process, beginning within the sector of primary education, is contributing to the generation of a broader awareness and the empowerment of the community. A second observation to be made is that the data given in the Table have been generated through a process of recollection and reconstruction by the people concerned with LJ activities at village and cluster levels. Thus, they are only indicative depending on the perception of the people involved about what it is important to mention. This has to be read, therefore, along with information collected from other sources. For instance, while the responses collected from a sample of 64 members of prerak dal from the 16 sample villages fill some of the gaps in this regard, it was found that almost all the members of prerak dal have been actively involved in getting more children enrolled in the local primary school through personal contact with parents. This could also be confirmed during the field visit. Similarly, it was found that as part of the school-mapping process, prerak dal members in most of the villages where the SM process was completed more than a year ago have done review and monitoring work on the entries in the village education register with regard to the changed status of participation of children in primary education. The most important point that a close analysis of the relevant field data reveals is that village-level operations have often gone beyond the guidelines given in the handbook and incorporated several locally relevant initiatives. 56




Phalodi Villages


1

2

3

4

✓

✓

✓

✓

Making house-to-house contact

1

2

3

4

Talera Villages 1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4 5

✓

✓

Bichiwara Villages

✓

✓

Organizing village meetings Conducting household survey

Lunkarnsar Villages

✓

✓

Total

Table III.1. Different activities carried out by members of Prerak Dal since its formation

3

✓ ✓

✓

✓

6

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

16

Preparation of school map ✓ Preparing village ✓ education register

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

16

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

16

✓

5

Getting more children enrolled

✓

✓

✓

Organizing enrolment day Preparing proposals

✓

✓

✓

✓

Getting land for school building

✓

Support in school-building ✓ repair and construction

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Arranging for seating facilities in the school

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

11

✓

✓

✓

11 1

✓

2 1

✓

3 ✓

✓ ✓

Monitoring the NFE centre

✓

Constituting Mahila Samooh

✓

Contacting PS for additional teacher

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

8

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

8

✓

3

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

5

1

✓

Construction of connecting road for the village

✓

2

✓

Forming PTAs

Conducting resurvey

✓

✓

Enrolling children in the NFE centre

Constituting VECs

✓

✓

Collecting funds for school building and repair

Arranging for starting NFE centre

✓

1

Tree plantation in the school

Arranging for drinking water facility in school

3

✓ ✓

✓

3

✓

3 5

57




Data generation from the field and preparation of school map As already noted, the central task of school mapping under LJ is to conduct a field survey and to represent the relevant data on a village map as a sort of ‘visual ready reckoner’ on the status of participation of children from each household in primary education. (See Appendix.) Some of the questions examined in this regard were on: What kind of information is collected from each household? How is this data collection done? Who are involved in collecting these data and recording them on the village map? The survey questionnaires The field survey is done in each village using a set of standardized questionnaires given in the Handbook of School Mapping and MicroPlanning. As already noted, the handbook has undergone a series of revisions since it was brought out for the first time in 1993. Correspondingly, the questionnaires have also been revised based on field-level use and feedback. The latest version of the handbook includes two questionnaires to be used for collecting basic information from the field in each village. These are: (1) Familywise Survey Questionnaire and Village Education Register; (2) School Information Questionnaire. The first questionnaire is accompanied by a supplementary schedule for identification of disabled children. The questionnaires have been made simple enough for the members of prerak dal to fill in and maintain, as they consist of only five essential items of information including details on each child in a tabular form. The school information questionnaire attempts to capture the current status of the primary school in the village, including information on enrolment in different classes. On the whole, the purpose seems to be to collect only such information that is essential to assess the primary education situation in the village.

58




Conduct of survey and preparation of school map Prerak dal members are the main agents for carrying out the village survey and preparing the school map. In the context of a village, the collection of information and the maintaining of records are generally identified as being the work of the government officials, the school teacher included. Moving away from this mind-set and getting ordinary members of the village to carry out a field survey and record the findings in the form of a map, has been a big challenge for the cluster-level LJ personnel. In order to provide the basic technical understanding for using the survey questionnaires and preparing the school map, a fiveday training programme has been designed for the members of the prerak dal. The training programme provides adequate scope for fieldwork using the various questionnaires and recording the observations. Generally, training has been carried out immediately after the formation of the prerak dal. This is followed by: (a) a preparatory phase within the village; (b) preparation of the rough school map; (c) conduct of the household survey; and (d) recording the information from the field survey and preparation of the final school map. While the trained members, helped by the cluster-level LJ workers, form the core team for carrying out these activities, the whole process is to be carried out with the involvement of a wider spectrum of people from the village. As indicated in Table III.2, prerak dal members have been the major players in conducting the survey and preparing the school map. However, involvement of others from the village, including the teacher, and the role played by the LJ workers in these processes have not been uniform. In three sample villages of Phalodi, prerak dal seems to have played only a supportive role. Interestingly, in two of these villages, the educated youth in the village who are not part of the prerak dal have played an important role. In some cases, the LJ workers seem to have played a more important role than others. In five of the sixteen sample 59




villages, household survey and school-map preparation were done during the short training itself. This obviously tends to preclude a larger participation of the villagers in the process, diluting the basic principle of a participatory approach. Incidentally, this approach has been adopted in all the four sample villages where LJ is being implemented through an NGO. In fact, a similar variation could be observed in the environment-building phase. It is important to recognize that school mapping in LJ is not seen as a one-time task. Rather, it is viewed as a process which heightens the level of awareness of the community at large through a participatory process of self-discovery of the poor status of primary education in the village. Completing school mapping during the training programme treating it simply as a technical requirement, provides no scope for the underlying process of self-learning by the villagers. The relatively low level of involvement of schoolteachers is also a matter needing closer attention. In the final analysis, it is the schoolteachers who have to bear the responsibility for getting all the children into the primary school. Moreover, teachers are generally familiar with carrying out household surveys, including census operations and sample surveys, for the government. Yet, in general, teachers were not very enthusiastic about taking part in LJ activities to begin with. However, there seems to have been a considerable shift in this during the recent past, with a greater number of teachers starting to co-operate in school-mapping processes. One should not forget that the active involvement of schoolteachers is of critical importance in the long term for sustaining LJ initiatives.

60




Table III.2. Nature of the participation of different people in conducting the field survey and preparing the school map

Block/Village

Prerak Dal members

LJ workers

Teachers

Educated youth++

Other villagers

Phalodi Junejon ki Dhani Bapini

supportive supportive

Active Major

active no school

major active

supportive -

Munjasar Moria

supportive active

Major Active

-

-


active active

Supportive Supportive

major major

-


active

-

active

-

-

Sehniwala

major

Supportive

active

-

-

Talera Ganeshpura

major

Supportive

active

active+

supportive

Dehit# Bhavanipura**

major major

Active Active


-

supportive

Jalodi

active

Major

-

-

-

Bichiwara Baka Kada Beed#

active

Major

no school

-

-

Manipur# Laxmanpura# Jalukuan#

major active major

Active Major Active

active -

-

supportive -

Lunkarnsar Mokhampura Dhani Bhopalaram Phuldesar*

* No field survey was conducted to collect household data. Prerak dal members filled in the proformas and prepared the school map during the training programme. The school map was not available for scrutiny when the investigating team visited the village for the present study. + Students of grades VII and VIII from the local upper-primary school actively participated in the survey. # The survey was done during the training itself. ** The first school map was lost. The LJ workers, with some support and involvement of prerak dal members, have done a second round of survey and school-map preparation. ++ Refers to participation of educated youth in the village not already included in the prerak dal.

61




It may be mentioned that the first round of school mapping was done in all these villages using the instructions provided in the particular version of the handbook which was in use at that time. Also, this was done in many of the sample villages several years ago, as a first-time learning process for all concerned. Even for the LJ workers, let alone the villagers, it was a new area of exploration. Mobilizing ordinary people to do an apparently technical task of collecting data was a real challenge to the LJ workers. Delays and some aberrations in the process were, perhaps, unavoidable. Flexibility and local adaptation of the process seem to have taken place. As can be seen from Table III.3, in some villages it took several months even to go through the environment-building process and form the prerak dal. There were places where it took several rounds of meetings and discussions before the prerak dal could be formed; getting the existing village leadership to participate in LJ, or allaying their fears of the prerak dal posing a challenge to them, was a formidable task. Emphasis of LJ on providing a place of central importance to women definitely stirred up a hornet’s nest, raising a variety of apprehensions and problems as it went contrary to the pattern of the male-female relationships embedded in the tradition-bound villages. In some villages, as in the case of Phalodi, prerak dal members, who were mainly illiterates, insisted on using the educated youth of the village to do the task, unable to believe that they could do it themselves. In some others, the LJ workers themselves had to take a leading role in getting others involved. The current version of the handbook streamlines the whole process in an easier manner and provides adequate guidance, in a more simplified approach, to handle such unforeseen circumstances.

62




Table III.3. Assessment of the time lag between different steps leading to the school-map preparation Block/Village


Formation of prerak dal

Initial school map and village survey

Preparation of final school map

Phalodi Junejon ki Dhani

March 1994

April 1994

April 1994

May 1994

Bapini

November 1994

December 1994

December 1994

February 1995

Munjasar

February 1995

July 1995

July 1995

September 1995

Moria

February 1994

April 1994

April 1994

May 1994

January 1993

April 1993

April 1993

July 1993

Lunkarnsar Mokhampura

Dhani Bhopalaram May 1993

September 1993 September 1993 October 1993

Phuldesar*

November 1992

February 1993

February 1993

March 1993

Sehniwala

December 1992

February 1993

February 1993

March 1993

Ganeshpura

October 1994

February 1995

February 1995

March 1995

Dehit#

July 1996

January 1997

January 1997

January 1997

Bhavanipura**

November 1994

March 1995

April 1995

October 1996

December 1996

January 1997

April 1996

June 1996

June 1996

July 1996

Baka Kada Beed#

November 1994

February 1995

February 1995

February 1995

Manipur#

November 1993

February 1994

February 1994

February 1994

Laxmanpura#

November 1993

April 1994

April 1994

April 1994

Jalukuan#

December 1993

April 1994

April 1994

April 1994

Talera

Jalodi

-

Bichiwara

* No field survey was conducted to collect household data. The proformas were filled in and the school map was prepared by the prerak dal members during the training programme. The school map was not available for scrutiny when the investigating team visited the village for the present study. # The survey was done during the training itself. ** The first school map was lost. The LJ workers, with some support from and involvement of prerak dal members, have done a second round of survey and school-map preparation.

The school mapping cycle As already mentioned, school mapping is not seen just as a one-time affair to be done with technical perfection and used as a permanent guide for action. The school map is valuable only to the extent that it accurately presents the current state of reality of primary education in 63




the village. Thus, it is imperative that new school maps get prepared with a more current information base to guide further action. Keeping this in view, a fresh round of the school-mapping exercise has been initiated in several villages. Some vital information on the process of preparing fresh school maps is given in Table III.4. Of the 16 sample villages, new school maps have been prepared in seven villages. But the processes of preparation of the new school map and even the reasons for preparation are quite different. First of all, it is important to reflect on the periodicity with which the school map has to be prepared to effectively assess the progress made and plan further actions. In all seven places, the task of preparing the new school map has been completed recently, say, less than a year ago. But, there is considerable variation in the time period between preparing the first school map and the second one. Even in the same cluster, some of the older ones have yet to see a new school map, while some of those where the first exercise was completed less than two years ago have gone for redrawing the school map. It is, of course, dependent on several local conditions, including the perception of the prerak dal members. Yet, it may be worthwhile to examine this issue with greater care and decide on the time parameters for preparing a new school map. Several factors seem to have prompted the local workers to take up this task. In one case, the whole exercise of reconstituting the prerak dal, conducting the survey and preparing the school map was repeated, as the old one, along with the database, was lost and the interest of the local people had become dissipated. In another, the task was taken up after observing that the information included in the old one was not complete. Even though this was not explicitly mentioned, several other villages have also realized the need for correcting some of the inaccuracies in the first round of school mapping, which was a new experience for all of them.

64




Table III.4. Information on re-survey and preparation of a new school map Block /Village

Phalodi Junejon ki Dhani

Bapini Munjasar

First survey done in

New school map prepared

Basis of preparing new map

Prepared by

Availability of the school maps

Feedback Discussion with villagers

May 1994

Yes

Re-survey

Prerak dal and LJ workers

-

February 1995 September 1995

No

-

-

Yes

Monitoring data

Prerak dal and LJ workers Prerak dal and LJ workers

Old one not available; new is with the school At cluster level Both are in the school

Moria

May 1994

Yes

Re-survey

Lunkarnsar Mokhampura

July 1993

Yes

Re-survey

Dhani Bhopalaram

October 1993

Yes

Re-survey

March 1993 March 1993

No

-

Yes

Re-survey

No

-

-

Phuldesar Sehniwala*

Talera Ganeshpura

Discussed

-

Prerak dal In the school and LJ workers

-

No

-

-

Bhavanipura#

Yes

Re-survey

Jalodi

July 1996

No

-

Prerak dal and LJ workers -

Bichiwara Baka Kada Beed#

February 1995

Yes

No

Laxmanpura

February 1994 April 1994

Yes

Jalukuan

April 1994

No

Manipur

-

Prerak dal In the school and LJ workers Prerak dal In the school and LJ workers Not available

March 1995 January 1997 April 1995

Dehit

Old one not available; new at cluster level

-

Monitoring Prerak dal data and LJ workers -

-

-

-

With NFE instructor In the school

-

With NFE instructor

-

Prerak dal

-

Both available with NFE instructor In the school

Discussed

Monitoring Prerak dal Both old and data and new are not villagers available In the school

-

-

-

* The old one was incomplete, as only the main village had been shown. The new one indicates sub-habitations also. # New school map was prepared, as the old one was lost along with the database. 65




The second question to be examined in this regard is the process by which the new school map is prepared. In three of the sample villages, new school maps have been prepared using the monitoring data available in the village education registers, without conducting a resurvey. This does not seem to be in line with the suggestion made in the handbook, according to which a re-survey should be conducted every two years. Discussion with fieldworkers revealed that they lack clarity in terms of the actual process to be adopted for preparing the new school map. They were not sure whether the survey process should be carried out in the same fashion as was done the first time, or whether it could be simplified. In any case, it is appropriate to examine the whole issue and decide on the process of a re-survey strategy. It may be noted that the records prepared based on the earlier surveys do not fully match the expected outcomes specified in the revised handbook that is currently in use. Finally, the school map is not just a document to be prepared and stored in a file. Its value lies in being easily accessible to public view. Ideally, the map should be displayed prominently for every community member to see. It is based on the principle that even passive knowledge on the status of primary education participation should make an impact on the behaviour of the people. This message does not seem to have reached the workers at the grass-roots level. Attention is also needed with respect to maintenance and accessibility of the school map. While the ‘local school’ seems to be the place where the school map is commonly preserved, the local NFE instructor, who has much greater involvement and is invariably a person living in the village, is the other alternative frequently used for the safe keeping of the school map. The practice of keeping the school map at the cluster level, as reported in some places, needs reconsideration. In several places, the physical condition in which the school maps were found should be a matter of concern. They were often folded or 66




rolled up and kept inside and were generally not in a good condition for repeated use. Part of the problem is to do with the kind of paper used for preparing the school map. LJ authorities should examine this issue carefully. While sophistication in the material used for preparing the school map is not called for, every school map prepared, whether based on the original survey, or using monitoring data, or based on re-survey, should be preserved in proper condition. Apart from the immediate value of conveying the current status of primary education, successive school maps help preserve and present a visual story of progress in primary education in the village as planned and achieved by the villagers. Considering that the situation will continuously improve, properly designed and presented, these can become the source of positive feedback and potent tools for continuously motivating and mobilizing people for participation in primary education. This also implies the need for creating an effective system for discussing the findings of the re-survey and the new school map with community members. Surprisingly, feedback discussions on the findings of the re-survey were held only in two villages after preparation of the new school map.

The Village Education Register, the Statistical Abstract and the Village Retention Register The village education register and the statistical abstract form the two basic means of consolidating and preserving the statistical information base generated through the household survey. The familywise survey questionnaire consisting of a single sheet of information is so designed that it provides four columns specific to the follow-up and recording of changes with respect to each child. Thus, all the questionnaire sheets for a village put together become the village education register. The statistical abstract presents consolidated information on the primary education status of the village using the survey data. Traditionally, education data collection has been the personal concern of the schoolteacher(s), who are required to regularly 67




collect information and send it to the higher authorities for further processing. Teachers, perhaps, do not notice that the data collected by them is of any help in performing their job more efficiently. The LJ effort to prepare and maintain primary education data on every child, and by collecting such information through a participatory process by the people, has moved the information base outside the purview of the schoolteachers into the hands of the community. How is this aspect handled within the community? How are these records maintained and used? These are some of the important issues on which consolidated information is presented in Table III.5. Information from the field reveals that both the records, namely, the village education register and the statistical abstract, have been properly maintained in all the villages. Except in three cases, the records are maintained within the village, either in the school or with the local NFE instructor; in one case it is with a prerak dal member. Except in one case, the records were in good condition and were easily accessible. Even though the maintenance is good, the records do not seem to be in use uniformly in all places. In seven of the sixteen sample villages, the records had not been referred to at all during the previous six months. In six villages, they were taken out to enter the monitoring data on school-age children and in the remaining three, they were referred to while conducting the re-survey and preparing the new school map. The main value of the village education register is that it ought to contain up-to-date information on every child – whether in the school or outside. It is with this in view that specific columns are provided in the familywise sur vey questionnaire for recording monitoring information on each child. The handbook specifies that such monitoring be done twice a year, once between 15 August and 15 September and the second time between 15 November and 15 December. The relevant proforma provides space for the entering of four rounds of monitoring data covering a period of two years after the survey, as after that a resurvey is to be conducted and a new school map prepared. 68




Table III.5. Maintenance and use of the village education register Availability

General condition

Accessibility

Junejon ki Dhani

In the school

Good

Easily accessible

Bapini

Cluster level

Good

Not easily accessible

Munjasar

In the school

Good

Easily accessible

Moria

Cluster level

Good

Not easily accessible

Mokhampura*

In the school

Good

Dhani Bhopalaram Phuldesar

In the school

Good

Cluster level

Good

Sehniwala*

In the school

Good

Easily accessible Easily accessible Easily accessible Easily accessible

With NFE instructor

Good

Easily accessible

By LJ workers

In the school

Not very good Good

Easily accessible Easily accessible Easily accessible

Not used

For entering monitoring data -

Not used

-

By LJ workers

For entering monitoring data

Block/Village

Use during last six months

Purpose for which used

Phalodi By LJ workers For re-survey and new school map By Prerak dal For entering and LJ monitoring workers data By Prerak dal For entering and LJ monitoring workers data By LJ workers For re-survey and new school map

Lunkarnsar Not used

-

Not used

-

Not used

-

By Prerak dal For re-survey members, and new LJ workers school map

Talera Ganeshpura

Dehit Bhavanipura# Jalodi

With NFE instructor With PD member

Good

Bichiwara Baka Kada Beed Manipur Laxmanpura Jalukuan

With NFE instructor

Good

Easily accessible

By LJ workers

In the school

Good

Not used

With NFE instructor With NFE instructor

Good

Easily accessible Easily accessible Easily accessible

For entering monitoring data -

Not used

-

By Prerak dal members, LJ workers

For entering monitoring data

Good

* A new village education register was prepared in January 1997. # A new school map and a village education register were prepared, as the old one was lost along with the database. 69




Scrutiny of the village education registers in the sample villages showed that, in many cases, monitoring information had not been entered systematically. In fact, twice-yearly monitoring as specified in the handbook had been done only in a very few villages; some show no entry at all in these columns. This problem seems to have been corrected to some extent recently, with the introduction of a much simplified version of the questionnaire that also acts as the pages of the village education register. Part of the problem had been the process through which the monitoring data were to be entered. In most cases these figures were to be got from comparison with the school attendance register. This created considerable confusion and led to serious discrepancies in the figures that could not be reconciled. This problem has been overcome, at least in part, with the emphasis laid in the new handbook on maintaining a student retention register. This would possibly help the fieldworkers as well as the community to keep track of the progress of every child entering the primary school or the NFE centre year after year, and also help monitor the status of children who are yet to be enrolled in primary education. As the retention registers have been introduced only recently, one cannot yet judge their utility and impact. Study of the data presented in the village education register as well as the school map revealed another serious discrepancy in the basic data on the population of school-going age. In many of the villages, the number of girls shown was disproportionately low in comparison to that of boys. It was found that under-reporting takes place during the household survey as parents tend not to report on all the girls in the household, perhaps with the feeling that reporting would amount to an expression of readiness to enrol them in the school. There seems to be some confusion particularly as regards girls of school-going age who are already married, both daughters and daughters-in-law. The LJ workers and prerak dal members admitted that they were unclear about handling this and inaccuracies have entered in recording the number of girls in the age group. During discussions with villagers as part of 70




the present study, a positive shift in attitude could be discerned. Villagers agreed to correct these figures and would like LJ to find alternate means of imparting basic literacy and numeracy skills to these children also.

