TESTING INDEPENDENT AND BUFFER MODELS OF THE INFLUENCE OF LEISURE PARTICIPATION ON STRESS-COPING AND ADAPTATIONAL OUTCOMES Yoshi Iwasaki, University of Manitoba Roger C. Mannell, University of Waterloo Despite the recent growth of leisure coping research, it is not entirely clear what types of leisure best contribute to coping with stress, and how the processes that link specific activities to coping outcomes operate. Also, researchers have tended to examine leisure coping independent of general coping (i.e., coping not directly associated with leisure such as problem-focused coping). To help overcome these limitations, the purpose of the present study was to test two models of leisure and coping: (a) an independent model and (b) a buffer model. The study focused on the impact of participation in major types of leisure activity when the effects of general coping were taken into account. Specifically, examined were the effects of both leisure behavior and experience (i.e., frequency and enjoyment of leisure participation) on the adaptational outcomes of stress-coping. The two models of leisure and coping suggest that the mechanisms by which leisure contributes to coping are somewhat different. An independent model assumes that although the presence of stressors is detrimental to health, leisure safeguards against ill-health and promotes positive adaptational outcomes (e.g., well-being), irrespective of the presence or levels of the stressors encountered (Ensel & Lin, 1991). For example, those individuals who actively participate in leisure are assumed to gain greater health benefits than those who do not no matter how stressful or non-stressful their lives are. A buffer model suggests that leisure acts as a "buffer" against the experience of stress and helps maintain good health and produce positive adaptational outcomes (e.g., stress reduction). For example, when stress levels are high, those individuals who do not frequently engage in leisure likely experience poorer health, whereas those people who are regularly involved in leisure are able to maintain good health even under stressful conditions. The buffer model assumes that leisure provides health and adaptational benefits only when people experience high stress. Coleman and Iso-Ahola (1993) developed a leisure and health model in which leisuregenerated enduring feelings of self-determination and social support are conceptualized to act as "buffers" against the negative impact of stress on health. To date researchers have found only limited evidence for the buffer hypothesis of leisure (e.g., Caltabiano, 1995; Coleman, 1993; Iso-Ahola & Park, 1996; Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000a; Zuzanek, Robinson, & Iwasaki, 1998). Methods Two hundred randomly selected employees in the Police and Emergency Response Services Department in a western Canadian city received project envelopes that included three sets of questionnaires, one for each stage of the study. 66% of the original 200 participants (n=132) completed all stages. A short-term longitudinal design was used that consisted of three measurement stages. At Stage One, participants' baseline health status was measured. At Stage Two, one month after Stage One, they completed a questionnaire to report the stressors they had encountered during the previous month, their use of coping strategies to manage these stressors, frequency and enjoyment of leisure participation, and immediate adaptational outcomes (i.e., coping effectiveness, coping satisfaction, and stress reduction). At Stage Three, one month after Stage Two, the participants' health status was again measured. Physical and mental health was assessed by using the MOS 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36; Ware, Kosinski, & Keller, 1994). A 10-point Likert-type scale (0="did not occur"; l="not very stressful" to 10= "extremely stressful") was used to measure major types of recent stressors (e.g., role strain, interpersonal problems, environmental problems; Moos & Moos, 1994). The Coping Orientation for Problem Experiences (COPE; Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) inventory was employed to assess general coping strategies that are not directly associated with leisure (e.g., problem-focused coping). A leisure participation inventory was used to measure frequency and enjoyment of major groups of leisure activities in the previous month including: physically active leisure, social leisure, relaxing leisure, outdoor recreation, cultural leisure, hobbies, and leisure travel (Ragheb, 1980). The immediate adaptational outcomes measured included: (a) coping effectiveness (the extent to which people's coping strategies are effective); (b) coping satisfaction (the extent to which they are satisfied with coping outcomes); and (c) stress reduction (the extent to which their stress levels are reduced; Beehr & McGrath, 1996). Results According to hierarchical regression analysis, after "controlling" baseline health status (Step 1), stress levels (Step 2), and general coping (Step 3), the main effects of frequency of participation in leisure activities (Step 4) significantly predicted immediate adaptational outcomes (R2Change=-22), physical health (R2Change=-12), and mental health (R2Change=-10). In contrast, general coping significantly predicted only two of the three dependent variables. With respect to specific types or dimensions of leisure participation, greater frequency of participation in relaxing leisure significantly predicted better immediate adaptational outcomes and mental health (f5s=.28 & .22, respectively) above and beyond the effects of general coping. Higher levels of social leisure were significantly associated with better mental health (|3=.18). Also, the more frequently the participants engaged in cultural leisure, the
greater their physical health (P=.28). As for the impact of enjoyment measures, greater enjoyment in relaxing leisure significantly predicted better immediate adaptational outcomes (P=.31), whereas greater enjoyment in hobbies was significantly associated with better physical health (p=.15). The greater the enjoyment experienced in outdoor recreation activities, the better mental health reported (|3=.29). The interaction effects for stress and frequency of leisure participation were found to be statistically significant in predicting immediate adaptational outcomes (R2Change=-12). Also, level of stress significantly interacted with level of enjoyment experienced during leisure in predicting immediate adaptational outcomes and mental health (R change=07 & .06, respectively). Plots of the statistically significant interaction effects1 suggest that there is substantial support for the buffer hypothesis (Figures 1 to 5). As illustrated in Figures 1 and 3, as stress levels increased, those individuals who participated less and/or enjoyed leisure travel less tended to report lower levels of immediate adaptational outcomes, whereas high levels of stress did not seem to negatively affect those who traveled more and/or who reported greater enjoyment of leisure travel. Figures 2 and 5 show that the negative impact of stress on mental health appeared to be mitigated by greater participation and/or enjoyment in social leisure. Similarly, Figure 4 shows that the detrimental effects of stress on immediate adaptational outcomes were stronger among those who reported lower levels of enjoyment in cultural leisure, compared to those experiencing greater enjoyment.
Discussion The findings suggest that the effects of leisure participation on stress-coping and health differ depending on the type of leisure engaged in. Relaxing leisure, outdoor recreation, and hobbies were found to have "main effects" supporting the independent model, whereas leisure travel was found to have "interaction effects" supporting the buffer model. Interestingly, social leisure and cultural leisure had both "main effects" and "interaction effects" supporting both the independent and buffer models. The positive effects of leisure travel likely occur when people experience high levels of stress (i.e., buffer model). Leisure travel tends to be a special form of leisure because it often requires greater amounts of preparations and time, and involves physical and psychological escape or detachment from normal daily life. Due to these characteristics, people who engage in leisure travel appear to have "special" experiences. Consequently, the benefits of leisure gained may be "magnified" when people pursue leisure travel. Not only may leisure travel allow people to feel refreshed and psychologically regroup to better handle stressors, but it may also provide an opportunity to gain renewed energy and perspective to counter the disrupted patterns of their lives caused by stress (i.e., leisure palliative coping; Iwasaki & Mannell, 2000b; Kleiber, 1999). In contrast, relaxing leisure, outdoor recreation, and hobbies often take place in people's "normal" everyday lives. For example, listening to music for relaxation, strolling near-by parks to enjoy the outdoors, and gardening in one's backyard as a hobby are forms of leisure that people can fit easily in their daily lives. People may routinely engage in these forms of leisure that can be fully integrated into their lifestyles. These characteristics of relaxing leisure, outdoor recreation, and hobbies might help individuals gain health benefits, irrespective of the presence of high levels of stress (i.e., independent model). Also, social leisure and cultural leisure could act as a means of coping with stress. Social leisure may allow individuals to be in the company of supportive friends (i.e., "companionship;" Rook, 1987). Social leisure might also provide individuals with an opportunity to develop "friendships" that could operate as a form of perceived social support (Iso-Ahola & Park, 1996). Cultural leisure, on the other hand, may allow individuals to escape from their routine everyday world and transport them to a "fantasy world" (Caltabiano, 1995, p. 43). Culturally stimulating experiences (e.g., attending a symphony concert, ballet, and theatre, and visiting a museum) could be psychologically challenging and rewarding, and cultural leisure may provide stress-coping benefits that may involve psychological enrichment and spiritual renewal. The study highlights the importance of non-physical forms of leisure as ways of dealing with stress and