School mapping data as a benchmark for follow-up action The diagnostic exercise through school mapping provided comprehensive yet personalized information on the children not going to school. The household-survey data not only identified the families such children belonged to, but also the causes for their non-participation in schooling. Equipped with the benchmark information, the next task was to follow it up and ensure increased participation of children in the primary education programme. Two kinds of follow-up action have been adopted. One consists of directly reaching out to the parents of the non-school-going children. The second strategy is to act through the block-level management for improving the educational facilities in the village by creating new educational facilities or improving the existing ones or both, depending on the local requirements. Mobilizing enrolment and attendance in the primary school Having identified the children who are not going to the primary school and exactly locating the families to which such children belong, the next task was to follow up on this and motivate parents to send their children to school. How have the LJ workers and prerak dal members gone about this task? Were the primary-school teachers involved in this drive for motivating parents? How do the various actors involved, namely, the LJ workers, prerak dal members and schoolteachers perceive the overall value of this drive? Data collected from the field with regard to some of these critical questions are given in a summary fashion in Table III.6.

71




Table III.6. Strategies adopted to mobilize the enrolment of children in the primary school (number of villages) Strategies/Blocks

Bichiwara Total

Phalodi

Lunkarnsar

Talera

4

3

4

2

13

Village and ward meetings Getting village leaders to influence parents

3

3

-

4

10

-

2

-

1

3

Others*

3

4

1

2

10

Individual contact with parents

* These included a variety of locally relevant strategies such as getting support for the issue in religious meetings (particularly in Muslim-dominated villages), using groups that are already active under other development programmes, particularly with the help of local NGOs, and by organizing film shows, folk theatre presentations and cultural programmes highlighting the value of primary education.

Following the guidelines given in the school mapping handbook, efforts have been made to contact the parents concerned by personal visits and persuasion. Except in Talera villages, attempts have also been made to influence the parents through village and ward-level meetings and, in some cases, through the help of the village leaders. It is also interesting to note that in addition to these common approaches, a variety of locally relevant strategies have also been adopted in some of the villages. For instance, using folk media familiar to the people, or getting religious leaders to speak to parents at Friday prayer meetings in villages where Muslims predominate, were found to be very effective for influencing the parents. In about 80 per cent of the villages, teachers from the local primary schools gave positive support to this drive and some of them even participated actively in the drive. This was contrary to the general perception in many quarters that the teachers might oppose such moves as it would increase their work. It was true that in some villages, teachers who are used to acting only when instructed by the higher authorities, were indifferent to such efforts. But, even in these villages, teachers seem to be changing their attitudes towards such community-initiated processes. In some villages, it was pointed out that the process of 72




collecting information, which goes beyond numbers and identifies specific individuals, has considerably reduced the phenomenon of inflated enrolment figures generally maintained by the primary schools. It has become difficult to retain the names of children in the school register if they are not coming to the school at all or if they are attending the non-formal education centre. This, in a way, is the effect of moving the education information base from the personal confines of the schoolteacher to the public domain. But, this is an issue to which uniform attention has not been paid by the LJ staff and the prerak dal feels hesitant to interfere in the supposedly internal affairs of the school. It is unnecessar y to emphasize the need to achieve complete compatibility between information in the school records and the village education register prepared through school mapping. Preparing proposals for improved educational facilities in the village The school mapping handbook provides specially designed proformas for submitting proposals of various kinds. The handbook also gives the norms fixed under LJ for requesting different kinds of facilities in the village. The norms generally take into consideration the need for local adaptation and provide for flexibility in their adoption under different circumstances. The extract from the handbook given in Box 3.2 regarding the norms for opening a new primary school makes this point clear. A review of the proposals prepared by the various villages brought out two broad categories of action proposed for improving the primary education situation in the village. One set dealt with the improvement or upgrading of existing primary education facilities both in terms of human and physical resources. This included the improvement of the physical infrastructure in the school – repair as well as new construction, an additional teacher to match the increased enrolment – or the upgrading of the existing lower-primary school into an upper-primary one.

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Box 3.2. Norms for the Lok Jumbish project Establishing new primary schools, Siksha Karmi Schools and Sehaj Siksha Kendras.* 1. In normal areas – in all the villages with a population of 250, a primary school/Siksha Karmi school and if the population is between 150 to 250 then a Siksha Karmi school, provided the number of boys-girls in the 5-14 age group is at least 45. 2. In mountainous or desert areas – in all villages with a population of more than l50 – a primary school/Siksha Karmi school, provided the number of boys and girls in the 5-14 age group is at least 40. 3. In villages with a population of 100 to 150 and where the number of boys-girls in the age group 5-14 years is more than 30, the provision (rule) for a single Siksha Karmi school will remain as it is but, for the time being, it will be implemented on an experimental basis in five Lok Jumbish blocks. The expenditure on this will be reimbursed by Lok Jumbish Parishad. NOTE: The benefits of this facility will be available only in the Pratapgarh, Phalodi, Pokaran, Chauhtan and Lunkarnsar development blocks. 4. In villages with a primary school, establishing a Sehaj Siksha Kendra is possible where 15 students are available and, similarly, in those villages without a primary school but where 15 students are available, establishing a Sehaj Siksha Kendra. NOTE: In villages which have Siksha Karmi schools, Sehaj Siksha Kendra will not be established, because the Prahar Pathshalas fulfil the need for Sehaj Siksha. 5. If the number of students is less than 15, then for the two nearest habitations (three days on one Kendra and three days on the other Kendra, a full day’s teaching) and making arrangements for a nomadic Siksha Karmi for nomadic families, to be started on an experimental basis. 74




6. For the boys of nomadic castes and scattered habitations of poor tribal families, like Saharia and Garasia, completely free of cost Ashram schools or hostels. 7. In those villages where at least 15 girls are available for entry at the primary level and there are women fulfilling the qualifications stipulated by the Siksha Karmi Board, then one Aangan Paathshala may be established. NOTE: In all of the above points the definition of a ‘village’ is the same as used in Chapter 8 (Survey). (Excerpt from School mapping and micro-planning: Handbook for training and working at village level, Lok Jumbish Parishad, Jaipur, September, 1996) * Siksha Karmi school refers to the programme of alternate schools initiated under the Siksha Karmi project to reach educational facilities in remote rural areas; Sehaj Siksha Kendra refers to the Non-formal Education Centres opened under Lok Jumbish.

The second set of proposals referred to creation of new educational facilities in the village. Besides establishment of new schools in villages without any primary school, this set included the creation of alternate education delivery mechanisms such as Siksha Karmi schools and NFE centres, to facilitate enhanced levels of participation of children, particularly of girls and of those from the deprived sections of the population. Similar flexible norms have been specified for providing additional teachers or upgrading a primary school into an upper-primary school. The handbook also suggests how to prepare the proposals in each case and how they should be examined by the sanctioning authorities, namely the KSPS, at the block level. Specification of these norms and dealing with them during school-mapping training has created considerable awareness among all concerned regarding the need to have rational bases for the creation of additional primary education facilities in the village. It is an important factor in view of the fact that even now there is a considerable mismatch between the existing enrolment and the number of teachers or between the number of teachers and the 75




number of classrooms available in the school. Participation of community members in preparing proposals according to norms should help develop in them a rational perspective in planning educational development in the village. Promoting alternative means of reaching the unreached From the guidelines provided, it is clear that LJ considers at least three alternative frameworks for extending primary education facilities in the village. These are: formal primary school, siksha karmi school and sehaj siksha pathasala (NFE centre). In addition to these, project functionaries in different areas of the state are also encouraged to devise other locally relevant alternate or supportive strategies, particularly for increasing the participation of girls. In fact, several such innovations have been tried out in different parts of the state. For instance, Lok Jumbish has been organizing residential camps of four- to six-months duration exclusively for girls in different parts of the state. This experiment was mooted in order to impart primary-level education to those girls who had dropped out of school and to give education of at least Class III level to completely illiterate girls. Other objectives included making them hygiene conscious and to impart to them an understanding of societal and civic issues, apart from building selfconfidence. These were residential camps with both the teachers and students sharing the premises in each case. Discussions with project personnel and with teachers and learners participating in one of the camps showed that the experiment has been well received by the parents of the girls attending the camp. It may, of course, be noted that not all of these innovations have been implemented in the 16 sample villages included in the study. In particular, LJ has adopted a system of part-time education. It is offered practically throughout the whole year, without any long vacation, through NFE centres as an effective alternative to the formal 76




primary school. It was observed that 18 such NFE centres were functioning in the 16 sample villages of the study. Keeping this widespread adoption of the alternative strategy, an attempt was made during the field study to elicit the opinion of the different actors at the village level. They were questioned on the suitability of this approach as a viable alternative to the formal primary school. In general, they found it difficult to respond conclusively to this question. This was partly due to the fact that not all of them were familiar with the functioning of the NFE centre under Lok Jumbish. In fact, quite a number of them chose to say that it was not applicable to them as they had no knowledge of it. Part of the problem was genuine as NFE centres in many places were new and people were gradually getting to know about their functioning. Yet, the nature of the responses given by the small set of respondents was very encouraging. Table III.7. Perception of different groups on NFE as a viable alternative to primary schooling (in percentage) Schoolteachers

Parents/ Villagers

Village leaders

Yes

68

61

79

No Cannot say

9 23

4 35

5 16

As can be seen from Table III.7, a majority of schoolteachers as well as villagers, including village leaders, have a favourable opinion of the NFE centres as operated under LJ as a viable alternative to primary schooling. Hesitation on the part of some villagers and schoolteachers to recommend NFE as an alternative to primary schooling should not surprise anyone. There are at least two obvious reasons. One is that for too long primary education has come to be equated with primary schooling. Therefore, people find it difficult to visualize in concrete 77




terms any other delivery mechanism as an accepted means of providing primary education. Secondly, the performance of the non-formal education sector in the past has not been very encouraging. In addition to the questionnaire responses, personal discussions were held with different groups of people, including schoolteachers, on the issue of NFE. There was a general acceptance that insistence on everyone receiving primary education only through full-time formal primary schools may continue to keep primary education out of bounds for a sizeable number of children. There is also recognition of the fact that some people have genuine difficulty in utilizing the formal primary education facilities. For instance, even though some reservations were expressed on the capacity of the NFE instructors to teach multi-grade classes effectively, most of the schoolteachers also felt that such alternatives have to be created for the benefit of working children, overage children and for children living in scattered and remote habitations.

Observations Evolving the working modalities for school mapping The school-mapping process began in Lok Jumbish around five years ago, during 1993. With that began a new vista of exploration into the rural dynamics of Rajasthan, with the objective of ensuring primary education of all children irrespective of sex, caste, class and religious considerations, as reiterated many times in all policy documents at state and national levels. It was not that development activities in rural Rajasthan were new. But, primary education had invariably remained outside or at best on the fringe of these development programmes. Therefore, implementing the process of school mapping in a participatory manner was practically without any precedent and thus there were no lessons to be learned from the past.

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To begin with, LJ came out with the broad outlines of the steps to be adopted and the purposes they were to serve. Yet, exploring and experimenting with the actual modalities of going about in the field was a learning experience for everyone concerned. With valuable feedback from the field, particularly from those who have to really get involved in changing the reality, the operational aspects of the process have become streamlined and are presented in the form of a training handbook. With this, there is now a fair amount of clarity on the operational steps involved in school mapping. The handbook, however, provides only guidelines for proceeding with the work in the field. It does not, and cannot, fully prescribe the sequence of actions to be followed. After all, no two villages are the same and the problems that the fieldworkers face in each village have to be tackled through innovative adaptations in the field. Thus, while the handbook provides detailed suggestions on carrying out the schoolmapping process, it expects the fieldworkers to devise the finer aspects of the process locally in collaboration with the community. This faith in the capacity of the field personnel to judge the local conditions and act in the best interests of the project is an important aspect to be noted. In fact, utilization of this freedom to act locally can be seen in the varying lengths of time taken in different villages even within a cluster, or the changing strategies adopted for carrying out the various steps in school mapping. This in-built scope for local adaptation by the community members and fieldworkers is a significant feature of SM in LJ which has given it the characteristic of a social movement for mobilizing people for primary education, rather than treating it only as a technical tool for diagnosis and planning. Training for school mapping In the rural setting, training of anyone chosen from among the ordinary people is altogether a new phenomenon. In particular, to consider that 79




ordinary people can do any constructive activity in the area of primary education, which has traditionally been the preserve of teachers and government officials, presents a new framework for self-perception to the villagers. This, in a way, is viewed as an empowering process by the villagers and unreservedly welcomed by them. However, the extent to which the trained villagers commit themselves to the task and continue to devote time to the village-education programme has significantly varied from one village to another. In general, training of prerak dal and mahila samooh members has been systematically done following the guidelines provided in the training handbook. There are, of course, some minor aberrations. In some cases the actual household survey has been completed during the short five-day training period. The conduct of the household survey and the preparation of the school map as part of the training programme possibly enhance the effectiveness of the training; but this may not vouch for the accuracy of the data collected. Also, it does not provide adequate scope for the involvement of a larger cross-section of the people. It is necessary to examine the impact of such alterations in the process on later developments in the village. Perhaps, the direct involvement of a larger cross-section of the people involved in field survey and school-map preparation is more time-consuming. At the same time, it is important to recognize the value of the greater involvement of the people and the need for the carrying out of the process of school mapping more progressively, if it is to inf luence the attitudinal orientation of the people. After all, a greater part of the problem in a society steeped in cultural rigidities lies in the realm of attitudes and not necessarily in lack of knowledge and skills. Accuracy of the information collected Training prior to the household survey is valuable but a brief training may not allow the participants to master the ideas and tasks involved. 80

The collection of information by the people themselves is quite an




unfamiliar task in any setting. The very idea of figures being handled by lay persons in a village is a difficult phenomenon to comprehend. Therefore, it is not surprising that the participant villagers adopted a somewhat unsure and tentative approach in the first instance. In fact, to some extent, this is true of the cluster-level workers also. Yet, one could find that the basic information collected through the schoolmapping process presents a fairly dependable picture of the primary education situation in the villages. To a considerable extent, credit for this goes to the clear and simple guidelines given in the ‘school mapping handbook’, which itself has been revised several times, based on the feedback from the field. This does not, however, mean that the information base generated through school mapping is completely free from inaccuracies. While one can safely say that trends indicated by the information consolidated at the macro level are quite dependable, accuracy of the data at the micro level can be further improved. Even at the micro level, the problem is not one of deliberate fudging or inaccurate recording. Inaccuracies appear to have crept in, in some of the villages, due to two reasons. First, villagers and LJ workers face genuine difficulties in getting correct information and following up. For instance, keeping track of children from families which traditionally migrate in search of employment, yet continue to maintain their base in the village, poses serious problems. A similar problem is also faced with regard to villages located on the border of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It was found that many parents in these villages send their children to schools located in neighbouring villages of Gujarat after registering them as residents of those villages, even though the children continue to live in Rajasthan villages. In such contexts, monitoring the participation of children in schooling poses some genuine difficulties. These problems, at least partly, are addressed by creating the village-education register, which avoids the primary school as the focal point for data maintenance and looks at the total number of children in the specified age-group in the village, irrespective 81




of their school affiliation. However, difficulties in reconciling the figures at the schools and in the village as a whole continue to create confusion and lead to some inaccuracies, particularly while recording monitoring data on children’s participation in primary education. A second source of data inaccuracy seems to lie in inadequate understanding of some of the concepts underlying the information units. It should be noted that in a participatory appraisal process profiles of people who report (family members) and those who record (prerak dal members) do not differ significantly, except for the brief training. It is essentially a joint effort to decipher the information required and record it in the survey formats. In this process, it is possible that some of the misconceptions and misunderstandings of the reporters get transferred to the recording process. After all, prerak dal members or even LJ workers are not researchers trained to question, probe and verify every data unit as a well-honed researcher would do. One such instance was the consistent under-reporting of the number of girls of schoolgoing age in some of the villages. At the cursory level, one is likely to treat this as a deliberate distortion by the family members. However, deeper probing during the study revealed that the bulk of this underreporting is with respect to girls who are of school-going age but have already been married. Again, the attempt was not to hide the presence of these girls in the family, rather it was, in a way, an inarticulate expression of a cultural inhibition which meant that they are out of bounds for any public education process. During discussions with community members, elderly villagers not involved in the schoolmapping process accepted this discrepancy and willingly agreed to correct the figures. The lesson to be learned from this is that the inaccuracies in the database should not be treated only as statistical or as arising out of a lack of technical understanding among those collecting household information.

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Schoolteachers and school mapping While teachers have generally been consulted by LJ workers and teachers have by and large expressed positive opinions about LJ, data reveal that their direct participation in household survey and schoolmap preparation is somewhat limited. This is somewhat paradoxical. Considering that teachers are otherwise involved on behalf of the government in conducting several sur veys, why are they less forthcoming to take part in these activities which directly impinge on their professional work? Perhaps, one has to go deeper into the personal predicaments of the teachers who do not participate in these processes, which require them to devote considerable time in the particular village. As found during the study, only one out of every four teachers resides in the village where they work, another 25 per cent live in neighbouring villages within a distance of 2-6 km., the remaining live in relatively faroff places and have to depend on the public transport system to reach their work place. Could this be the reason for their relatively low participation? This position, in any case, has to change and a more active participation of teachers has to be secured in the total campaign for mobilizing the fuller participation of children in primary education. The role of teachers is also important for other reasons. Scrutiny of the records maintained by the school showed considerable incompatibility between SM data and the school records in many places. Obviously, these two sets of database cannot be two independent entities. Currently, teachers also collect data on similar factors to the SM process, but with a different set of concerns. It is essential that we bring about greater convergence between these concerns, which would automatically lead to better linkage in data maintenance, and effective reconciliation of the two sets of information. The goal, in the long run, is to eliminate the existence of two sets of data and ensure that the data generated through the participatory process of school mapping become the database for all official action by the school authorities. 83




Maintenance and use of the school map and village education register The school map and village education register are the concrete outcomes of the school-mapping process and are of significant importance in promoting universal primary education. It may be noted that for the first time such important educational records have been developed by the villagers and preserved in the village. Traditionally, the agriculturally based society knows only of land records, which anyway are maintained elsewhere by a government official. Therefore, this participatory effort in primary education marks a major step in raising the community consciousness towards the educational needs of the people. In what conditions these important instruments are maintained, and to what extent they are made use of in educational management, need a closer examination. The school map, which is the centrepiece of the whole exercise, does not seem to be maintained and used very effectively in some of the villages. LJ authorities at the cluster and block levels have to give more attention to the logistics of maintaining the largesized SM in proper condition. In comparison, the VER is maintained in a more systematic manner in all the villages. Undoubtedly, the education information base being shifted from the realm of the local school and the distant block or district education office, to a place within the village community, is in itself a very radical step which attempts to portray primar y education as an affair concerning ordinary people and not that of the government. But the value of such an effort can be fully realized only if it becomes a form of social documentation used and understood by ordinary people. As it stands, it appears that people continue to view them as technical documents to be preserved and used only at the time of monitoring and re-survey. While improving the accessibility of the records for public use may help in this regard, changing the popular perception so that 84




these documents become dynamic tools for improving the participation of children in primary education remains a challenge to be addressed. Monitoring and re-survey Lok Jumbish does not view school mapping as a one-time affair. Rather, it is conceived as a recurrent cycle to be followed systematically until primar y education becomes fully universalized. Tasks of monitoring and re-survey have to be viewed as part of this recurrent process. How effectively are these tasks implemented? Field investigations showed that an attempt has been made in almost all of the villages to review the situation and to revise the figures in the village education register. In fact, the school mapping handbook includes guidelines for carrying out the data-monitoring process. It appears that the field functionaries find this process somewhat complex. In many cases they have not been able to reconcile the figures in the school and the village education register to accurately identify the children who are still outside the fold of primary education. This is possible due to the fact that the functionaries essentially depend on the school registers for the process of monitoring and updating the figures. There is a need for combining enrolments in and attendance at the primary school and the NFE centre in a systematic manner. Changing formats over the last few years have also complicated the situation. However, the introduction of the final version of the handbook, with explicit emphasis on maintenance of a retention register in the recent past, should help sort out this question, or will it result in too much of a data maintenance burden for the functionaries? Utilizing the services of non-governmental organizations To allow for the participation in the school-mapping process of various non-governmental organizations, which have already worked in this field, requires that a definitive space for variety and a pluralist 85




perspective be created within the programme with respect to its operational features. That several NGOs take the lead role in implementing SM processes in selected areas of LJ is a clear demonstration of such flexibility and openness within LJ to promote multiple methods of implementing the basic activities of school mapping. NGOs bring their own experience of working in other sectors and LJ is attempting to capitalize on this strength. In fact, the study reveals that preparatory phases of SM are implemented much faster in the clusters under NGOs because of the relatively better rapport they have with the community. However, the study also points to the need for strengthening interaction between the block steering committee and the NGO workers operating at the cluster level. This is important if NGO functioning is not to remain an isolated operation, but rather become integrated with the larger set of activities of Lok Jumbish at the block level. Norms for adding educational facilities As in the traditional school-mapping framework, creating additional educational facilities based on the SM data is seen in LJ also as an important outcome of school mapping. For this purpose, the SM handbook presents detailed norms for creation of different kinds of facilities. An important feature of the norms is the flexibility built in for accommodating different contextual factors. In order to ensure contextual considerations, preparation of a proposal is done at the village level, again through a participatory process. This approach also gives a heightened sense of responsibility to the community members so that the facilities created are fully utilized. Also, it ensures that additional facilities in the form of teachers, classrooms or NFE centres are created based on an empirical database, instead of acting on the personal perceptions of the education department authorities. Information collected during field investigations shows that community members highly appreciate this rational and yet flexible 86




approach to deciding on additional educational facilities. However, implementation of these decisions is not found to be uniformly efficient in the sample villages. In several cases, the time lag between approval of proposals and actual implementation seems to be too long. This is particularly true in the case of the formal primary school. This seems to be at least partly due to factors outside the LJ project framework. For instance, even where posts of additional teachers are created through the KSPS (block-level decision-making authority), appointments and posting are delayed unduly. Also, anomalies in terms of number of teachers in proportion to the number of children remain unrectified. Even though these are actions to be pursued outside the project and are, therefore, not within the control of the local project authorities, it is not easy to convince the local community, which at present has a positive appreciation of the actions initiated by LJ. Continued nonrectification of the anomalies in the management of primary schools and an inability to implement in a timely fashion even the decisions taken under the project, may lead to a gradual erosion of confidence. Participatory process of school-building construction and maintenance An important aspect of the follow-up of the school-mapping process is the effort to improve the physical infrastructure of the local primary school. The traditional school- mapping exercise in the country has been confined to proposing construction/location of new schools. In contrast, improving the existing school has been taken up as an important component of the SM process under Lok Jumbish. It is interesting to find that this is also done in a participatory manner, encouraging the community to find local solutions and not to wait for a standardized solution to come from the outside. This emphasis on school-building repair and maintenance is an important feature of LJ to be noted, as in general, rural school buildings are found in a state of total disrepair, and concern for the physical upkeep of the school has very rarely appeared on the agenda of management. That this whole 87




process is done in a transparent manner, involving the Building Construction Committee (BNS) in each village, has begun to give a sense of ownership and responsibility to the local community members. Emphasis on flexibility and innovativeness All actions that attempt to involve the community on a continuous basis in school mapping or otherwise have to be marked by flexibility and innovativeness. Standardization of the steps involved in school mapping and specifying the ways and means of involving people in the various steps of school mapping are necessary for a streamlined implementation of project activities. But one has to guard against the danger of routinization and ritualizing of the processes, robbing community participation of its essential vitality and spontaneity. The need is to perpetually search for local innovations in ways and means of involving people, characterized by flexibility and variety. This is an area in which fieldworkers of LJ have to tread very carefully, so that the handbook for school mapping becomes a facilitating and not a limiting factor for community participation. Such innovative adaptations have been attempted in some of the villages, but they are few and far between. They have not yet become a general attitude of mind and this is visible in an adherence to the manual, which is accompanied by inadequate reflection and discussion at the village level. Needless to say, the basic strength of the school-mapping process in Lok Jumbish is its capacity for local adaptation and innovation within a broad systemic perspective. The emphasis is as much on the process involved as on the product in the form of a physical entity. It is seen in a cyclical fashion consisting of a wide range of activities beginning from identification of non-schoolgoing children to ensuring that all children attend primary education in a regular manner, through dealing with all issues that hinder or facilitate achieving the goal of education for all. It is this broad processcentred perspective that allows one to consider such apparently unrelated issues such as women’s empowerment and decentralized 88




management as being within the purview of school mapping. Keeping in mind the framework provided by the handbook, the study attempted to find out from the sample villages how exactly the process of the village survey had been carried out and to what extent other stakeholders, such as schoolteachers, were involved in these activities. Even though the participatory process of environment building and school-map preparation should already influence the primary education scene in the village, a concrete assessment of the actual situation in the village becomes available to the community only with the preparation of the final school map. It should, therefore, be interesting to find out the overall time taken for preparing the school map as from the beginning of the environment-building process. School mapping under LJ is viewed as a participatory process for laying down the ground rules for a decentralized system of management for primary education in Rajasthan. Decentralized management is viewed here in terms of: (i) the rural community has the capacity to take stock of the educational status of the village and contribute towards its improvement; and (ii) assessment of the educational needs and decisions on follow-up actions are taken at the village level. It is in this context that the proposal preparation by the prerak dal members for consideration by the KSPS is viewed as an important step in school mapping. Information collected from the sample villages showed a variety of action plans being prepared by the villagers and cluster-level LJ workers. Alternative primary education One of the direct and most common consequences of SM has been the opening of NFE centres as an alternative to the formal primary school, which continues to fail in getting all children enrolled or retaining all those who are enrolled. Data from the field show that the NFE centre is emerging as an effective alternative to reach the girls and deprived sections who have been left out. This is quite evident even 89




from the responses from the villagers and other education authorities. Yet, apprehensions are expressed in some quarters as to whether we are legitimizing the marginalization process of girls and deprived sections of the society. How real is this issue, in view of the fact that the formal school is likely to leave them out, however much one may try? LJ has taken the position that ensuring the education of all, by enrolling them and holding them in the education system for one full cycle, is more important; considerations of the kind of education provided is secondary. It is necessary to have a long-term view on this issue. Debate on this issue is likely to continue until such a time as all sections are enabled to utilize one set of public services; but depriving the children of what is possible and desired by the people, just because something else is desirable needs careful questioning. Rather, it may be worthwhile to re-examine what is offered in the formal school as the desirable; there are obvious lessons to be learned from the non-formal for improving the formal school system.

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CHAPTER IV SCHOOL MAPPING AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

91



SCHOOL MAPPING AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION With respect to provision of educational facilities, Rajasthan has made significant progress by making available a primary school within a distance of 3 km for 93 per cent of its children. The number of schools has increased almost eightfold during the last four decades and the number of teachers tenfold. Yet, it is paradoxical that output indicators such as literacy rate and participation of children in schooling are disastrously low. Why is it that the community has remained apathetic to the use of a public facility such as a primary school provided by the state? Why do parents refuse to take responsibility for the education of their children? Or, is it that the state has not been responsive to the needs and aspirations of the community? To be precise, provision of schools in terms of physical distance is not a serious problem. The problem seems to be that of: (a) social distance between the formal primary-school structure and the local rural ethos; (b) inherent contradictions in the cultural biases of the community and the demands of an open egalitarian society promoted by education for all; and (c) the conflicting demands of an inf lexible primary-school system provided by the state and the livelihood pattern of the deprived sections of the rural community. The critical question, therefore, is not of physical access to primary-school establishments, but of effective utilization of these facilities, and of meeting the educational requirements of the local community on its terms. Lok Jumbish considers school mapping to be the core strategy for addressing these complex questions of access to primary education in rural Rajasthan. The parents and the community are the ultimate stakeholders in the primary education programme. Therefore, it is imperative that people themselves take the responsibility for effective utilization of educational facilities and thereby ensure the education of all children in the community. At the same time, people should have the scope to determine 92



School mapping and community participation

the nature of the educational facilities to be provided. Keeping this basic requirement in view, Lok Jumbish attempts to link school mapping and community participation in a framework of a bifocal symbiotic relationship. On the one hand, support and participation of community members is seen as an instrumentality for implementing school-mapping processes. On the other hand, the school-mapping process is so designed that it creates a sense of social responsibility among the community members to ensure that universal participation of children in primary education becomes a reality. Lok Jumbish attempts to integrate community participation and school mapping through certain structures, strategies and processes at the grass-roots level. A closer examination of these in terms of their feasibility and effectiveness will be the concern of this chapter. Some of the questions and issues that the section will examine using empirical information from the field include: What is the extent and nature of participation of community members in various activities constituting school mapping? How are various committees such as prerak dal and mahila samooh constituted? How representative are these committees in terms of different sections of the society? To what extent are these processes contributing to the improvement in the status of women in villages? To what extent can these strategies succeed in sustaining desirable levels of community involvement? Are the strategies appropriate for moving from the stage of social mobilization to that of stable mechanisms for sustained community participation and decentralized management, as envisaged under Lok Jumbish?

Environment building Examining the profiles of the 16 sample villages, one finds that formal school education is not altogether new to these villages. Of the 18 schools located in these villages, only four are of recent origin; in fact, eight of them have been functioning for more than 20 years and another 93




four are more than 10 years old. But, the fact that barely a few women and only a small number of men in these villages are literate, and the regular participation of children in the formal primary schools has remained abysmally low, indicates that the people in these villages have, if not totally rejected, deliberately remained indifferent towards the primary school. Overcoming this known apathy of the people and getting them to actively participate in educational activities in the village was an uphill task. Thus, the basic challenge to Lok Jumbish was to regenerate interest in education, in general, and to instil a sense of faith and a positive attitude towards primary education in the deprived sections of the community, in particular. What were the means adopted in different villages to achieve this? Data collected from the sample villages reveal that a variety of methods and techniques have been used for this purpose. The data also bring out the range of people who have been a part of the environmentbuilding process. It was found that the Lok Jumbish workers from the cluster level have played a significant role in environment-building processes in all 16 sample villages. Alongside the LJ workers, prerak dal members have also participated in conducting village-level meetings and carrying out house-to-house contact. In 11 of the sample villages, a local schoolteacher has taken an active part. Other categories of people actively involved in environment building include educated persons from the village, women volunteers, local NGO workers, and local village leaders.

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Table IV.1. Environment-building activities in different sample villages Activity

Phalodi Villages

Lunkarnsar Villages

Talera Villages 1

2

3

4

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

House-to-house contact

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Village meetings

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Ward-level meetings

✓

Women’s meeting/Fair Contact with ✓ schoolteacher Contact with child ✓ development worker Contact with local NGO workers

✓

Contact with local leaders

✓

Video show Puppet show Street play Street rally on education Children’s Fair Cultural programme Celebration of school enrolment day

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

4

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

Bichiwara Villages 1

2

3

4

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

The major means of carrying out the environment-building process in all the villages has been ‘house-to-house contact’ by the volunteers from within the village and conduct of ‘village and mohalla or wardlevel meetings’. Depending on the changing settings characterizing the villages, the methods adopted have also varied. For instance, in larger villages or in villages with distinct settlements within the village for 95




different groups, meetings in each settlement or ward within the village have accompanied village-level meetings. One could also observe differences in the time taken for the LJ workers to go through the process of environment building and taking up the next task to move towards school mapping. While in some villages the next task, namely, the formation of a prerak dal from among the volunteering villagers, could be completed within a month, it took more than six months in some others. In some villages, techniques such as a puppet show, streetcorner plays, video shows, etc., have been used to influence the community. Apparently, not much variety was adopted in the sample villages of Galandhar cluster in Bichiwara block. This could possibly be because the implementation of LJ activities in this cluster is being done through an NGO. The NGO workers, who already had a close rapport with the community and had formed groups of men and women for other development programmes in these villages, found it easier to introduce LJ programme and get the villagers involved without very elaborate environment-building activities. During discussions, the block- level LJ personnel differed in their opinion on this issue. It was felt that cutting short the process deprived the villagers from receiving full knowledge and awareness about LJ. To some extent, this argument is logical, as ‘environment building’ should not be seen only as a prerequisite step for the formation of the prerak dal that could carry on the work thereafter. The process of campaigning for education by contacting community members in groups, as well as individually, has to remain a permanent feature of the process of LJ implementation. There is, of course, no need to be rigid about the way people’s involvement is secured in different villages. There is no one correct formula for that and it would best be left to the judgement of the fieldlevel personnel. With the limited data collected in the study, it was difficult to ascertain whether this variation in the environment-building 96




process affected the participation level of the people. Nevertheless, irrespective of the processes adopted, the data collected from villagers and parents revealed that the level of awareness among the people regarding primary education was quite high in almost all the villages.

Village-level committees If community participation is not a one-time affair, it is important to ensure that the participation is sustained through a stable arrangement where the community members feel a sense of self-determination. Seen from this angle, prerak dal and mahila samooh represent the collective will and readiness of the community to achieve the goal of education for all as envisaged under LJ. But, village communities are not homogeneous and united entities. The guidelines that LJ has provided for constituting these committees try to address this issue. For instance, emphasis is placed on an adequate representation of women on the prerak dal; similarly, it is emphatically suggested that persons from the deprived communities find adequate representation in the prerak dal. Table IV.2. Members of Prerak Dal (core team)

Men Women TOTAL Scheduled caste Scheduled tribe Others No. of active members • Male • Female

Phalodi

Lunkarnsar

Talera

Bichiwara

Total

per cent

15 11

29 3

57 33

20 10

121 57

67.98 32.02

26

32

90

30

178

7

-

17

-

24

13.48

-

-

2

30

32

17.98

19

32

71

-

122

68.54

12 10

16 1

10 3

9 5

47 19 97




Forming a separate forum for women through mahila samooh has a three-fold role. First of all, it recognizes the importance of looking at women’s development issues and programmes independently. Secondly, it underlines the principle that women should have scope to discuss vital issues related to their children, on their own, and decide on the course of action to be followed. Thirdly, in the tradition-ridden rural milieu of Rajasthan, women are essential even to establish a channel of communication with other women. This, in turn, is a basic prerequisite if participation of girls in primary education is to be increased. The village committees were created several years ago in many of the sample villages, as that was one of the first tasks to be accomplished after the initial environment building. In order to keep the community members in a state of continuous involvement, it is imperative that the village committees themselves remain active. Data collected from the sample villages show that the prerak dals in all these villages have been involved in a number of activities since their formation. However, there are some points that need closer examination. It appears that the number of members in some of the committees has dwindled over a period of time. Secondly, in some cases the prerak dal members are looking for better guidance from the LJ workers at the cluster level, for keeping the participatory activities going. For instance, in three of the sixteen sample villages, prerak dal members have not been involved in any activity for the last three-four months; in fact, two of these teams have not undertaken any activity since they completed the first round of school mapping. It is true that one cannot expect all villages to be at the same level in terms of people’s participation. Several contextual factors are likely to promote or hinder participation of people in education activities. However, it is essential that the prerak dal members continue to campaign for better participation of children in primary education and the inactivity of the prerak dal should be a cause for concern for LJ workers. 98




Table IV.3. Mahila Samooh (women’s group) membership

Sample villages with MS Total membership Number of active members

Phalodi

Lunkarnsar

Talera

Bichiwara

Total

4

3

2

4

13

20

17

6

18

61

15

11

0

7

33

The situation regarding mahila samooh should be a cause of concern at least in some villages. As the data presented in Table IV.1 indicate, mahila samooh have yet to be formed in three of the 16 sample villages. In particular, sample villages from Talera block present a very disappointing picture. Even though school mapping has been completed in all the villages, mahila samooh have not been formed in two of the four sample villages. Even in the two villages with mahila samooh, the membership is poor and none of them is reported to be active. Interestingly, even in the prerak dals in these villages, even though the total female membership is as high as 33, altogether there are only three women members who have been active. Local circumstances may have in some cases affected the creation and functioning of women’s groups. However, it is important to guard against personal biases allowing the predicaments of the LJ workers to get in the way of mobilizing effective participation of women in schoolmapping processes; nor should local apathy and non-cooperation become an excuse for defaulting on this count.

Consultation and consensus-building processes It may not be uncommon to find some apparently influential people in the village choosing to stay out of the LJ activities. Yet, if improvement of the public system of primary education is the concern, one cannot afford to move ahead without broad-basing decision-making through adequate consultation with all sections of the village. In general, Lok Jumbish has followed a principle of consulting all interest groups in 99




the village and arriving at a consensus regarding all actions to be undertaken, whether it concerns the location of a non-formal education centre or the proposal for adding classrooms in the local primary school. Consultation and consensus building among the different stakeholders in rural areas of Rajasthan has not been an easy task. Apart from the prerak dal members, there are at least three interest groups in any village, namely, the local village leaders, the schoolteacher(s), and the ordinary villagers and parents of school-going children. The best way to get a consensus among all is to ensure that all the interest groups participate in all the activities throughout. The best guarantee against unnecessary dissension that may prove very costly for the Project initiatives is to consciously develop a common knowledge and understanding among all concerned of the actions being initiated. It is with this in mind that the handbook on school mapping very clearly exhorts the fieldworkers to ensure that maximum possible involvement of all concerned is secured. But, to what extent could this be achieved as reflected by the constitution and activities of the various LJ groups? Table IV.4. Sample villages according to the active participation of different categories of people in LJ activities Phalodi

Lunkarnsar

Talera

Bichiwara Total

Prerak dal (PD) members

3

2

3

4

12

Schoolteachers Educated persons in the village

2 -

3 4

3 3

2 2

10 9

Women volunteers

2

1

-

3

6

Local NGO activists Local leaders not in PD Outsiders specially brought in by LJ

1

2

-

4

7

3

1

-

2

6

3

1

-

-

4

100




Table IV.5. Participation of parents/villagers in LJ activities* Activities

Parents of school-going children

No. Environment building

%

Parents of SSK-going children

No.

%

Parents of children not going to school No.

%

Total

No.

%

8

18.60

4

15.38

1

4

13

13.83

16

37.21

5

19.23

2

8

23

24.47

12

27.91

5

19.23

-

-

17

18.09

7

16.28

2

7.69

-

-

9

9.57

16

37.21

6

23.08

-

-

22

23.40

10

23.26

2

7.69

-

-

12

12.77

14

32.56

4

15.38

-

-

18

19.15

15

34.88

5

19.23

-

-

20

21.28

Enrolling girls in SSK

8

18.60

7

26.92

-

-

15

15.96

Help in conducting SSK classes None of them Total

5

11.63

6

23.08

-

-

16

17.02

27 43

62.79

14 26

53.85

22 25

88

63 94

67.02

Household survey Preparation of school map Preparing village education register Motivating parents for sending children to school Ensuring regular attendance in PS Preparing Action Plan School-building improvement

* Percentages do not add up to 100 as many of them participate in more than one activity.

Data presented in Tables IV.4 and IV.5 clearly show that a wide crosssection of the rural community, representing all the interest groups, has been involved in LJ activities, implicitly conveying that the 101




consultation process has been well addressed. For instance, it is interesting to note that participation of teachers has been secured in 12 of the 16 villages. (Some of the sample villages did not have any school when LJ activities began.) Information on the level of participation of village leaders was also collected. In all, 29 village leaders were interviewed for this purpose. It was found that 65 per cent of them had not taken part in Lok Jumbish activities. This is quite encouraging, with more than 65 per cent of the leaders interviewed not being members of any LJ committees. It also indirectly implies that LJ has, to some extent, contributed to broadening the leadership base in the community by involving a new set of people in the village-level committees, yet not leaving out the traditional leaders in the consultation process. However, further examination of the data shows that this is an area requiring more attention. Only around 38 per cent of the leaders have been involved in actual preparation of the proposals following school mapping; another 8 per cent have been consulted and 7 per cent came to know later. Surprisingly, around 28 per cent of the leaders reported that they did not know about the proposals at all. Table IV.6. Number of parents/villagers who have seen the school map Participation

Parents of children going to PS

Parents of children going to SSK

Parents of children not enrolled anywhere

Total

No.

%

Yes

17

7

3

27

28.72

No Total

26 43

19 26

22 25

67 94

71.28

The overall level of involvement of ordinary villagers and parents also appears to be reasonably good. But the details of the category of 102




parents involved raises certain important issues. As can be seen from the data in Table IV.5, participation of parents whose children do not attend either the primary school or the NFE centre is very marginal. Information in Table IV.6, on whether parents have seen the actual school map or not, further reinforces the problem of involving different categories of parents in LJ activities. In fact, it indirectly raises the question whether LJ activities are addressing only the vocal and dominant groups in the villages, leaving out the generally silent and apprehensive members of the deprived sections. It may, of course, be noted that parents in the category of ‘children not enrolled anywhere’ were larger in number before LJ and some of those in the first two categories are essentially those who have enrolled their children for primary education after participating in LJ activities. Nevertheless, the fieldworkers cannot relent in their effort to seek out the marginalized and bring them into the participatory framework of LJ. Some questions regarding the involvement of teachers have also to be examined further. Questions to teachers regarding their involvement in LJ activities generally elicited a positive response. But, obtaining details from them on the actual activity in which they have been involved revealed that in most cases their role has been limited to their traditional official functions of getting more children enrolled in the school and ensuring better regularity in their attendance and classroom learning. Only a small proportion of the teachers was directly involved in conducting the survey, preparing the school map, enrolling girls in the NFE centre or supporting the NFE- centre instructor in her teaching. This is too important an issue to be ignored. One would have expected the local schoolteacher to take advantage of the opportunity provided by the LJ activities to socialize with the ordinary parents of the villages, and to establish a closer rapport with those whose children have traditionally remained outside the purview of schooling. It is important to remember that, in spite of operationalizing effective alternatives, 103




primary school will remain the major nucleus for imparting primary education and the teacher’s role and commitment in this regard cannot be undermined. Perhaps, it is not enough to just get one willing teacher to become involved in LJ activities. In sum, it is imperative that LJ workers and prerak dal members make more serious efforts to build closer alliances with the schoolteachers.

Observations It clearly emerges that participatory implementation of school mapping has now brought the community members and primary education much closer together. Efforts have been made to effectively break the invisible barrier that existed between government-sponsored primar y education and the needs and aspirations of the rural community. Moreover, direct involvement of the people in all steps of the process of school mapping, beginning from environment building to the preparation of concrete proposals, makes community participation a way of reinvesting in the people’s authority for self-determination. Below are some of the major observations emerging from the analysis of the participatory process of school mapping under LJ. Breaking the culture of silence through training for participation An important component of the school-mapping process is the training and orientation given to the prerak dal members for carrying out school mapping in their village. As expressed by many villagers, it is perhaps the first time that ordinary people of the villages have been made to feel that they can handle questions of educational planning for their village instead of depending on those few educated officers from outside. Often people hesitate to be vocal in village affairs, and allow the traditional power hierarchy to operate even when they do not approve of the outcomes, as they feel that they are incapable of 104




contributing and changing the course of action in a meaningful way. What is most important about the school-mapping training is that a serious attempt is made to break this traditional culture of silence and enable the villagers to articulate their own ideas on what should happen in their village. Specifically, building skills for carrying out school mapping instil a sense of achievement and self-worth among the participants. Such changes in self-perception do not, of course, come instantly. Perhaps, only a beginning has been made through localized training. The effort has to be sustained if it is to make a lasting impact on the people and their own self-concept. School mapping as a participatory diagnosis The second factor to be highlighted is the direct involvement of people in the conduct of the survey to diagnose the problem-spots in a concrete fashion. The villagers can no more view the findings of such a diagnostic exercise as those of outsiders. They are the outcomes of a process of self-discovery regarding the state of primary education in their environs. This approach has, therefore, placed people in the state of ‘see-for-yourself’. This is in contrast to what has been happening in the past, as mainly teachers and other government officials conducted such diagnostic reviews of participation in schooling. Creation of a technical information base on enrolment and attendance The school-mapping process results in creating a technical information base in the form of enrolment and attendance statistics. Under LJ, this knowledge about the state of primary education in the community is made easily comprehensible. The information is indicated not only in words and figures, but also in pictures and symbols, which are understandable even to an illiterate parent. This has also helped people to relate to the information given, as it is about people themselves and not just a few school statistics. Another important feature is that 105




the information is individualized in terms of specific households. With this, the community members can identify the households where children are not attending the school, and also possibly find the reasons for non-participation, recognizing the socio-economic and human dimensions of the problem. The school map as a social tool The school map is not just a technical tool for locating children who are not going to school. It is also to be seen as a powerful social tool that puts on one common platform all families of the village, irrespective of their social and economic status or their religious and caste affiliations. The focus is on a secular concern of providing primary education to all children in the village. At the same time, it also releases a powerful social message pointing to the localities and households where school-going or non-school-going children live and also the possible reasons for non-participation of children in the education process. This aspect could perhaps be better exploited by LJ as empirical evidence revealed that in many villages parents, particularly of children not attending primary education, had not seen the school map at all. A prerequisite for making the school map a social tool is that it is not maintained just as a technical document in the school, or with a clusterlevel LJ worker. Instead, it has to become an information base permanently available to public scrutiny. It is only then that the visual message incorporated in the school map can act as a psychological lever influencing parents to enrol their children in primary education. It is only then that the collective leadership of the village would feel the pressure to initiate the necessary actions for enrolling all children of the village in primary education and attend to the educational needs of children from the underprivileged sections of the community.

106




Community mobilization is not a one-time affair While the extent of involvement of people in school mapping is remarkable, there is no place for complacency even in the villages where LJ has been operating for the last three-four years. In particular, it should be noted that the village communities cannot be expected to be selfdirected in designing and initiating activities that keep them engaged in the programme of primary education. Therefore, the level of participation of the people in primary education is closely dependent on the activities of LJ designed for their involvement. One could observe that the intensity of activities designed for implementation by the prerak dal or mahila samooh needs re-examination. It was found that in some of the villages the prerak dal members felt that their job was complete once they implemented the various tasks involved in school mapping and got an NFE centre established or had a classroom constructed. Consequently, perhaps, the active participation of members in these groups also dwindled. It is important, therefore, that activities under school mapping are seen in a continuous fashion beyond the structured steps specified in the handbook. Perhaps, the cluster-level personnel also need a better orientation to maintain such a state of continuous mobilization of the community. Building a system of community commitment Implementation of the school-mapping process through active participation of the community provides a challenge to the people involved for solving the problem of providing education for all in the village concerned. This helps in making the community members realize that while the state would provide facilities for education, it is the collective responsibility of the community to ensure that the facilities created are properly made use of and to formulate demands for education programmes relevant to the needs of the community. Traditionally, the community considers enrolment of children in school as the individual responsibility of the parents. But the participatory 107




process has shifted the focus, making the community view this as the social responsibility of the whole village community. Involvement of community members in examining the primary education needs of the village and preparing proposals accordingly signifies to the villagers that they have the scope for self-determination as far as the education of their children is concerned. This sense of empowerment is also accompanied by a commitment to accountability. For instance, the community may propose the opening of an NFE centre in the village for non-school-going children, but simultaneously they must ensure that a teacher from within the community be identified and that the NFE centre is run regularly with an adequate attendance of children. Increasing personal knowledge of parents about their children’s education The participatory process of school mapping, beginning with environment building to getting more and more children into primary education, has to be viewed in a cyclic fashion. In the long term, the cycle consists of the re-surveying and the re-drawing of the school map. The short cycle has to be much more personalized through an effective channel of communication and feedback. In other words, reaching back to the people through the prerak dal with information on the changing status with respect to universal primar y education has to be a continuous affair. It has to be done through appropriate means of individualized interaction at family level. How to establish such a continuous means of grassroots-level communication is a question that needs serious consideration. The success of universal primary education will, in the final count, depend more on increasing the personal knowledge of the parents on what their children are gaining or losing by attending or not attending primary education, than on monitoring faceless figures of enrolment and attendance in the primary school. 108




Critical role of organizing mahila samooh In villages of Rajasthan, where the marginalization of women in social and economic life is so deeply entrenched, setting up a separate forum for women in the form of mahila samooh marks a significant step in women’s empowerment, which is one of the broader goals of LJ. Of course, setting up women’s groups under development programmes, particularly by NGOs, is not new. But the purpose and focus of action of the mahila samooh under LJ is of great importance. With an alarmingly low level of rural female literacy, it is unique to use these very people as the promoters of primary education of the children. Interestingly, findings of the study reveal that women volunteers, though small in number compared to their male counterparts, are more enthusiastic and committed allies in spreading the message of education, in general, and of primary education of the girls, in particular. Making the people’s participation more inclusive Finally, voluntary participation by people, as envisaged under LJ, will always be uneven and non-uniform. It is always underscored by a process of self-selection. It is invariably the case that the less articulate and underprivileged tend to exclude themselves from such communitybased activities for a variety of reasons. As revealed by the findings of the present investigation, it is but natural that community participation in school mapping is also uneven across the villages and even within any given village. It is unavoidable that the initial reaction of the marginalized groups, except for a small section, is to stay out of such activities. Some of these have remained keen but non-participant observers, who can possibly be influenced to join in; some have remained indifferent, unable yet to see any role for themselves; and a few seem to have remained quite ignorant of what LJ is about. It has to be recognized that inclusive participation by the whole community in a still feudalistic and caste-ridden society is a long drawn-out affair. If 109




one goes by the current level of participation by the underprivileged and the overall success in getting women to form their own action groups, LJ seems to have made a very positive beginning. The need is to persist with this to make the participation more comprehensive. On the whole, the participatory school-mapping process has set the stage for introducing more decentralization and the direct participation of villagers in the management of primary education. This is a timely and significant development in the context of the current move to transfer the responsibility for primary education to the panchayati raj bodies, which are the grassroots-level elected bodies for local selfgovernance. In a state of considerable fluidity and lack of direction on the roles and functions of these bodies, LJ efforts and experience should clarify what community bodies could do. Lessons from LJ should also be of significant help in defining the roles and functions of the PR bodies with respect to primary education. In the long term, the role of external agent provocateur for participation has to disappear to be replaced by self-directed actions by the community members. But until such time, LJ will have to play its role in mobilizing people for education. The goal has to be to achieve a state whereby participation in education becomes an accepted norm for every family and all their children attend primary education. The situation is likely to vary from one village to another. There can be no externally fixed time-frame; nor can progress made in this regard be measured through yardsticks designed externally. It has to be continuously evaluated in a contextualized manner so that the mobilization strategies are adapted to suit the local needs and conditions.

110




Table IV.7. Involvement of different people in environment building Phalodi Villages

Lok Jumbish worker Prerak dal member Schoolteacher

1 2 3 4 1

2

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Educated persons Women volunteers Local NGO workers Local village leader People specially brought from outside

Lunkarnsar Villages

✓

3

4

✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

Talera Villages 1

2

3

Bichiwara Villages 4

2

3

4

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

16

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

13

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

11

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

11

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

5

✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

6

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

1

Total

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

6 4

Emphasis on flexibility and innovativeness All actions that attempt to involve the community on a continuous basis under school mapping or otherwise have to be marked by flexibility and innovativeness. The standardization of the steps involved in school mapping, and specifying the ways and means of involving people in the various steps of school mapping, are necessary for streamlined implementation of project activities. But one has to guard against the danger of routinization and the ritualizing of the processes, robbing community participation of its essential vitality and spontaneity. The need is to perpetually search for local innovations in ways and means of involving people, characterized by flexibility and variety. This is an area in which fieldworkers of LJ have to tread very carefully so that the handbook for school mapping becomes a facilitating and not a limiting factor in community participation. Such innovative adaptations 111




have been attempted in some of the villages. But they are few and far between, and do not correspond to the normal process, which is still underlined by adherence to the manual and accompanied by inadequate reflection and discussion at the village level. Role of NGOs in school mapping It is not uncommon to come across different organizations working in the same area and possibly with the same people to implement different programmes. It should be appreciated that LJ has decided to get the school-mapping process implemented through the NGOs in areas in which they already have other developmental activities. This has helped in creating new partnerships between the education sector and other development sectors in the field. Through this, apart from building on the already existing contacts and skills for field operations, LJ is also exploring a new model of decentralized management, where active local organizations are used instead of creating a new project bureaucracy.

112



CHAPTER V ACCESS AND PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: THE CHANGING SCENARIO



ACCESS AND PARTICIPATION IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: THE CHANGING SCENARIO The main goal of Lok Jumbish is to change the current state of affairs with respect to primary education in Rajasthan. More specifically, LJ focuses on improving the level of participation of children in the age group 6-14 in primary education within the perspective of universal elementary education. In moving towards this goal, ‘school mapping’ is considered to be the main instrument and consists of enhancing the facilities for formal primary schooling, on the one hand, and creating additional alternative means of primary education, on the other, in a needs-based manner. School mapping also seeks to improve the quality of schooling provided to children by improving the physical infrastructure as well as the human resources available in the existing primary schools. It is not the intention of the present study to evaluate the extent of achievement of these goals. The present chapter attempts only to capture the changes emerging in the primary education scenario in a sample of blocks, clusters and villages where LJ has been in operation. Analyses and observations presented in this chapter are at two levels. One set of evidence has been derived from secondary sources using the annual reports and other documents available, published as well as unpublished, on the functioning of Lok Jumbish. The second level of analysis is based on the primary data collected from the sample clusters and villages selected for the study. The purpose of the analysis is to examine the trends in change in the three aspects of the project as mentioned below and to examine whether the changes are positive. These are concerned with: (i) improvement in access to primary education by the opening of new primary-education institutions; (ii) improvements made to the condition of the existing infrastructure and with regard to the human resources available in the primary schools; 114



Access and participation in primary education: the changing scenario

(iii) improvements in the participation of children in the age group 6 to 14 in primary education. It also attempts to examine the perceptions of the various actors at the grass-roots level with regard to the changing scenario. Perceptions of change have been collected, as experienced by different categories of actors, including teachers, parents and prerak dal members, and then analyzed.

Macro-perspective on changes in primary education in Lok Jumbish areas Educational statistics for Rajasthan reveal that primary education in the state has grown multifold during the last five decades. Yet, Rajasthan has remained one of the most backward states of the country, with more than one half of the children in the age group 6-14 out of school, 55 per cent of children dropping out between Classes I and V, and less than 30 per cent of the children completing primary education by the time they are 14+. According to the Sixth All India Educational Survey, 16,000 small habitations are without a primary school. LJ began its work faced with this dismal scene of primary education in Rajasthan. Overall coverage achieved in school mapping Work on school mapping began within six months of the launching of the Lok Jumbish project. Since then, the number of villages covered has steadily increased. By December 1997, Lok Jumbish was functioning in nearly 5,700 villages, spread over 58 blocks. School mapping has now been completed in about 70 per cent of these villages. Scrutiny of the records available at the Lok Jumbish office leads to two important observations on the nature of progress made in terms of overall coverage. First, the district has traditionally been considered as the basic unit of planning and implementation. However, as part of the thrust to achieve greater decentralization, LJ has adopted the Block as the basic unit for planning and decision-making with respect to LJ 115




activities, in general, and school mapping, in particular. This seems to be a reasonable proposition as the number of villages in a block varies widely, with some of them having more than 300 villages. The second point to be noted is that each operationalized block has a different status with respect to the implementation of the school-mapping process. This reflects the gradual infusion approach adopted under the project, emphasizing not just the product, namely, the school-location map, but also the process of participatory diagnosis and planning by the community members. It can be easily noted that, initially beginning with only five blocks, significant coverage has been attained during the last few years. It is understandable that during the initial years of the project, the focus was not on fast coverage, but on arriving at a clearer framework for carrying out the participatory process of school mapping. This is quite evident from the fact that the handbook for school mapping and microplanning itself has undergone a series of changes since it was first prepared and used in 1993. As the data from the sample villages indicate, some of the villages have witnessed a second round of school mapping and revision of the village-level database on primary education. Changes in provision of access One of the purposes of school mapping is to empirically assess the adequacy of the schooling facilities available and work out the additional requirements, if warranted, based on the diagnosis. Having undertaken such an empirical diagnosis, Lok Jumbish has adopted a three-pronged approach for improving access to primary education by: (a) opening new primary schools; (b) establishing siksha karmi schools; and (c) opening NFE centres. In addition to this, based on the demand at the village level, some of the existing primary schools have been upgraded to include Grades VI to VIII. Tables V.2 and V.3 give a summary of the steps taken in this regard. 116




Table V.1. Summary of villages covered and additional provisions made under school mapping Total number of villages (refers to revenue villages)

9,755

Total number of villages undertaken for environment building

4,887

Number of villages where school mapping is completed

3,512

Total number of new primary schools opened

353

Total number of Siksha Karmi schools opened

435

Total number of NFE centres opened

3,315

Total number of additional posts of teachers created on the basis of school mapping Primary school

675

Upper-primary school

494

Total number of primary schools upgraded

200

Source : Records available at Lok Jumbish Parishad, Jaipur, 31 October, 1997.

As already pointed out in an earlier section, school mapping in Lok Jumbish is only taken up after a long and meticulous preparation in terms of building a favourable environment among the community members for promoting primary education, and mobilizing and organizing them, including women, in the form of prerak dal and mahila samooh. Table V.1 shows that while LJ had begun to work in 9,755 villages, by the end of October 1997, environment building had been completed in 4,887 villages. (This had increased to 5,683 by March 1998). Of these, school mapping has been done in around 70 per cent of the villages. Based on the outcomes of the school mapping, considerable effort has been made to improve access to primary education in these villages. Having identified the unmet demand for primary education in these villages, LJ has gone about creating primary education facilities. As mentioned earlier, LJ has attempted to increase access though adding or creating three types of education facilities, namely, formal primary schools, siksha karmi schools and non-formal education centres. Table V.2 gives data on the increase in the number of primary schools and 117




siksha karmi schools. The data give a comparative picture of the schooling facilities available earlier, before school mapping was carried out (referred to as Then) and the situation as in December 1997 (referred to as Now) for the five blocks where Lok Jumbish was first initiated. Table V.2. Changes in primary-school provision in the five blocks first initiated by LJ Block

Primary school

Upper-primary school

Siksha Karmi school

Then

Now

Then

Now

Then

Now

Arain

94

106

26

36

13

31

Garhi

138

176

62

74

5

32

Kishanganj Lunkarnsar Pisangan

96 127 131

101 141 149

20 28 37

27 52 53

5 7 3

28 49 15

Total

586

673

173

242

33

155

There has clearly been a substantial increase in the total number of primary education institutions in the villages where school mapping has been carried out. Altogether, 4,103 new primary education institutions have been created based on the school-mapping exercise. Of these, 353 new primary schools and 435 siksha karmi schools have been established to meet the existing demand for primary education, through the formal primary school framework. Apart from this, the school-mapping process also resulted in the establishment of 3,315 nonformal education facilities to meet the demand of those children who could not avail themselves of the formal primary education facilities. An important point to observe is that such NFE centres have been established based on the expressed demand of the community. While LJ has the responsibility for training the instructor, giving him a small honorarium and providing teaching-learning material and supervision support, the community is committed to providing a suitable place for conducting the classes, identifying an instructor with the requisite 118




qualification to do part-time teaching in the NFE centre, and ensuring the regular attendance of the children enrolled in the Centre. In addition to creating new institutional facilities, LJ has also tried to augment the number of teachers available in the existing primary schools, bearing in mind the increase in enrolment. In all, LJ has created 675 such posts of teachers in primary schools. However, during the field visit it was pointed out that even after the creation of the post, the appointment of teachers to the respective schools takes a fairly long period of time as this is done through the relevant department of the Government of Rajasthan. One can also find a perceptible increase in the demand for upperprimary education emerging in the villages where school mapping has been done. Although a major part of this could be explained by the unmet needs that always existed, the awareness-building exercises may also have led to higher transition from primary to upper primary. To meet this increased demand, LJ has upgraded 200 lower-primary schools to upper-primary schools and created 494 additional posts of teachers in the existing upper-primary schools. Changes in participation in primary education The official statistics on primary school participation in primary education are generally based on the figures of student enrolments available in the primar y schools. Based on these figures, the participation rate is presented in terms of gross or net enrolment ratios, which take into consideration only the children enrolled in the primary schools. The rates are computed based on projections made from the census figures. Since the enrolment figures are not computed at each school or village level and are invariably aggregated at the district level, the proportion of non-participating children can only be inferred from population projections. In contrast to this, the figures generated in Lok 119




Jumbish by the school-mapping process identify the exact number of children who are not participating in primary education in each village, with the help of the village education register, prepared through a participatory process. This makes the figures more reliable and helps avoid under- or overstatement of the enrolment figures, often associated with attendance data supplied by the schools themselves. Furthermore, the figures computed under Lok Jumbish include not only those who are enrolled in formal primary schools, but also those receiving primary education through non-formal education centres. Table V.3. Summary of improvement in participation rate in primary education in 240 villages (in percentage)

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

Boys

60.17

72.47

78.57

Girls

27.30

48.30

59.29

Total

45.31

61.41

69.75

Source : Lok Jumbish, Sixth Report (p. 17).

There is no regular attempt made in Lok Jumbish to consolidate the data from the village education register as the participatory process is essentially meant to aid the local community members to identify the non-attending children and to ensure that all of them receive primary education by one means or another. In fact, even though common formats are used in all the villages, there is considerable variation in presentation and maintenance of the data. Therefore, aggregation of such village data after proper scrutiny and rationalization is an arduous task. Table V.3, therefore, gives the consolidated status with respect to the 240 villages where LJ activities were first initiated. The figures show an increase of around 25 per cent in two years, which is definitely a significant achievement. However, two observations are to be made here. First, since the figures include children enrolled in NFE centres 120




also, the increase does not directly represent the improvement in the efficiency of the primary schools. It does not clearly indicate if more children are enrolled and retained in the formal primary schools. Second, while the increase in the figures is substantial between 199495 and 1995-96, it is quite modest for the succeeding year. This could partly be due to the fact that children of all ages in the school-age range were enrolled through the mobilization campaign in the initial year, requiring only a smaller number of children to be ‘mopped up’ in the next year. But, the decreasing rate of growth in enrolment could also be due to non-retention of children after their enrolment. The latter problem could, perhaps, be addressed with the help of the retention register, which is being introduced in all the LJ villages.

Changes observable in the sample villages In order to get a closer view of the changes that have emerged following the school-mapping initiative under Lok Jumbish, detailed information was collected on the improvement in the access to primary education, as well as changes in the participation of children in the school-going age group in the 16 sample villages. The section will also present observations on the improved facilities provided in the existing primary schools in these villages. There are 18 schools located in 15 of the sample villages; one village, namely, Baka Kada Beed, has no primary school. It may, however, be mentioned that the village is very small, with less than 30 households, and there is a primary school across the road in the neighbouring village. Of the 12 lower-primary schools located in the sample villages, four were established after the school-mapping process, which took place between 1994-96. There are, in all, six upper-primary schools in the sample villages. Of these, three were upgraded only after the schoolmapping process. These figures clearly show a significant improvement in the provision of access to primary schooling in the LJ villages. 121




Table V.4. Details of school establishment, upgrading and provision of teachers Village

Junejon ki Dhani

Name

Year of Year of establish- upgrading ment to UPS

Classes taught

Teachers

M

F

T

Teachers sanctioned by LJ

Government UPS

1977

1988

I - VIII

5

-

5

-

Kumharon ki Dhani

Government PS

1996

-

I & II

1

-

1

1

Bapini

Government PS

1995

-

I & II

1

2

3

3

Moria

Government UPS

1954

1973

I - VIII

9

-

9

-

Ganeshpura

NBV Mandir (PS)

1991

-

I-V

2

-

2

-

a. AS Niketan

1994

-

I-V

5

-

5

-

b.Government UPS

1960

1994

I - VIII

4

-

4

-

a. LBV Niketan(UPS)

1989

1994

I - VIII

5

1

6

-

b. Government PS

1986

-

I-V

6

1

7

1

Government PS

1955

-

I-V

3

-

3

2

Mokhampura Government PS

1961

-

I-V

2

-

2

1

a. Government UPS

1962

1978

I - VIII

5

4

9

-

b. Government Girls' PS

1994

-

I-V

1

1

2

2

Dhani Bhopalaram

Government PS

1975

-

I-V

2

-

2

-

Sehniwala

Government PS

1985

-

I-V

3

-

3

-

Laxmanpura

Government PS

1984

-

I-V

2

-

2

-

Manipur

Government PS

1972

-

I-V

2

-

2

-

Jalukuan

Government UPS

1959

1994

I - VIII

8

-

8

6

No school

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Bhavanipura

Dehit

Jalodi

Phuldesar

Baka Kada Beed

Review of the teacher availability in the primary schools in relation to the enrolment figures has also led to the provision of additional teachers in these schools. Based on the proposals prepared following the school mapping, LJ has sanctioned 16 posts of teachers in these schools. An important point to be remembered here is that additional posts given are not based on the gross enrolment figures supplied by 122




the school authorities, as is normally done. Instead, the sanction is given on the basis of the actual number of children attending the school, as indicated in the proposal prepared by the community members. This is a positive step as the post is sanctioned based on an expressed demand and commitment by the villagers. However, closer scrutiny during the fieldwork revealed that the sanctioning of the teacher by Lok Jumbish does not allow for appointment of the teacher immediately. This is done centrally by the Government of Rajasthan and causes considerable delay. Lok Jumbish has also established several NFE centres to cater to the primary education needs of those who fail to benefit from the formal primary school. The figures reveal that NFE centres have been established in 10 sample villages, based on the findings of school mapping. It is again important to note that these centres are established based on the concrete need expressed by the community members and after ensuring that the centre will be attended regularly by an adequate number of children. Further, in order to ensure better participation of children, in particular girls, great care is taken by the prerak dal members to identify the locality of the village which has the larger number of non-school-going children and decide on the exact place where the centre should function. The place for conducting the NFE classes is, as a rule, provided by the community members. Lok Jumbish recognizes that regular participation of children in the primary school is also inf luenced by the nature of the physical environment that the primary school presents. Needless to add that this will also directly influence the quality of the teaching-learning process in the primary schools. Therefore, LJ has made an attempt to improve significantly the physical and academic facilities in the primary schools. Information collected from the field revealed that LJ has contributed to improvement in physical facilities in all of the schools. In fact, in 10 123




of these schools, the school-building construction has been taken up after the school mapping. Again, even though the construction work is carried out with the professional support of engineers and architects, the responsibility mainly lies with the local school-building construction committee. This does not imply that the problem of physical infrastructure in these schools has been fully overcome. In fact, several of the schools still have to use regularly the veranda as a classroom; and one of them still does not have a school building at all. In addition to this, LJ has also ensured the availability of blackboards in all the primary schools and supplied a package of teaching-learning material to all of the schools.

Changes in participation in primary education As already noted while describing the school-mapping process, the collection of information from the field through a participatory approach and maintaining statistical details on learner participation in primary education is an altogether new experience for the community members and even, in most cases, for the LJ workers. As a result, in most of the villages, the prerak dal members and LJ workers are still coming to terms with the task of maintaining reliable information in the form of a village education register. This is clearly evident from the highly non-uniform set of database on learner participation available at the village level, as presented in Table V.5. With respect to each village, the data given in Table V.5 attempts to capture the changes in the actual participation of children in primary education between two points of time, namely, before school mapping and after school mapping (except in the case of Dehit village, for which only the current figures are given as the records of school mapping could not be traced). Figures have been given separately for the formal primary school and the NFE centres, to assess the changes in the efficiency of the formal primary school. 124



Table V.5.

Changes in participation of children in primary education 5-14 year-old children B

G

T

Attending primary school B

G

T

Childre deprived educatio

Attending NFE centre B

G

T

B

G

Kumharon ki Dhani Before school mapping

101

82

183

47

14

61

-

-

-

54

68

After school mapping and opening of primary school

104

79

183

67

31

98

3

12

15

34

36

49

66

115

8

-

8

-

-

-

41

66

53

65

118

36

27

63

-

-

-

17

38

108 103

79 76

187 179

47 59

23 27

70 86

-

-

-

61 44

56 49

1996-97 Junejon ki Dhani

91

66

157

51

22

73

11

16

27

29

28

Before school mapping After school mapping 1996-97

71 77 70

50 53 56

121 130 126

45 48 45

5 17 30

50 65 75

-

-

-

26 29 25

45 36 26

183

156

339

115

61

176

-

-

-

68

95

193

142

335

170

75

245

-

-

-

14

52

201

179

380

134

82

216

7

12

19

59

86

Bapini Before school mapping Present position (as in the village education register) Moria 1994-95 1995-96

Jalukuan Before school mapping After school mapping January 96 Present position - surveyed by researchers

125



126

Table V.5. (continued) 5-14 year-old children B

G

T

Attending primary school B

G

T


Attending NFE centre B

G

T

B

G

Laxmanpura Before school mapping

44

46

90

24

11

35

-

-

-

20

35

44

49

93

32

40

72

-

-

-

12

9

57

71

128

42

32

74

3

14

17

12

25

34

26

60

25

12

37

-

-

-

9

14

27

29

56

25

19

44

1

7

8

1

3

50

55

105

40

31

71

-

-

-

10

24

45

41

86

40

29

69

-

-

-

5

12

45

40

85

36

30

66

1

2

3

8

8

158

152

310

122

53

175

-

-

-

36

99

158

155

313

120

66

186

-

-

-

38

89

417

322

739

359

204

63

-

12

12

58

106

Ganeshpura Before school mapping

82

54

136

68

21

89

-

-

-

14

33

In 1996-97

82

59

141

71

43

114

2

12

14

11

16

After school mapping 1995-96 1996-97 (by researchers) Baka Kada Beed Before school mapping Present position (survey by researchers) Manipur Before school mapping 1994 After school mapping 1995 Present position Jalodi Before school mapping In 1996-97 Dehit In January 1997



Table V.5. (continued) 5-14 year-old children

Attending primary school


Attending NFE centre

B

G

T

B

G

T

B

G

T

B

G

Before school mapping December 96 February 97 (by researchers)

195 196 197

140 154 164

335 350 361

180 179 179

115 143 143

295 322 322

-

-

-

15 17 18

25 11 21

Mokhampura Before school mapping

208

150

358

112

38

150

-

-

-

96

112

In 1995-96 1996-97 (by researchers) Dhani Bhopalaram

198 142

136 88

334 230

111 136

68 68

179 204

-

-

-

87 7

60 19

Before school mapping In 1995-96 April 1997 (by researchers)

105 110 99

73 72 87

178 182 186

72 93 71

23 38 35

95 131 106

15

16

31

33 17 13

50 34 36

Before school mapping In 1995-96

112 176

78 169

190 345

86 108

43 74

129 182

-

-

-

26 68

35 95

In December 1996 Phuldesar

172

162

334

125

101

226

26

36

62

47

61

Before school mapping In 1996-97

106 73

60 64

166 137

76 65

29 51

105 116

-

-

-

30 8

31 13

479 1546 780 1963

69

139

208

539 327

766 505

Bhavanipura

Sehniwala

Total for 15 sample villages Before school mapping 1606 1267 2873 1067 Present position 1571 1364 2935 1203

127




The figures given in Table V.5 show a significant improvement in the participation rate of children in primary education after the schoolmapping exercise. There are some obvious problems in generalizing for the whole set of sample villages due to the nature of the data given for different villages. First, the figures do not extend over the same period of time. To some extent this was unavoidable, as school mapping has been carried out at different points of time. In some cases the figures had not been updated for quite some time or the prerak dal members affirmed that the school mapping could not be done in the first instance in a systematic manner. In such situations, investigators carried out a quick survey during the field visit. Also, there had been considerable difficulty in identifying the number of girls in the age group 6-14 due to early marriage and the confusion on where they should be counted; in some cases they have been left out altogether. Therefore, in assessing the change scenario these complexities have to be borne in mind. Nevertheless, even after making allowances for these considerations, one can safely conclude that the school-mapping exercise has made a substantial impact on the participation of children in primary education. The overall figures reveal that while nearly one out of two children stayed out of primary education at the time LJ made its entry, only 28 per cent of the children in the age group 6-14 are currently not participating in primary education.* The major gain seems to be in the case of girls, as the proportion of girls deprived of primary education came down from 62 per cent to 37 per cent. The NFE programme has definitely contributed to a considerable reduction in children staying out of primary education. However, figures reveal that the major increase in participation has come about mainly due to increased participation in the formal primary school. In the case of boys, the increase seems to be about 50 per cent more in the formal stream as compared to the number studying in the NFE centre. Corresponding *

A tracer analysis of children enrolled in the NFE centres of the sample villages showed that a small number but a sizeable proportion of children from NFE centres get enrolled in the local primary school after learning for some time and gaining in confidence through these centres.

128




figures for the girls reveal that at least two additional girls joined the formal primary school for every girl enrolled in the NFE centre. This is in line with the basic philosophy of Lok Jumbish that all children of the age group 6-14 should be provided primary education through the formal primary schools; those who for various reasons are unable to attend the formal primary school should be provided quality primary education through the NFE alternative.

Change as perceived by the actors Lok Jumbish began its operations to improve the status of primary education in Rajasthan quite recently. Primary schools have been available in the villages of Rajasthan for several decades. In fact, primary schools in some of the sample villages were established more than four decades ago. Under these circumstances, quick changes in the participation of children in primary education raises the question whether the change is at all sustainable in the long term. Obviously, changes in terms of enrolment and attendance of children, if they are not superficial, should reflect real changes in the attitude of the adult world towards the value of educating their children. In fact, it is such a fundamental transformation in the way men and women view primary education and its value that Lok Jumbish purports to bring about. The task therefore is not confined to improving the enrolment rates, but to developing a conviction among the community that much wider and sustainable changes are taking place. Do the actors involved at the grassroots level perceive that changes are taking place? If people do not perceive that changes are really taking place, it is less likely that they would continue to support such actions in a sustainable fashion.

129




Changes in participation rates of girls and in the overall role of women The better participation of girls in primary education is considered to be one of the critical areas essential for universal primary education. A related area to which LJ has given a very high priority is the improvement of the overall status of women, which in turn will ensure the higher participation of girls in primary education. How do women perceive this aspect? Do they perceive any change in these areas after Lok Jumbish, particularly with respect to the level of participation of women in village education activities? Opinions of mahila samooh members were collected on these questions. The responses have been grouped for the four clusters, as SM has been carried out only recently in Talera, whereas Bichiwara was one of the first few blocks where SM was carried out several years ago. Also, only one sample village in Talera had an active mahila samooh. Table V.6. Women’s perception of the enrolment of girls in primary education and the social participation of women in the sample villages

Responses Increase in general awareness among women Increase in enrolment of girls Women are more active in village affairs Less inhibited / No purdah

Block Phalodi Lunkarnsar

Talera

Bichiwara

Total

%

2

4

-

1

7

19.44

12

9

1

9

31

88.89

6

3

2

7

18

50.00

2

4

-

-

6

16.66

The figures in Table V.6 show that an overwhelming number of women consider that there has been a significant increase in the enrolment of girls in primary education following the school-mapping 130




exercise. Fifty per cent of them also consider that women have become more active in various activities at the village level. This in itself is a significant change, as they reported that in the initial stages of LJ, women could not perceive any role for themselves outside their home and family. However, the perception of change in terms of overcoming the cultural barriers for participation seems to be only marginal. But, it should be noted that the latter observation is quite contextual. For instance, there are no sex-based sociocultural barriers for women’s participation in the predominantly tribal block of Bichiwara. Obviously, this only indicates the direction in which change is taking place. One has to carry out a much deeper analysis to ascertain changes in the behaviour patterns of women, in order to understand the dynamics of the status of women in the highly patriarchal society of rural Rajasthan. However, the positive perceptions of mahila samooh members are only indicative of their approval of the nature of activities initiated through the SM process. Perception of changes in the functioning of the local primary school The data on increase in participation given in Table V.5 show that the major share in increased participation is accounted for by additional enrolment in the primary schools. Further, discussion with different stakeholders in primary education at the grass-roots level, whether from LJ, the community or the school, revealed that in their view the efforts of SM and micro-planning will not fructify if the functioning of the primary school does not improve. Keeping these considerations in view, the perceptions of a wide range of people concerned with primary education were collected on the central question of whether the local primary school has improved since the school-mapping exercise. These responses are given in Table V.7.

131



132

Table V.7. Perception of different stakeholders of changes in the functioning Responses

Core team members (N = 64) A

School opens regularly No %

Teachers are taking more interest

No

More children have joined school

No

%

B

Cluster-level LJ workers (N=12) C

A

C -

38

1

12

-

95.31

1.56

3.12

100

-

-

95.00

2.50

52

3

9

9

3

-

35

2

4.68 14.04

75

25

-

87.50

5.00

31

4

81.12

-

-

-

-

47 7 10 Children attend school No more regularly % 73.32 10.92 15.60

9

3

Additional teacher(s) has(ve) been provided

% %

47

8

53

6

82.68

9.36

21

33

75

25

-

11

1

-

7.80 91.67

5

8.33

-

9

3

-

32.76 51.48 15.60

75

25

-

8

4

-

6.24 68.67 34.33

-

Children are learning better

No

Better learning materials are available

No

Children are happier attending the school

No %

81.12

Parents are taking more interest in their children’s education

No

-

-

-

-

%

-

-

-

-

I receive guidance for doing my work

No

-

-

-

-

-

-

%

-

-

-

-

-

-

%

41

4

12

11

63.96 18.72

8

2

Parents and villagers (N=56) A

1

B

44

2.50 78.57 3

7.50 64.20 5

30

5

33

6

82.50 15.00 18

14

1 8

23

15

21

8.93 26.78 72.45 5

14

20

8.93 25.00 69.00 5

18

20

8.93 32.14 69.00

33

2.50 58.93

10

5

33

75.00 12.50 12.50 58.93

( A

3.57 17.86 79.35

37

5

Villa

C 2

36

77.50 10.00 12.50 66.07

-

10

11 49 The primary school has No been upgraded % 17.16 76.44 %

C

2

12

No

B

1

100

No

A

61

9

Physical conditions in school have improved

(N=40)

B

73.32 12.48 14.04

%

Schoolteachers

4

19

23

7.14 33.93 79.35

14

24

18

8

45.00 35.00 20.00 25.00 42.86 32.14 27.60 8

28

4

9

33

14

5

20 70.00 10.00 16.07 58.93 25.00 17.25 2

29

6

5

31

8

17

17

68.67 16.66 16.66 72.50 15.00 12.50 55.36 14.28 30.36 58.65

56

2

6

12

-

-

87.36

3.12

9.36

100

-

-

2

10

11

1

-

32

3.12 15.60 91.67

8.33

-

80

-

-

32

4

-

-

-

3

-

-

80 10.00 10.00

-

-

-

10.35

31

4

-

-

-

-

77.5 12.50 10.00

-

-

-

-

52

35

4

87.50 10.00 3

1

27

8

22

2.50 48.21 14.28 37.50 75.90 5

34

9

13

23

7.50 12.50 60.71 16.07 23.21 79.35 4

5

A: Yes – B: No – C: Cannot say/Do not know.


21



Irregularity in the functioning of the local primary school as the teachers remain absent, too often is a complaint one hears from many persons in rural areas. The respondents, therefore, were questioned to find out if this had changed since school mapping. The general perception was that the school opens regularly and also that the teachers are taking more interest in their work now than earlier. However, parents and villagers as well as the village leaders did not endorse this unreservedly. Of course, a sizeable proportion expressed themselves by saying that they did not know. Interestingly, some LJ workers did not feel that the teachers are taking more interest, even though they were unanimous in stating that, since the entry of LJ, the schools open regularly. The main goal of SM has been to enrol all children in the school and ensure that they attend the school regularly. All cluster-level LJ workers consider that more children have joined the school since school mapping. A majority of other categories of respondents also endorsed this, but were not unanimous in that. Around 10 per cent of them felt that it was not happening. Analysis of the village data showed that most of the respondents with a negative answer are from villages where SM was initiated only recently. Another related item posed was on the attendance of children in the primary school. Do children attend the school more regularly? While most of the respondents have expressed the view that children were attending the school more regularly, a sizeable number of all categories seem to say that more has to be done in this regard. This is in line with the observations made earlier on this issue and it also underscores the current efforts being made by LJ to maintain a children’s retention register, along with the main village education register. Most of the respondents consider that the physical conditions in the school have improved since school mapping. This is obviously one of the most easily visible changes one can perceive. Therefore, it is 133




surprising that nearly one-third of the parents and villagers indicated that they did not know whether this had happened or not. This is a matter to which the LJ authorities need to pay careful attention. Respondents are divided in their answers on questions related to provision of additional teachers and the upgrading of the local primary school. But this is understandable as these are factual questions and are not uniformly applicable to all of the villages. Two of the items are related to children and their learning, as Lok Jumbish has also attempted to improve the quality of the teachinglearning process in the primary schools. Do parents and teachers consider that the children are learning better now than earlier? More than seven out of ten teachers indicated that children are learning better now than earlier. However, parents and villagers were not quite so unequivocal in endorsing this. Even though nearly half of them perceived a positive shift in this regard, around 15 per cent of parents and villagers felt that such a change had not taken place. In fact, around one-fifth of the core team members and 17 per cent of cluster-level LJ workers also did not consider that children were learning better. The responses are more positive from all sections with respect to another question, which addressed the issue of whether children are happier now at the idea of attending school than they were earlier. To what extent have the teaching-learning conditions in the school changed? Most of the respondents perceived a positive change in the nature of the teaching-learning material provided in the primary schools. It may, in particular, be noted that 87.50 per cent of the teachers perceive such a positive change in their schools since the school-mapping exercise. In addition to this, teachers were asked to indicate whether they had received any guidance for doing their work more effectively through LJ sources. As many as 77.50 per cent of the teachers responded positively to this. This is an important issue, as teachers in rural primary schools have to function most often in totally isolated conditions. With the highly inadequate 134




supervision system of the Education Department, teachers have no one to fall back upon. In this regard, many teachers seem to appreciate the positioning of a professional person in each cluster exclusively for providing academic guidance and support to the teachers. It is not enough for the parents to send their children to school. They should also take an interest in what their son or daughter is learning at the primary school. Eighty per cent of the teachers expressed themselves by saying that parents are taking more interest now in the education of their children than earlier. This positive perception of the teachers should not only help in changing the attitude of the teachers towards parents, but should also encourage them to work closer together to help the children make better progress in their educational endeavour.

Observations As already pointed out, school mapping under Lok Jumbish attempts to promote the universal participation of children in primary education. But the task of universalization is not merely seen as a technical exercise in taking stock of the non-enrolled and registering them in the primary school. Rather, the attempt is to get to the root of the problem of nonparticipation and create voluntary processes of transformation in their approach and attitude towards education among the parents and community members. Such an approach, obviously, demands persistence, using innovative strategies over a fairly long period of time. If that is so, attempting to capture changes in the field over the short period of time that Lok Jumbish has been in operation may prove to be senseless. Keeping this in view, the chapter has only attempted to capture the broad trends in change, but not to judge the magnitude of change brought about through the intervention of school mapping. Also, the observations are mainly based on the findings of the study of sample villages. 135




Improved access to primary education Based on the findings of the school-mapping exercise, LJ has made systematic efforts to improve access to primary education. This has been done by getting the Rajasthan government to open new primary schools; the Siksha Karmi Board to establish Siksha Karmi schools and by opening NFE centres. This is, no doubt, a positive step as the data reveal that the measure has really increased the coverage, particularly of girls. The SM exercise included collection of information on the reasons for non-attendance in the local school. In fact, it is based on these findings that decisions are made as to whether a new primary school has to be opened or an NFE centre established as an alternative delivery mechanism to meet the educational needs of the non-participating children. The fact that additional provisions have been made based on the expressed needs of the community, and with an underlying understanding that the new provisions will be properly made use of, is a significant point to note. This is important, as the earlier experience shows that the NFE centres, when opened by the government, invariably remained unutilized or underutilized. Establishment of the NFE centre and the functioning of the local primary school There is no doubt that a substantial number of children have been brought into the fold of primary education through the NFE programme of Lok Jumbish. This is particularly true of girls who would otherwise have been deprived of primary education. Empirical evidence in this regard is quite clear as, in some of the villages, formal primary schools have been functioning for several decades and yet almost the whole female population in the village has remained without primary education. Will the model of non-formal education set up by LJ emerge as an effective and sustainable alternative to the formal primary school? Will such centres remain permanent features of rural Rajasthan? These 136




are difficult questions to answer at the present juncture. It should, however, be noted that a sizeable number of children do not attend or drop out without completing primary education, due to the unattractive school conditions and the poor functional efficiency that characterizes the formal primary school. But, it is worthwhile examining whether limiting the procedure to this alternative alone will suffice if it is not accompanied by an equally serious effort to improve the efficiency of the existing primary school. The creation of educational facilities in any village, in the formal or non-formal sector, has to be seen in an integrated manner, optimizing the efficiency of all the institutions concerned. Lok Jumbish has made an attempt in this respect. As the data reveal, school mapping has led to the provision of additional facilities in the existing primary schools, both as regards the physical infrastructure and teaching-learning materials. Additional teachers have also been provided, wherever found necessary, according to the prevailing norms of the teacher/pupil ratio. One cannot, however, conclude that the primary schools are functioning to their optimal efficiency. The field study indicated the need for a school-specific and holistic development perspective in improving the functioning of primary schools. This, it is hoped, will be the focus of action under Lok Jumbish in villages where significant improvement in access and participation has been achieved through participatory school mapping and micro-planning. Provision of additional teachers School mapping under LJ recognizes the importance of improving the functioning of the local primary school through provision of additional teachers. Again, this provision of additional teachers is not done based on the mere consideration of enrolment figures. Instead, it is also done based on a proposal made by the prerak dal using the schoolmapping data. Thus, LJ has made a clear distinction between the 137




appointment of teachers as a norm-based supply phenomenon, and as a demand-based response that brings in a sense of responsibility to the community as well as to the incumbent teacher. But the process of appointment of the teacher is not a smooth phenomenon. Even though the assessment of the proposal and sanction of new teachers is done through the KSPS at the block level, the final appointment is still done through a centralized mechanism operated by the state government. Considerable delay in actual appointment of teachers, even after a close examination by the KSPS, was pointed out by many community members, as well as LJ workers, as a genuine management problem. Seen from the angle of sustainability, the process of appointing teachers through the state government channels seems to be an appropriate procedure, as it is also in line with the proposed rollback plan of Lok Jumbish with respect to the project management structure. The problem may be perceived by some as a normal part of the bureaucratic functioning of the system. But, at the field level, it can import undesirable consequences. This implies that improvement in the primary school system cannot be achieved by LJ alone without the involvement of the Education Department of the state as an active collaborator. Changing the primary education system demands that the state not only provides policy support to innovative approaches, but matches that policy commitment with field-level actions. Raising the expectations of the community through participatory action and not responding to its rational demands in a speedy manner, may portend dangerous consequences for further innovative action involving the community. Improvement of the physical infrastructure and other basic facilities in the primary school Improvement of the physical infrastructure and provision of other basic facilities is one of the most impressive features implemented, again, 138




through a par ticipator y process. Villagers seem to be highly impressed by the quick pace of action brought about by their own involvement. As one villager put it, “The school has been there in the village for so many years. It had always been in a bad condition. What we could not get done for the school for all these years, LJ has done it just in a matter of two-three years.“ There is also a general appreciation of the process adopted, in particular the transparency in all actions related to civil construction works. The participatory approach adopted and implemented through the BNS, which essentially consists of local people and schoolteachers, has given them all a sense of ownership. One can see a distinct slant in the attitude of the people, including the village leaders, in treating the school building as their community property, which hitherto was considered a government building of no concern to the villagers. This change in attitude is also evident in some places in terms of the readiness to raise financial support through local sources. Provision of teaching-learning equipment Data from the field study very clearly show that tremendous attention has been paid to the processes that should take place in the village and among the community members to ensure better participation of children in primar y education. Supplies and provisions in the primary school have also improved considerably. But, are we paying adequate attention to what exactly happens in the school? This is a question that needs closer attention and analysis. For instance, library books supplied by LJ are often kept in a bad shape and the condition in which they are found does not indicate that they have been used at all. But this is a chronic problem which has been observed all over the country with respect to the utilization of books and equipment supplied in a standardized manner to all schools. Perhaps, this should also be made demand-based, articulated in the form of development plans that specify the way in which such 139




additional provisions should be used. There is no doubt that most of the schools need better instructional facilities. During the discussions, villagers admitted that the unattractive nature of the school, both in terms of the physical facilities and the instructional processes adopted, is one of the causes for pupils to drop out or not to attend the schools regularly. Considerable attention is currently being paid as a follow-up of SM to the physical infrastructure aspect. One wonders whether the instructional dimension is also looked into at the same level. Obviously, this may require more professional understanding on the part of those intervening and mere community participation cannot tackle this effectively. The cluster staff can possibly look into this more closely. At present, only the person in charge at the cluster level for implementing MLL (minimum levels of learning) looks into this. During discussions, cluster staff expressed their difficulty in going deeper into what happens in the school and were not quite sure that they were adequately equipped to help in this matter. Changing perceptions of stakeholders If one goes by the reactions of different categories of people on what impact SM has made on school functioning, the changes are overwhelmingly positive. Such a positive perception of everyone concerned, including the teachers, may represent two features of the changed setting. One, this will increase the commitment to achieve better standards of functioning, as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Or, it may only be indicative of a euphoria on the limited improvement made, which also shows a lack of imagination as to the extent of the progress still to be made. Without in any way discounting the impact made by SM, it is important to ensure that the enthusiasm shown by the local community is sustained until the goal of universal elementary education is achieved. Channelling the enthusiasm of the community, without undue interference in the professional work of the teacher, is also important. Otherwise, the teachers may find new ways of keeping the community 140




away from the school. The Project has to capitalize on the greater proximity achieved between the school and the community in a positive manner by providing feedback to the community members on the benefit to the community due to improved functioning of the school. Changing role of women The findings of the field study also show concrete improvement in the participation of girls in the primary education programme. One can also observe changes in the perception of the parents regarding the education of girls. This is clearly evident by the enthusiasm exhibited for the intensive education camps for girls and the readiness shown for allowing young married girls to benefit from education programmes. One can see that the efforts made through the school-mapping process are helping to break down the cultural barriers. Obviously, this is a slow process, needing patience and a long-term perspective. This is, in fact, educational action going beyond the concerns of primary education as it gives the villagers the capacity to see the inherent links between education and overall development, and empowerment through participatory action. While the initial orientation and focus was only on primary education, social mobilization has brought about changes beyond the initial concerns, as in articulating demands for drinking-water facilities in the school or construction of a connecting road to reach the school. Leadership being taken up by women in the village represents a significant change in the attitudes not only of women, but of the whole village community. The school-mapping exercise through a participatory appraisal approach in Lok Jumbish was based on the fundamental assumption that the situation in each village had to be individually assessed and strategies for improvement locally formulated. Decisions on improving access by providing additional schooling facilities in the village, 141




augmenting the infrastructure in the school, giving additional teachers, upgrading the primary school to upper-primary level, or opening a non-formal education centre, have to be based on this assessment done through scientific school mapping. Thus, to what extent the work of school mapping has been completed, becomes a critical question in understanding the changing scenario. It should, however, be noted that school mapping under LJ is seen not just as a diagnostic technical exercise of locating primary schools in a rational manner. The emphasis is on the process of carrying out the diagnostics in a participatory manner, which extends the whole process beyond a simple survey and analysis. Table V.8 gives a summary account of the villages covered under school mapping.

142




Number of LJ villages where core teams formed

Number of LJ villages where women groups formed

Number of LJ villages where school mapping completed

Percentage of LJ villages where school mapping completed

5

5

128

128

125

121

128

100.00

Pisangan

5

5

114

117

115

87

114

97.44

Lunkarnsar

7

7

145

158

135

70

136

86.08

Kishanganj

8

8

203

174

162

99

146

83.91

Garhi

5

5

167

248

218

191

235

91.38

30

30

757

825

755

568

759

92.00

8

8

236

162

146

85

137

84.57

Subtotal for 5 blocks Shahbad Phagi

Total Number of villages in the block Number of Lok Jumbish villages where environment building done

Number of clusters operationalized

Arain

Name of block

Number of clusters in block

Table V.8.School-mapping activity in 58 blocks covered by Lok Jumbish (December 1997)

6

6

170

131

115

62

118

90.08

11

11

353

346

263

136

244

70.52

Kaman

7

7

204

143

111

38

105

73.43

Pokaran

5

5

133

186

133

92

132

70.97

Chohtan

5

5

169

191

151

110

144

75.39

Bichhiwara

7

6

174

263

187

115

126

47.91

Jhadol

9

8

256

195

183

161

174

89.23

Phalodi

6

6

86

281

220

146

194

69.04

Ahore

5

5

114

97

87

36

84

86.60

69

67

1,895

1,995

1,596

981

1,458

73.08

Bikaner

9

5

171

135

94

33

90

66.67

Kolayat

8

8

206

205

135

78

102

49.76

Nokha

6

5

128

125

92

40

86

68.80

Rajgarh

6

5

208

174

165

143

155

89.08

Thanagazi

6

3

159

89

83

81

74

83.15

Todaraisingh

4

4

118

93

74

57

56

60.22

Abu Road

4

2

81

42

42

11

41

97.62

Talera

8

2

265

70

60

26

57

81.43

Jhalrapatan

8

2

315

124

96

50

78

62.90

Bali

5

2

90

126

118

77

118

93.65

64

51

1741

1,183

959

696

857

72.44

Silora

6

6

114

103

67

45

49

47.57

Shahpura

5

2

154

66

43

38

36

54.55

Aasind

6

3

203

63

47

40

33

52.38

Baran

4

2

102

33

27

12

19

57.58

Ptarapgarh

Subtotal for 10 blocks


143




Number of LJ villages where school mapping completed

Percentage of LJ villages where school mapping completed 72.97

21

58.33

28

31

36.90

38

2

32

61.54

67

34

61

48.80

55

17

13

15

27.27

133

43

30

8

27

62.79

3

146

47

41

22

36

76.60

4

4

76

64

54

14

51

79.69

Ganagapur C

5

3

124

57

43

21

34

59.65

Bap

7

5

93

188

132

72

115

61.17

Bamer

7

3

267

51

18

17

17

33.33

Manohartha

8

1

294

31

21

10

21

67.74

98

44

2,965

1,209

794

422

679

56.16

Srinagar

4

4

95

67

49

34

39

58.21

Jawaja

6

2

195

37

11

7

11

29.73

Masuda

6

6

140

74

60

41

56

75.68

Bhinal

5

3

120

32

21

11

17

53.13

Kekri

5

3

95

44

36

18

27

61.36

Dhariawad

4

1

246

Rajsamand

4

1

135

12

5

5

41.67

Nagaur

5

2

137

38

26

9

18

47.37

Mandore

4

2

106

37

37

6

25

67.57

Ladpura

6

2

183

20

5

5

25.00

Baseri

5

1

128

Dausa

6

2

233

19

8

8

8

42.11

Jalore

5

1

68

20

15

8

15

75.00

Kushalgarh

6

1

210

12

6

6

50.00

Jaisalmer

6

1

153

36

22

7

19.44

Bari Sadri

4

1

153

23

15

14

60.87


81

33

2,397

471

316

149

253

53.72

Total for 58 blocks

342

232

9,755

5,683

4,420

2,816

4,006

70.49

6

4

158

111

94

Simalwara

7

1

220

36

21

Sagwara

5

3

154

84

34

Aaspur

5

1

144

52

Chaksu

5

4

279

125

Kotra

7

3

304

Khamnor

5

3

Kuchaman

6

Desuri


144

Total Number of villages in the block Number of Lok Jumbish villages where environment building done

Dungarpur

Name of block

Number of LJ villages where core teams formed

81

Number of clusters operationalized

46

Number of clusters in block

Number of LJ villages where women groups formed

Table V.8. (continued)

7

Source : Lok Jumbish Parishad, December 1997.




Table V.9 gives a summary of the availability of different facilities in the sample village schools. Table V.9. Facilities provided in the sample village schools Village

Name

Junejon ki Government Dhani UPS Kumharon ki Government Dhani PS Government Bapini PS Government Moria UPS NBV Mandir Ganeshpura Private PS AS Niketan Bhavanipura Private PS Government UPS LBV Niketan Dehit Private UPS Government PS Government Jalodi PS Government Mokhampura PS Government Phuldesar UPS Government Girls' PS Dhani Government Bhopalaram PS Government Sehniwala PS Government Laxmanpura PS Government Manipur PS Government Jalukuan UPS Baka Kada No school Beed

Building

Buildingwork after SM

Yes

Yes

7

Some

All

Yes

Some

1

All

All

No

Not applicable

-

All

All

Yes

Yes

11

Already available

All

3

n.a.

n.a

4+1*

n.a

n.a

Yes Yes

Not applicable Not applicable

Number of Blackboard Teachingclassrooms provided Learning after SM material supplied after SM

Yes

Yes

3+1*

Already available

All

Yes

Not applicable

4

n.a.

n.a

Yes

Some

2**

Yes

Yes

4

Yes

Yes

3+1*

Some

All

Yes

Yes

14

Some

Some

Yes

Some

8

Already available

All

Yes

Yes

3+1*

All

Some

Yes

Yes

3+1*

All

All

Yes

Yes

3+1*

Yes

Some

1+1*

Yes

Yes

8

All

All

-

-

-

-

-

Already available Already available

Already available Already available

All All

All All

*+1 implies that the veranda is regularly used as a classroom. ** Four rooms in this school have been under construction for the past two years. 145




Sustaining changes brought about The positive perception of change among the schoolteachers and all others concerned is a factor that is likely to significantly contribute to the sustenance of the changes brought about. It should also be noted that improvement has been observed by them not only with respect to increased enrolment and participation, but also in terms of the functioning of the local primary school. Needless to say, the changes have come about not merely due to the technical exercise of school mapping and the preparation of the village education register, but are even more due to the participatory approach adopted and the extensive environment-building activity taken up by LJ. Do parents and villagers fully recognize these changes that are taking place? A large proportion of parents and villagers indicating that they do not know to many items in this regard is a matter of concern. It is important that the dialogue with the ordinary villager continues. Village meetings and other mechanisms adopted during the mobilization phase have to continue in order to inform the ordinary villager of the actions initiated and the changes that have come about. This is important from two angles. One, this information can be an effective instrument in mobilizing the support of a larger number of villagers and thereby broadbasing the involvement of the community. Second, periodic feedback to the villagers can become a powerful means of building up their confidence in the primary education system.

146




CHAPTER VI MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

147



MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS ‘Education for All’ cannot be viewed only as a quantitative target to be achieved, but as a fundamental value to be pursued by all societies. This is the spirit in which it finds its place in the Constitution of India and it is in line with this philosophy that heads of state of more than 155 countries endorsed the ‘Education for All’ Declaration at Jomtien at the beginning of this decade. Accordingly, all documents of the Government of India as well as Rajasthan reiterate their commitment to providing educational facilities for all children up to the age of 14. However, it has been realized over the years that the traditional demandsupply paradigm is inadequate for ensuring the education of all children. It is quite often the case that even though primary schools are provided in the vicinity, children remain excluded from primary education. Or, one may say that the existing primary education provision fails to ensure the education of all children, even where it is extensive in its availability. One has to recognize that the problem of education for all transcends the economics of provision and is entwined with critical issues deeply embedded in the sociocultural and political realm. Therefore, the need is not one of projecting growth rates and carrying out forward planning, but of disentangling problems of social apathy, backwardness, prejudices and marginalization which are more in the realm of social change than in educational planning. The goals and objectives of Lok Jumbish or the ‘People’s Movement’ are based upon this broadened understanding of the problem. Within this framework, school mapping is visualized as the main means of linking the social-mobilization process with the education of the children. It is thus accorded a place of central importance as the main lever in changing the status of primary education through a process of people’s participation.

The present study: objectives and methodology Studying school mapping as one of the components of Lok Jumbish demanded that the overall objectives and perspective of Lok Jumbish 148




as a whole are borne in mind. Accordingly, the scope and objectives of the present study on school mapping were delineated keeping in mind the basic features of Lok Jumbish. First, Lok Jumbish, as noted earlier, views the problem of the universalization of primary education as going beyond the limited concerns of the education sector, i.e. those of increasing enrolment and attendance of children in primary schools. It proposes tackling the problem through participatory processes at the grass-roots level in the form of a social movement. It should be noted that, in general, social movements and short-term measurable impact do not go together. Any kind of social movement underscores a process of initiating a purposeful dialogue between the existing establishment and forces at the grass-roots level. The aim is to orchestrate the forces at the grass-roots level and articulate their needs in order to influence the policies and practices of the existing establishment, which should in turn change the reality at the field level. It is the quality of these dialectics between the people and the establishment that defines the status of change at any point of time, not the product of any short-term intervention. There was another feature of LJ which also required serious consideration. LJ has been envisaged in an integrated manner, encompassing several component programmes. SM is one of these, along with others such as non-formal education, women’s development, the introduction of minimum levels of learning, the school-building programme, a management information system and so on. In such a context, to study school-mapping processes separately was indeed a difficult proposition. There was always the danger of looking into some of the other components, but not in sufficient detail to reflect objectively on them. At the same time, studying SM processes without referring to some of the inherently related components would have resulted in an incomplete analysis. Keeping the above considerations in mind, the present study of school mapping has refrained from adopting a typically evaluative perspective. The main objectives of the study were: 149




(a) to describe the meaning and definition of school mapping adopted under Lok Jumbish; (b) to study the various techniques and participatory processes adopted in implementing school mapping; and (c) to examine the changes that have emerged in the primary education scenario following the implementation of school mapping and other accompanying activities. School mapping entered educational discourse and practice nearly two decades ago as a technical tool for the rational allocation of educational resources, with particular focus on the location of schools. Since then, the technique has been used in several countries all over the world for deciding on policies and practices concerning school location. Lok Jumbish adopts the term ‘school mapping’, but attempts to give a new meaning and orientation to the practical aspects involved. The present study attempts to examine this question in depth with a view to analyzing and understanding the various concepts and processes that are used to define the school-mapping framework under Lok Jumbish. Special attention is given to the question of community participation in carrying out school mapping, as this is considered as the backbone of the Lok Jumbish project. LJ also considers that the problem of universal primary education is, to a great extent, one of ensuring that all girls receive primary education, and the issue is closely linked to the question of empowerment of women. Are the schoolmapping processes addressing this question effectively? This is another issue examined by the study. Lastly, what changes could one observe in the field with respect to the basic question of access to and participation of children in primary education? This is another critical question that the present study attempts to answer through empirical analysis of the field situation. The study was based on a critical review of existing documents, as well as on in-depth exploration into the experiences and perceptions 150




of field-level personnel in selected villages and clusters. Empirical information was collected from various actors involved in the process of school mapping in 16 sample villages from four different blocks. These were selected in such a way as to represent different categories in terms of their geographical and terrain conditions and the implementation of Lok Jumbish at different stages. Some were among the first batch of clusters in which LJ began its operations in 1993, and there were also some in which the implementation of LJ began very recently, as in Talera Block. The sources included schoolteachers, NFE instructors, members of the core team and women’s group, cluster and block-level staff of Lok Jumbish, KSPS members of the block-level education management committee (KSPS) set up under LJ, and block-level education extension officers. In addition to this, information was also gathered through interviews and discussions with staff working at the LJ Parishad headquarters in Jaipur, as well as those working at different project offices. Extensive discussions were held with the LJ staff to obtain a narrative account of the conceptualization of the school-mapping framework as well as its operationalization. Written inputs were also collected from several of them. The use of school-mapping instruments and the consequent changes in primary education access and participation were documented through a careful analysis of existing documents, survey schedules and registers available at the school, the cluster and the block levels for the selected villages. This analysis was complemented by interviews of different people who had been involved in the preparation of survey schedules, maps, and data registers. Further, investigators maintained a diary noting their observations and interaction highlights on a day-today basis. This was found extremely useful for understanding the structured information collected through questionnaires and interview schedules in a contextualized perspective. 151




Major findings and conclusions Definition of school mapping: redrawing the contours School mapping has traditionally been a tool for centralized decisionmaking; a guide to the administrators for making decisions more rational, balancing the available resources and the prevailing demand for school places. LJ has reversed the procedure, making the technique a tool for decentralized decision-making, not for merely responding to the demand but as an instrument for mobilizing and articulating demand. This change in perspective gives the school-mapping exercise in LJ a unique connotation significantly different from the one that is traditionally assigned to it in educational planning literature. Two basic features of SM in Lok Jumbish need special mention here. First, school mapping as adopted in India generally consists of a spatial analysis of school location involving blocks or districts as basic units. Departing from this trend, school mapping in LJ involves carrying out a diagnostic assessment, treating each village as the basic unit of analysis and preparing action proposals for each village based on such an assessment. In fact, diagnostic information is collected from every household in the village. This has made it possible for LJ to link school mapping and micro-planning at the village level more effectively and meaningfully. Second, school mapping, in the traditional framework, is an activity or planning exercise primarily carried out by the local school administrator, such as the district education officer. In contrast, LJ has made it a participatory process carried out by the villagers themselves. Fairly elaborate efforts have been made to build capacities among the villagers to carry out this participatory exercise. Another important characteristic of school mapping in LJ is that it shifts the focus from supply of provisions to demand for service. The profile of demand, existing and mobilized, is then carefully analyzed, giving adequate weightage to the variety of constraints and expectations 152




that exist in the field. This approach has given a new orientation to the demand-supply framework for primary education, taking it beyond the resource-planning paradigm to incorporate more fundamental sociocultural concerns. Refining the operational modalities of school mapping The school-mapping process began in Lok Jumbish in 1993. With that began a new vista of exploration into the rural dynamics of Rajasthan, with the objective of ensuring the primary education of all children irrespective of sex, caste, class and religious considerations, as reiterated many times in all policy documents at the state and national levels. But implementing the process of school mapping in a participatory manner was practically without any precedent and thus there were no lessons from the past to learn from. To begin with, a handbook was prepared giving a broad outline of the steps to be adopted and the purposes they were to serve. Thereafter, with valuable feedback from the field, particularly from those who really got involved in implementing school mapping, the operational aspects of the process have become streamlined and the handbook itself has undergone a number of revisions incorporating the insight and experiences from the field. A careful analysis of the series of handbooks clearly brings out the tremendous improvement made in the operational modalities of school mapping. Interactions with field personnel who are actually using the handbook showed that there is now a fair amount of clarity on the various steps and processes involved in school mapping. While the handbook provides detailed suggestions on how to carry out the school-mapping process, it expects the fieldworkers to devise the finer aspects of the process locally, in collaboration with the community. This faith in the capacity of the field personnel to judge the local conditions and act in the best interests of the project is a 153




significant feature of school mapping in LJ. It is this which has given it the characteristic of a social movement for mobilizing people for primary education, rather than treating it only as a technical tool for diagnosis and planning. Capacity building for school mapping: pursuing a wider agenda Lok Jumbish has chosen not only to involve the community actively in the school-mapping process, but also to give systematic training so that it is done with proper understanding. In the rural setting where not many are even literate, this process of capacity building for social action is welcomed by the villagers and is viewed as a means of empowering the community for self-directed action. The importance of this approach, apart from ensuring the systematic implementation of SM, is that it is contrary to the traditional perception that constructive action in the area of education is the preserve of schoolteachers and educational administrators. The findings of the study indicate that, in general, the training of core team and women’s group members has been systematically done following the guidelines provided in the training handbook. Two areas call for more attention in this regard. First, even if direct training is given only to a small number of community members, the actual household survey has to be carried out involving a wide cross-section of people. Inability to participate in the training programme should not become a limiting factor for wider community involvement in the school-mapping exercise. Secondly, it is important to recognize the value of a larger involvement of the people and the carrying out of the process of school mapping without haste if the influencing of the people’s attitudes is to be one of the aims. After all, much of the difficulty in a society steeped in cultural rigidities is in the realm of attitudes and not necessarily in lack of knowledge and skills. 154




As already noted, standardization of the steps involved in school mapping, and specifying the ways and means of involving people in various steps, is necessary for its streamlined implementation. In fact, the handbook has helped in ensuring considerable quality in carrying out school mapping. But one has to guard against the danger of ritualizing the process, robbing it of the essential vitality and spontaneity that characterizes voluntary community participation. The fieldworkers have to ensure that the handbook for school mapping becomes a facilitating and not a limiting factor for community participation. Innovative adaptations of the guidelines have been attempted in some of the villages. But they are few and far between, not the normal processes, which are still underlined by adherence to the manual without adequate reflection and discussion at the village level. Often people hesitate to be vocal in village affairs and allow the traditional power hierarchy to operate even when they do not approve of the outcomes, as they feel that they are incapable of contributing and changing the course of action in a meaningful way. What is most important about the school-mapping training is that a serious attempt is made to break this traditional culture of silence and enable the villagers to articulate their own ideas on what should happen in their villages. As expressed by many villagers, it is perhaps the first time that the ordinary villagers have been made to feel that they can handle questions related to education in their village, instead of depending on those few educated officers from outside. Specifically, training the villagers directly and giving them an opportunity to use the skills has helped instil a sense of achievement and self-worth among the community members. Such changes in self-perception do not, of course, appear instantaneously. Perhaps, only a start has been made through training for school mapping. The effort has to be sustained if it is to make a lasting impact on the people and their self-concept.

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School map and village education register Having made the ‘village’ the basic unit of school mapping, LJ has also devised new instruments to record the outcomes of the schoolmapping exercise. The ‘school map’ and the ‘village education register’ (VER) are two such concrete outcomes of the school-mapping process. It may be noted that for the first time such important educational records have been developed by the villagers and preserved in the village. The school map is designed to use symbols to represent all information so that every villager, literate or otherwise, should be able to decipher the database presented in the map. Thus, the school map in LJ is essentially a visual ready-reckoner capturing the primary education scene in each village. The handbook specifies that a fresh household survey is to be undertaken every two years and a new school map is to be prepared based on the survey findings. The village education register presents information on the family with regard to the educational status of every child up to the age of 14. The register is designed so that the status of every child can be followed continuously, clearly identifying the out-ofschool children at every point of time. It is also envisaged that the VER is revised twice a year to follow up on children who are reaching the school-going age, namely, six years, and also to trace whether any of the children enrolled in the school or NFE centre have dropped out. A separate ‘retention register’ is also being prepared to trace the status of children enrolled in the primary schools and NFE centres. During the study, it was obser ved that the preparation and maintenance of such records had been well streamlined and are being seen in every village as part of the standard database on primary education. One can safely state that creating such a database in each village is in itself a significant achievement of the school-mapping process. However, some points in this connection need closer attention. The first point relates to the maintenance and use of these records. During the field study it could be observed that the VER is maintained 156




in a fairly systematic manner in all of the villages. In comparison, it is found that the school map, which is the centrepiece of the whole exercise, is not maintained and used very effectively in some of the villages. LJ authorities at the cluster and block levels have to give more attention to the logistics of maintaining the large-sized SM in proper condition. The second point refers to the basic idea of preparation and maintenance of such records at the village level. Undoubtedly, shifting the education information base from the realm of the local school and the distant block or district education office, to a place within the village community, is in itself a very radical step. It thus attempts to portray primary education as an affair of the ordinary people and not that of the government. But the value of such an effort can be fully realized only if these records are to become a form of social documentation used and understood by ordinary people. During the field study it was found that while efforts are being made to improve the accessibility of the records for public use, changing the popular perception so that these documents become dynamic tools for improving the participation of children in primary education remains a challenge to be addressed. Monitoring and re-survey As already noted, a periodic revision of the information in the VER, and preparation of a new school map based on a household survey once every two years, are conceived as part of the LJ effort to monitor the progress made in universalizing primary education. How effectively are these tasks implemented? Field investigations show that attempts have been made in almost all the villages to review the situation and revise the figures in the village education register. However, field functionaries seem to find this process somewhat complex. In many cases they have not been able to reconcile the enrolment and attendance figures in the school and those in the village education register to accurately identify 157




the children who are still outside the fold of primary education. Attention needs to be paid to bring into convergence the data maintained in the school register and the village education register. The problem seems to be not merely one of data accuracy and statistical convergence, but of the basic concerns of preparing the two sets of information. Therefore, it may be difficult to inject credibility into the database if the school teachers are not made active partners in all of the SM activities. The present study shows that this question has not been fully resolved and that there is a need to procure a more comprehensive involvement of the teachers in SM and in the preparation of the followup proposals. Another important point that deserves immediate attention is the need for combining the enrolments and attendance of the primary school and the NFE centre in a systematic manner. To some extent, the frequent changing of data formats has also contributed to the difficulties of fieldworkers. Community participation: a value in itself School mapping at the explicit level indicates the school-going status of the children in each household. But implicitly, it also identifies the caste and economic-class affiliations of the households which have outof-school children. This was not unknown, but to have a visual map prepared by the community itself, giving details of these households alongside other households, is a new phenomenon with a powerful social-psychological impact on the whole community. Thus, community participation in LJ is viewed not merely as an instrument for collecting information, but as a value in itself in building shared knowledge among the people on primary education in the village. Viewed from this angle, the participatory process of school mapping has several positive features in terms of its long-term influence on primary education. First of all, there is no doubt that participatory implementation of school mapping has brought the community 158




members and primary education much closer together. It has effectively broken the invisible barrier that existed between government-sponsored primar y education and the needs and aspirations of the rural community. Moreover, this direct involvement of people in all steps of the process of school mapping, beginning from environment building to preparation of concrete proposals, makes community participation a mode of reinvesting in the people the authority for self-determination. The implementation of the school-mapping process through the active participation of the community has also helped in making the community members realize that while the state would provide facilities for education, it is the collective responsibility of the community to ensure that the facilities created are properly used and to formulate demands for education programmes relevant to their needs. An important factor to be noted in this regard is that traditionally the community, perhaps even the state, has considered the enrolment of children in school as the individual responsibility of the parents alone. But the participatory process has shifted the focus, making the participation of all children in primary education the social responsibility of the whole village. Acceptance of such a collective responsibility should, in the long run, overcome the undesirable nexus that exists between social marginalization and educational exclusion. Organizing people at grass-roots level: paving the way for decentralized management An important dimension of LJ is the effort made through school mapping to organize people at the grass-roots level. It is recognized that the mobilization of the people is not just a matter of ‘raising’ them up to another level once only, and it is also not something that can always be orchestrated by external forces. If the awakening of people achieved through the environment-building efforts under SM is to be sustained and harnessed for educational development, it is essential that it be 159




organized. The formation of the core team and women’s group in each village under SM meets this need for the coming together of people voluntarily for a common cause – in this case for primary education. But, organizing people can be threatening to the established power structure. The success of LJ in initiating a process without creating a feeling of threat and yet ensuring a transformation is particularly worth noting. It may be too early to conclude whether this will lead to a fundamental transformation in the existing social structure of rural Rajasthan. Nevertheless, changes one observes with respect to women’s participation in LJ activities, in particular, and in village development activities, in general, should be noted. Additionally, the creation of village teams, and involving them actively in processes of educational development in the village, seem to be serving another important goal of LJ, namely, the decentralization of primary education management. One can easily observe that the formation of village teams has laid the foundation for building a system of self-determination and decentralized management from below. The involvement of these teams has successfully imparted to them the habits of rational decision-making with respect to primary education in particular. In some of the older LJ villages, core teams are being transformed into village education committees, thus converting the informal organizations of people into formal legitimate structures. These are very important developments in the context of the renewed effort made all over the country for establishing panchayati raj bodies for local self-governance. While the extent of involvement of people in school mapping has been remarkable, one has to recognize that this is largely due to the systematic effort and enthusiasm of the LJ functionaries at block and cluster levels. Even though core team members continue to show commitment to the cause of primary education, they cannot be expected to be self-directed in designing and initiating activities. The level of 160




participation of the people in primary education continues to be dependent on the activities designed for their involvement by the cluster-level LJ workers. In fact, one could observe that the intensity of activities designed for implementation by the core team or women’s group needs re-examination. It was found that in some villages the core team members consider their task to be complete once they have carried out the various steps involved in school mapping and got an NFE centre established, or had a classroom constructed. Consequently, perhaps, the active participation of members in village teams has also decreased. It is important, therefore, that activities under school mapping are seen in a continuous fashion beyond the structured steps specified in the handbook. Perhaps, the cluster-level personnel also needs a better orientation to maintain a state of continuous mobilization of the community, if organizing people at the village level is to lead in the long run to an effective decentralized management mechanism. Critical importance of organizing women’s groups Marginalization of women in social and economic life is deeply entrenched in the villages of Rajasthan. In this context, setting up a separate forum for women in the form of a women’s group marks a significant step in improving the status of women, which is one of the broader goals of LJ. It may be noted that the creation of women’s groups under different development programmes, particularly by NGOs, is not new. But the purpose and focus of action of the women’s group under LJ is of particular significance. With alarmingly low levels of rural female literacy, it is unique to use these very people as promoters of primary education of the children. Interestingly, findings of the study reveal that women volunteers, though small in number as compared to their male counterparts, are the more enthusiastic and committed allies in spreading the message of education, in general, and of primary education of the girls, in particular. 161




As already mentioned, findings of the field study show concrete improvement in the participation of girls in the primary education programme. One can also observe changes in the perception of parents regarding the education of girls. This is clearly evident from the enthusiasm exhibited for the intensive education camps for girls organized in some of the LJ areas. One can also observe, though indirectly, changes emerging in the villages that are indicative of the breaking of the traditional cultural barriers in the education of girls. Obviously, this is a slow process needing patience and long-term action. One can see that the influence of participatory school mapping, involving women in a prominent fashion, goes beyond the concerns of primary education, as it builds in the villagers the capacity to see the inherent links between education and overall development and empowerment through participatory action. Leadership roles being taken up by women in the village are a reflection of significant changes in the attitudes of not only women, but of the whole village community. Partnership with NGOs in school mapping Lok Jumbish has chosen to get community mobilization and schoolmapping processes implemented through selected NGOs in selected cluster areas in which they are already involved in implementing other developmental activities. However, involving non-governmental organizations requires that the programme create a definitive space for variety and a pluralist perspective with respect to the operational features. That several NGOs take the lead role in implementing SM processes in selected areas of LJ, is a clear demonstration of such flexibility and openness within LJ to promote multiple methods of implementing the basic activities of school mapping. Involving various NGOs has also helped in creating partnerships between the education sector and other development sectors in the field. Through this, apart from building on the already existing contact 162




and skills for field operations, LJ is also exploring a new model of decentralized management where active local organizations are used instead of creating a new project bureaucracy. Furthermore, LJ recognizes that NGOs bring their own rich experiences and insight into the field dynamics and LJ should capitalize on this strength. How effective and fruitful has this partnership with NGOs been? The study indicates some positive gains from these associations. Specifically, field investigations reveal that preparatory phases of SM are implemented much faster and with greater ease in the clusters under NGOs because of the relatively better rapport they have with the community. The study, however, points to the need for a more effective mechanism for ensuring continuous interaction between the block steering group and clusterlevel workers of the NGOs, so that implementation by NGOs does not become an isolated operation. The real value of NGO involvement lies in the sharing of experiences between the NGOs and the LJ staff, with a view to improving the overall quality of the functioning of LJ. Strengthening the role of schoolteachers in school mapping Lok Jumbish considers primary education facilities in a broader perspective, combining both formal and non-formal education institutions. However, in the village context the local primary school continues to occupy a place of prime importance and the teacher symbolizes the main source of authentic learning. In general, LJ workers use the local school as the entry point and the teacher as the mediator for beginning the work of environment building. Also, teachers have generally expressed positive opinions on the activities and impact of school mapping. However, data reveal that their direct participation in the school-mapping processes is quite limited. This is paradoxical considering that teachers are routinely involved on behalf of the government in conducting several surveys. Perhaps one has to go deeper into the personal predicaments of the teachers who do not participate 163




in these processes, which require them to devote a considerable amount of time to their work in a particular village. It is found that only one out of every four teachers resides in the village where they work; another 25 per cent live in neighbouring villages within a distance of 2-6 km.; the remainder live in relatively far-off places and have to depend on the public transport system to reach their work-place. Could this be the reason for their relatively low level of participation? Or is it that the school-mapping process has focused too much on the role of the ordinary villagers, without properly seeking the professional support of the teachers? This position, no doubt, has to change and a more active participation of teachers in the total campaign for mobilizing fuller participation of children in primary education has to be secured. However, these questions are complex and need a more focused analysis in a contextualized manner, adequately taking into consideration the problems and predicaments of the rural schoolteachers. The active involvement of teachers is also important for other reasons. The findings of the study clearly indicate that the major part of the enhanced participation of children is due to additional enrolment in the formal primary school. Can this progress be sustained if the traditional indifference of the schoolteacher to the task of bringing and retaining all children in the village is not tackled? One may figuratively say that while the community and its children are moving nearer and nearer to the local primary school, the teachers are not making adequate efforts to respond positively to these endeavours. Secondly, while SM generates data on enrolment and attendance through a participatory process, the schoolteacher also maintains records containing similar data. During the study, scrutiny of the records maintained by the school showed considerable incompatibility between SM data and the school records in many places. Obviously, these two sets of database cannot be two independent entities. It is essential to guarantee better linkage in data maintenance, and an effective 164




reconciliation of the two sets of information. The goal, in the long run, should be to secure the active involvement of the teacher in SM processes and to eliminate the existence of two sets of data, such that the data generated through school mapping becomes the database for all official action at the local level. Making community participation more inclusive and representative No community can be treated as consisting of a monolithic homogeneous group. The challenge for LJ is to make the community participation more inclusive, representing all sections of the village population, lest it may further reinforce the existing discriminatory social divisions. It is therefore natural that, as revealed by the findings of the present investigation, community participation in school mapping is also uneven across the villages and even within any given village. If one goes by the level of participation of the underprivileged and the overall success in getting women to form their own action groups, LJ seems to have made a positive start. After all, it has to be recognized that inclusive participation of the whole community in a still feudalistic and caste-ridden society, as in Rajasthan, is a long drawn-out affair. There is a need to persist in this direction in order to make the participation more comprehensive. This requirement is well illustrated by the situation observed in some of the sample villages, where women’s groups have not been formed at all. While local circumstances may have affected the creation and functioning of these groups, one has to take care that the personal biases and predicaments of the LJ workers do not get in the way of mobilizing the effective participation of women. Making the participation more representative of all sections gains further significance in the context of the emerging scenario of a more decentralized management through panchayati raj bodies. It may be said that the participatory school-mapping process has set the stage for 165




introducing more decentralization and the direct participation of villagers in the management of primary education. This is a timely development in the context of the current move to transfer the responsibility for primary education to the panchayati raj bodies, which are the grassroots-level elected bodies for local self-governance. As there is considerable fluidity and lack of direction on the roles and functions of these bodies, LJ efforts and experience in building representative local groups should help clarify what community bodies could do. Lessons from LJ should also be helpful in defining the roles and functions of the PR bodies with respect to primary education. At present, LJ is playing the role of external agent provocateur. In the long term, this has to disappear and be replaced by self-directed actions by the community members. But this is likely to take a fairly long time and, until such time, LJ will have to play its role of mobilizing people for education. The goal has to be to achieve a state where participation in education becomes an accepted norm for every family. For this to happen there can be no externally fixed time-frame; nor can progress made in this regard be measured through yardsticks designed externally. It has to be viewed in a contextualized manner so that the mobilization strategies are adapted to suit the local needs and conditions. Building on the perception of positive change in the community The perception of overwhelmingly positive change observed among all those concerned, including the schoolteachers, is likely to contribute significantly to maintaining the changes introduced. It is, however, important that the enthusiasm shown by the local community is sustained until the goal of universal elementary education is achieved. Channelling the community’s enthusiasm without undue interference in the professional work of the teacher is also important. Otherwise 166




the teachers may find new ways of keeping the community away from the school. The Project has to build on the greater proximity achieved between the school and the community in a positive manner by providing feedback to the community members. Do parents and villagers fully recognize the changes that are taking place? Responses of a sizeable proportion of parents and villagers that they ‘do not know’ to many items in this regard is a matter for concern. It is important that the dialogue with the ordinary villagers continues. Guiding the core team members in making the interaction process more broad-based and continuous is important. Village meetings and other mechanisms adopted during the mobilization phase have to go on. This is important from two angles. First, this information can be an effective instrument in mobilizing the support of a larger number of villagers and thereby broad-basing the involvement of the community. Second, periodic feedback to the villagers can become a powerful means of building their confidence in the primary education system. There is also the need to guard against making the review and feedback processes too global so that they do not reach the right quarters. In the short cycle, feedback has to be much more personalized and has to be done through appropriate means of individualized interaction at the family level. As the number of out-of-school children becomes smaller and smaller, the need for such personalized feedback increases. The question of establishing such a continuous means of grassroots-level communication needs serious consideration. The success of universal primary education will, in the final count, depend more on increasing the personal knowledge of the parents on what their children are gaining or losing by attending or not attending primary education, than on monitoring faceless figures of enrolment and attendance in the primary school. 167




Database at the village level: its nature and use An important outcome of the school-mapping process is the creation of a comprehensive database on the status of primary education in each village. It is important to note that the database includes not only quantitative information in the form of enrolment and attendance, but also useful first-hand information on the causes of non-enrolment or non-attendance in the school. The data thus generated have been effectively used to prepare follow-up proposals and procure additional resources for primary education in each village. Scrutiny of the database maintained at the field level has revealed certain important issues and problems related to the nature and use of the database. The first factor to be recognized in this regard is that the database is also made available in a visual format involving signs and symbols, such that it is comprehensible even to the illiterate or semi-literate adults. This has helped the people to relate themselves to the information, as it speaks of homes and children, not just school-attendance statistics. The underlying purpose of this approach is so that ‘information should become the initiator of action’; knowledge has to be presented in such a form that it makes people feel collectively and individually uncomfortable and, therefore, compels them to act with a view to changing the situation and making it more acceptable. It is envisaged that by continuously updating and revising, the school-map information is taken back to the villagers again and again with more information on the changes that have taken place, and the distance yet to be traversed for achieving the goal of universal primary education. It should be mentioned that collection of information by the people themselves, and not by a professionally trained outsider, is quite an unfamiliar scene in the Rajasthan rural setting. Therefore, it is natural that the participant villagers have adopted a somewhat unsure and tentative approach in the first instance. In fact, to some extent, this is 168




true of the cluster-level workers also. Perhaps as a consequence of this, some problems of data inaccuracy seem to have crept in. It could be observed, however, that the problem is not one of deliberate fudging or inaccurate recording. Inaccuracies appear to have entered, in some of the villages, due to two reasons. First, villagers and LJ workers face genuine difficulties in getting correct information and following up on children from families who traditionally migrate out in search of employment, yet continue to maintain their base in the village. A similar problem is faced with regard to villages located on the border of Rajasthan and Gujarat, as many parents in these villages send their children to schools located in the neighbouring villages of Gujarat. These problems, at least partly, are addressed by creating the village education register, which does not view the primary school as the focal point for data maintenance and looks at the total number of children in the specified age group in the village, irrespective of their school affiliation. A second source of data inaccuracy seems to lie in inadequate understanding of some of the concepts underlying the information units. It should be noted that, in a participatory appraisal process, profiles of people who report (family members) and those who record (core team members) do not differ significantly except for the brief training. It is essentially a joint effort to decipher the data required and record them in the survey formats. In this process, it is possible that some misconceptions and misunderstandings of the reporters get transferred to the recording process. After all, core team members, or even LJ workers, are not researchers, who are trained to question, probe and verify every data unit. One such instance is the consistent underreporting of the number of school-age girls in some of the villages. At a cursory level, one is likely to treat this as a deliberate distortion brought about by the family members. However, deeper probing during the study shows that the bulk of this under-reporting is with respect to girls who are of school-going age, but who have already been married. The attempt, 169




perhaps, is not to hide the presence of these girls in the family; it is an inarticulate expression of a cultural inhibition that they are out of bounds for any public education process. The inaccuracies in the database, therefore, should not be treated only as statistical or as arising out of a lack of technical understanding among those collecting household information. Specifically, attempting to make the people appreciate the need for every child to learn through publicly organized education programmes is not just an interaction between LJ workers and villagers, it is essentially a dialogue of two world views. Not seeing the need for educating a married girl, however much one may decry it, is a genuine cultural perspective inter-generationally inherited by the adults in many villages of Rajasthan. One cannot, of course, approve and encourage such a position. But to describe this simply as a deliberate ploy of the male-dominated families is certainly an over-simplification of the situation. Improved access to primary education: a broadened vision Improving access to primar y education has generally been interpreted as opening new schools. This, in fact, has been the central purpose of school mapping. LJ has broadened this vision to incorporate alternative means of providing primary education into its strategy for ‘improving access’. Based on the findings of the school-mapping exercise, LJ has made systematic efforts to improve access to primary education by getting the Rajasthan government to open new primary schools; the Siksha Karmi Board to establish Siksha Karmi schools and by opening NFE centres. This is, no doubt, a positive step as the data reveal that the measure has really increased the coverage, particularly of girls. To what extent, in quantitative terms, has SM contributed to improved access? The data reveal that facilities for primary education 170




have increased significantly since the advent of LJ. In the 16 villages studied, the number of primary schools has increased from 8 to 12; upper-primary sections have increased from 3 to 6. In addition, NFE centres have been established in 10 of the 16 villages. It is to be noted that the decision on whether a new primary school has to be opened or an NFE centre established, as an alternative delivery mechanism to meet the educational needs of the non-participating children, is based on the reasons given in the household survey for non-attendance. The fact that additional provisions have been made, based on the expressed needs of the community and with an understanding that the new provisions will be properly made use of, is a significant point. This is important, as the earlier experience shows that the NFE centres when opened by the government have invariably remained unutilized or underutilized. Improvement of physical infrastructure and other basic facilities in the primary school Improvement of the physical infrastructure and provision of other basic facilities are among the most impressive features implemented as a follow-up to SM. Villagers, in most cases, seem to be highly impressed by the quick pace of action as a result of their own involvement. As one villager puts it, “The school has been there in the village for so many years. It had always been in a bad condition. What we could not get done for the school for all these years, LJ has done it just in a matter of two-three years.” There is also a general appreciation of the process adopted, in particular, the transparency in all actions related to civil construction works. Implementation through the BNS, which essentially consists of local people and schoolteachers, has given a sense of ownership to all of them. In fact, building construction or repair work has been initiated in all the sample villages where the SM processes have been completed. During the field study, one could observe a distinct change in the attitude of the people in treating the school 171




building as their community property, not just as a government building. This changed attitude is also evident in some places in terms of the readiness to raise financial support through local sources. In addition to improving the infrastructure and establishing new schools, LJ has also added new teachers in many schools. Again, this provision of additional teachers has not been done based on mere consideration of enrolment figures. Instead, it is also based on proposals made by the core team using the school-mapping data. Thus, LJ has made a clear distinction between appointment of teachers as a norm-based supply phenomenon, and as a demand-based response, which brings in a sense of responsibility to the community as well as to the incumbent teacher. Changes in participation of children in primary education Traditionally, low participation in or utilization of educational facilities that the state has provided is explained as due to a lack of awareness of the people about the value of education; it is a reflection on the state of general apathy among the villagers. This places the responsibility for the failure of the system squarely upon the poor themselves, who have not been able to benefit from the facilities provided. It is in keeping with this perspective that most often strategies for improving primary-school enrolment exhort the fieldworkers to ‘raise the consciousness’ of the poor, who in turn blame the poor parents for not sending their children to school. Can one justify such a selfrighteous stand and strategy? Is it not that the state itself is at fault for not ensuring that all children receive primary education as their basic right? LJ attempts to address this question by reversing the perspective and emphasizing the need for making the primar y education programme broader in vision and pluralistic in terms of delivery mechanisms. 172




Findings of the study reveal that changes in the level of participation of children in primary education are positive and the number of children attending primary education has significantly increased as a result of SM. For instance, figures collated for 240 villages, constituting the first batch of villages in which SM was initiated, show that the overall participation rate in the age group 614 has gone up from around 45 per cent to 70 per cent; for girls the participation rate has increased even more substantially, from 27 per cent to 59 per cent. This change is undoubtedly significant for a period of just two years from 1994-95 to 1996-97. Can this change be entirely attributed to the effect of SM? No attempt has been made in the study to generate time-series data of change during the previous years and assess if there has been a significant increase in the rate of change since school mapping. In fact, in any effort made towards universalizing elementary education, there can be no normative consideration to judge the magnitude of change as adequate or inadequate. One can only judge the direction of change and the proximity of the final goal of bringing all children within the fold of primary education. This again has to be seen in a disaggregated micro perspective with respect to different villages in the light of specific contexts. The study, therefore, focused on the extent of reduction in the number of children who have stayed out of the purview of primary education in the sample villages. The data in this regard clearly show that the effort through SM has significantly reduced the number of children who are deprived of primary education in these villages, even though the progress is quite uneven across the villages. The extent of increase has varied from one village to another depending upon several antecedent factors, such as the prior existence of a primary school in the village, the previous level of participation of children, and a host of other sociocultural factors. 173




Any attempt to capture changes in the field reality is riddled with many complexities. It is doubly difficult in this case, as the expectation is not just for some quantitative increase in enrolment, but a qualitative change in the attitude and behaviour of the community towards the education of their children. Also, in measuring qualitative changes that are gradual, there is a danger of making a premature judgement. There is also the danger of getting bogged down by measuring all changes in numerical terms. Even with respect to relatively more quantitative dimensions, such as enrolment and participation or opening of new schools, attributing the changes entirely to short-term measures, including school mapping, may not be fully tenable. What is more important is perhaps the sustainable change in the perception of the stakeholders on the nature of change taking place. Again, findings of the study reveal that all those concerned with primary education at the grass-roots level including teachers, community leaders and department officials, consider that LJ has ushered in positive changes both in quantitative and qualitative terms.

Looking ahead Data from the study reveal several positive features of the SM process in Lok Jumbish. Apart from giving an altogether new perspective to the exercise of school mapping, it has given a finer shape to a variety of participatory action strategies involved at the village level for achieving the goal of universal elementary education. The study also highlights the progress made in improving the access and participation of children in primary education. Having invested about four-five years in refining the processes of school mapping and as the focus is shifting to achieving larger and faster coverage, it is important that attention is paid to some of the wider issues that are critical for moving ahead in implementing the school-mapping process. Some of these issues and questions identified through an analysis of the study findings are discussed below. 174




Management of the interface between the LJ project and the Education Department An integral component of the school-mapping process is that of the preparation of proposals by the core team and the cluster staff for improving the primary education facilities in the village. This has, no doubt, given the villagers a sense of authority as well as responsibility. As revealed during discussions, initially there was a sense of disbelief that the community could influence education development in the village. However, the later experience of getting an additional classroom built, or an NFE centre opened, has gradually begun to convince the villagers that this is a possibility. This has definitely brought about more co-operation as well as commitment from the villagers. Needless to emphasize the importance of a prompt follow-up for the proposal made by the villagers based on rational considerations. Can LJ authorities on their own implement all the follow-up proposals? This is a central question demanding the attention of LJ as well as the government of Rajasthan. The primary schools are part of the government set-up and teachers continue to be appointed and posted by the government of Rajasthan. Given this reality, it has not been an easy task to ensure that the followup proposals are speedily implemented. An illustrative case is that of the appointment and posting of teachers. Even though the assessment of proposals and the sanctioning of new teachers is done through the KSPS at the block level, the final appointment is still done by the government of Rajasthan through a centralized mechanism. Considerable delay in the actual appointment of teachers appears to be a common phenomenon. Seen from the angle of sustainability, the process of appointing teachers through the state government channels is appropriate, as it is also in line with the proposed rollback plan of Lok Jumbish with respect to the project management structure. The problem may be perceived by some as a normal part of the bureaucratic 175




functioning of the system. But, at the field level, it is likely to lead to disillusionment and disinterest among the villagers. The problem has to be addressed seriously by the government as well as LJ authorities. The solution to this problem of an inefficient follow-up does not lie in changing the procedure. It actually implies that improvement in the primary-school system cannot be achieved by LJ alone without the involvement of the education department of the state as an active collaborator. Changing the primary education system demands that the state not only provide policy support to innovative approaches, but match that policy commitment with field-level actions. Raising the expectations of the community through participatory action and not responding to their rational demands in a speedy manner, may portend dangerous consequences for further innovative action involving the community. It is essential that the state government and Lok Jumbish work out a strategy for the timely implementation of decisions made by the community members and the block-level education management committee. Observations during the field study show that the problem is not only located at the state level. In fact, the level of interaction between the education extension officer at the block level and the LJ staff of the block steering group seems to be woefully poor. The education extension officers do not seem to take much interest in the field activities being implemented through SM. In the years to come, it will be a major task for LJ to create a better linkage between the field staff of the department and those of LJ. Currently the state bureaucracy seems to be a passive observer, even if it is with an appreciative nod. What is needed is active collaboration and proactive action by the state if people’s confidence in the system, which has been restored through participatory action, is to be sustained and developed. 176




Institutionalization of school-mapping processes and structures School-mapping activities under LJ began several years ago. In order to operationalize the various activities of school mapping, several processes have been designed and different structures have also been created. Some of these are informal structures such as the core team and the women’s group, some others, such as the cluster or the block steering group, are project structures, and some are more formal, such as the KSPS (Block-level Education Management Committee). As the study clearly brings out, the task of universalizing elementary education through participatory processes of school mapping has only just begun, and one has to persist with the efforts for a considerable period of time. The task ahead for LJ, in this regard, is to institutionalize these processes and structures so that the school-mapping activities continue. The study has revealed that the community has considerably internalized the way of carrying out certain processes, such as the household survey and preparation of the school map. But one cannot say the same with regard to certain others, such as the preparation and maintenance of the village education register, or preparing proposals for follow-up action. The community still depends on the active intervention of cluster-level personnel. Furthermore, even such activities as mobilizing campaigns though environment building remain an externally orchestrated phenomenon. In fact, field observations show that some of the village committees have become quite inactive without guidance and instruction from the cluster-level resource persons. It is important that attention is paid to the modalities of institutionalizing these processes with suitable capacity-building mechanisms so that the villagers can carry on with school- mapping processes with independence and self-direction. Institutionalization of the school-mapping processes cannot be viewed without referring to the institutionalization of various structures 177




created for implementing school mapping. For instance, the informal structures such as the core team and women’s group have to be given a more legitimate status in the long run. The school mapping handbook suggests subsuming the core team when creating village education committees and, by and large, taking over their activities. But this transition from informal to formal status has to be carefully carried out. Similar questions have to be sorted out even with respect to structures at other levels, such as the cluster, which are deeply involved in implementing the processes. Will they remain mere project structures? This question is even more pertinent in the case of clusters where NGOs are involved as mobilizing agencies. At the field level, answers to these questions seem to be quite unclear and sometimes appear to be affecting the morale and efficiency of the staff. While institutionalization is necessary to ensure continuity and maintenance of the various processes of school mapping and microplanning, it demands careful consideration in terms of its implications in the long run. One has to guard against two dangers. First, institutionalization may reduce the spontaneous processes at the field level into routine actions carried out in a mechanical fashion. Secondly, it may lead to the creation of a parallel bureaucracy alongside the existing education management structure, reducing the efficiency of the actions at the grass-roots level. But there seems to be no option if sustainability is to be ensured. The dilemma demands serious thinking and, perhaps, an unorthodox solution. Going beyond the village: expanding the scope of SM The study clearly indicates the appreciable improvement made in the modalities of carrying out various village-level activities, such as the household survey, preparation of the school map, preparing the village education register and so on. Data collected from the field also indicate that substantial progress has been made in creating better access to primary education within the village through not only 178




strengthening the existing schooling facilities, but also by establishing additional primary schools and NFE centres based on the proposals made by the community. A closer analysis of the pattern of participation of children in schools and NFE centres brings out two important issues that demand attention. First, in some of the villages, children prefer to attend the school in the neighbouring village even if there is one within the village. There are also cases where two schools, though situated within two different village boundaries, are practically in adjacent localities. While this provision of alternate opportunities in the neighbourhood is not altogether inappropriate, it does raise questions of rational resource utilization, which is one of the objectives of school mapping. Secondly, with increased enrolment and attendance of children at the lowerprimary stage, there is a need to define catchment areas for the upperprimary schools and monitor the participation of children in the school. Since many villages of Rajasthan are relatively sparse, it is quite unlikely that every village will get schooling facilities up to Grade VIII, which marks the end of the elementary stage. These factors demand that while the present approach to SM of treating the village as the basic unit continues, the scope of SM be expanded to cluster and block levels involving the traditional spatial-location exercise. Attention to teaching/learning conditions and processes Data from the field study clearly show that considerable attention has been paid to various activities for ensuring the better participation of children in primary education. Supplies and provisions in the primary school have also improved considerably. But, is adequate attention being paid to what exactly happens in the school? This is a question that needs closer attention and analysis. For instance, library books supplied by LJ are often kept in a bad shape and the condition in which they are found does not indicate that they have been used at all. But this is a chronic 179




problem, observed all over the country with respect to the utilization of books and equipment supplied in a standardized manner for all schools. Perhaps this should also be made demand-based and articulated in the form of school improvement plans that specify the way in which such additional provisions will be made use of. There is no doubt that most of the schools need better instructional facilities. During the discussions, villagers admitted that the unattractive nature of the school, both in terms of physical facilities and the instructional processes adopted, is one of the factors which leads to pupils dropping out or not attending school regularly. As a follow-up to SM, considerable attention is currently being paid to the physical infrastructure aspect. But the attention given to the instructional dimension does not seem to be commensurate with the gravity of the situation. Obviously, this may require more professional understanding on the part of those intervening, and mere community participation cannot tackle this effectively. The cluster staff could possibly look into this more closely. At present, only the person in charge at the cluster level for implementing the Minimum Levels of Learning programme looks into this aspect. During discussions, cluster staff expressed their difficulty in going deeper into what happens in the school and their genuine lack of confidence and capacity to deal with the situation. This is an area that LJ should perhaps focus on in clusters and blocks, where initial forays have been made into the question of increased enrolment and participation. But this would also require considerable rethinking on the academic and professional profile of the cluster staff. Addressing the question of alternative primary education The opening of NFE centres has been one of the direct and most common consequences of SM. LJ views providing primary education through part-time NFE centres, with the help of a voluntary teacher, as 180




a genuine alternative to the formal primary school. The siksha karmi schools, which employ teachers with relatively lower professional qualifications, are also treated at a par with formal primary schools. It is in this perspective that LJ has actively promoted the establishment of these facilities along with formal full-time primary schools. There is no doubt that a substantial number of children have been brought into the fold of primary education through the NFE programme of Lok Jumbish. This is particularly true of girl children, who would have otherwise been deprived of primary education. Empirical evidence in this regard is quite clear as, in some of the villages, formal primary schools have been functioning for several decades and yet almost the whole female population in the village has remained without primary education. While there is a general appreciation of the effectiveness of the alternative among the LJ workers and the parents of those children attending the NFE centre, several questions have been raised and some others at the field level have expressed apprehension. For instance, a majority of the schoolteachers, who are important stakeholders in promoting primary education, consider that learning through NFE centres and from teachers who are not fully equipped in terms of educational and professional background, will qualitatively remain inferior to the formal school setting. Apprehensions are also expressed in some quarters that this is a way of legitimizing the marginalization of girls and deprived sections of the society. How real or polemical is this issue in view of the fact that the formal school is likely to leave them out, however much one may try? LJ has taken the position that ensuring the education of all, by enrolling them and holding them in the education system for one full cycle, is more important, and considerations regarding the delivery mechanism are secondary. Debate on this issue is likely to continue until such a time as all sections are able to utilize one set of public services. It is, however, necessary to have a long-term view on this issue of alternative primary 181




education. Will the model of non-formal education set up by LJ emerge as an effective and sustainable alternative to the formal primary school? Will such centres remain permanent features of rural Rajasthan? Or, are these to be viewed only as temporary structures to be disbanded in favour of full-time formal primary school at a later stage? There seems to be considerable confusion in this regard among fieldworkers as well as community members. While pluralism in the delivery mode of primary education is definitely a welcome feature, it is essential that the LJ and the state authorities articulate a clear policy on promoting such alternatives as a normal feature.

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Epilogue In a society with a predominantly illiterate population characterized by rigid norms of social behaviour, universalizing primary education is not just an educational endeavour. Limited access to education has, to a considerable extent, helped preserve the traditional social power equations within the society; maintain the status quo in male-female relationships within and outside the family; and perpetuate the political economy of the predominantly agrarian society. Thus, any attempt to change this entrenched framework of relationships is tantamount to seeking a virtual social transformation. Attempting to break this hegemony, by operating from within the society through a participatory process and without acceding to overt social friction as envisaged by Lok Jumbish, cannot be an easy path. It is in this context that a core team and a women’s group are formed in every village to initiate the process of school mapping more as an innocuous, voluntary and benevolent action than as means of gaining control over any aspect of life in the village. The dynamics of generating such groups in a small community appear to be inherently contradictory and a virtual trap for anyone to enter. They should not be seen as a threat to the existing leadership structure, neither should they represent any form of disturbance to the current cultural pattern of behaviour, nor radically shift the power relationships within the family, and yet should contribute to social change. This is the path that LJ workers have chosen to tread. Coming out of this trap successfully and contributing to the processes of social change at the grass-roots level requires a high level of sensitivity and a real life tightrope-walking ability on the part of the local LJ workers. No amount of standardized training can equip them to face this challenge. The skills required to disentangle themselves from the trap have to be learned in the field through personal effort; the way to move ahead has to be found uniquely in each situation by sometimes failing but yet not 183




giving up. It is a slow process of exploration and progressive action. Nobody should be faulted for taking longer than expected in some cases; and, perhaps, even failing to deliver the goods in some others. Such an effort involving transformation of deep-seated cultural mores and social attitudes through the spreading of education should not be treated like a turnkey project to be delivered according to a pre-designed blueprint. It demands patience and sustained effort, along with an abiding faith in the human capacity to progress towards the goal of education for all.

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Appendix

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Symbols used in village Naksha Nazri

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Appendix

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IIEP publications and documents

More than 1,200 titles on all aspects of educational planning have been published by the International Institute for Educational Planning. A comprehensive catalogue, giving details of their availability, includes research reports, case studies, seminar documents, training materials, occasional papers and reference books in the following subject categories: Economics of education, costs and financing. Manpower and employment. Demographic studies. Location of schools (school map) and micro-planning. Administration and management. Curriculum development and evaluation. Educational technology. Primary, secondary and higher education. Vocational and technical education. Non-formal, out-of-school, adult and rural education. Disadvantaged groups. Copies of the catalogue may be obtained from IIEP Publications on request.





The International Institute for Educational Planning The International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) is an international centre for advanced training and research in the field of educational planning. It was established by UNESCO in 1963 and is financed by UNESCO and by voluntary contributions from Member States. In recent years the following Member States have provided voluntary contributions to the Institute: Denmark, Germany, Iceland, India, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Venezuela. The Institute’s aim is to contribute to the development of education throughout the world, by expanding both knowledge and the supply of competent professionals in the field of educational planning. In this endeavour the Institute co-operates with interested training and research organizations in Member States. The Governing Board of the IIEP, which approves the Institute’s programme and budget, consists of a maximum of eight elected members and four members designated by the United Nations Organization and certain of its specialized agencies and institutes. Chairman: Lennart Wohlgemuth (Sweden) Director, The Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, Sweden. Designated Members: David de Ferranti Director, Human Development Department (HDD), The World Bank, Washington, USA. Carlos Fortin Deputy to the Secretary-General, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Geneva, Switzerland. Miriam J. Hirschfeld Director, Division of Human Resources Development and Capacity Building, World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland. Jeggan Senghor Director, African Institute for Economic Development and Planning (IDEP), Dakar, Senegal. Elected Members: Dato’Asiah bt. Abu Samah (Malaysia) Corporate Adviser, Lang Education, Land and General Berhad, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Klaus Hüfner (Germany) Professor, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany. Faïza Kefi (Tunisia) President, National Union of Tunisian Women, Tunis, Tunisia. Tamas Kozma (Hungary) Director-General, Hungarian Institute for Educational Research, Budapest, Hungary. Teboho Moja (South Africa) Special Adviser to the Minister of Education, Pretoria, South Africa. Yolanda M. Rojas (Costa Rica) Professor, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica. Michel Vernières (France) Professor, University of Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne, Paris, France. Inquiries about the Institute should be addressed to: The Office of the Director, International Institute for Educational Planning, 7-9 rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris, France.