facilitating good health, both mental and physical. Contrary to the popular belief that it is physical activity and exercise that primarily contribute to stress-coping, physically active leisure was not found to influence any adaptational outcomes. These findings add to the accumulating evidence that physical activity and exercise may not always contribute to effectively coping with stress (e.g., Flood & Long, 1996; Steffy, Jones, & Wiggins Noe, 1990; Trenberth, Dewe, & Walkey, 1999), although these tend to facilitate cardiovascular fitness and physiological benefits that lead to the improvement of long-term health (Froelicher & Froelicher, 1991; Paffenbarger, Hyde, & Dow, 1991). Coping and health researchers, as well as policy makers and professionals who are involved in health promotion and intervention, should give greater attention to a broader range of leisure pursuits including non-physical types of leisure as ways of managing stress. Note 1. One standard deviations above or below the means of stress and leisure measures represent high or low stress and leisure measures. References Beehr, T. A., & McGrath, J. E. (1996). The methodology of research on coping: Conceptual, strategic and operational level issues. In M. Zeidner, & N. S. Endler (Eds.), Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications (pp. 65-82). New York: Wiley. Caltabiano, M. L. (1995). Main and stress-moderating health benefits of leisure. Society and Leisure/Loisir et Societe, 18, 33-52. Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283. Coleman, D. (1993). Leisure based social support, leisure dispositions and health. Journal of Leisure Research, 25, 350-361. Coleman, D., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1993). Leisure and health: The role of social support and selfdetermination. Journal of Leisure Research, 25, 111-128. Ensel, W. M., & Lin, N. (1991). The life stress paradigm and psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32,321-341. Flood, K. R., & Long, B. C. (1996). Understanding exercise as a method of stress management. In J. Kerr, A. Griffits & T. Cox (Eds.), Workplace ... Employee fitness and exercise. London: Taylor & Francis. Froelicher, V. F., & Froelicher, E. J. (1991). Cardiovascular benefits of physical activity. In B. L. Driver, P. J. Brown, & G. L. Peterson (Eds.), Benefits of leisure (pp. 59-72). State College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc. IsoAhola, S. E., & Park, C. J. (1996). Leisure-related social support and self-determination as buffers of stress-illness relationship. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 169-187. Iwasaki, Y., & Mannell, R.C. (2000a). The effects of leisure beliefs and coping strategies on stress-health relationships: A field study. Leisure/Loisir: The Journal of the Canadian Association for Leisure Studies, 24, 357. Iwasaki, Y., & Mannell, R. C. (2000b). Hierarchical dimensions of leisure stress coping. Leisure Sciences. 22.163181. Kleiber, D. A. (1999). Leisure experience and human development. New York: Basic Books. Moos, R., & Moos, B. (1994). Life stressors and social resources inventory adult form manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Paffenbarger Jr., R. S., Hyde, R. T., & Dow, A. (1991). Health benefits of physical activity. In B. L. Driver, P. J. Brown, & G. L. Peterson (Eds.), Benefits of leisure (pp. 49-58). State College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc. Ragheb, M. G. (1980). Interrelationships among leisure participation, leisure satisfaction and leisure attitudes. Journal of Leisure Research, 12, 138-149. Rook, K. S. (1987). Social support vs. companionship: Effects on life stress, loneliness, and evaluations by others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1132-1147. Steffy, B. D., Jones, J. W., & Wiggins Noe, A. (1990). The impact of health habits and life style on the stressorstrain relationship: An evaluation of three industries. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 217-229. Trenberth, L., Dewe, P. & Walkey, F. (1999). Leisure and its role as a strategy for coping with work stress. International Journal of Stress Management, 6, 89-103. Ware, J. E., Kosinski, M., & Keller, S. D. (1994). SF-36 physical and mental health summary scales: A user's manual. Boston, MA: The Health Institute, New England Medical Centre. Zuzanek, J., Robinson, J. P., & Iwasaki, Y. (1998). The relationships between stress, health, and physically active leisure as a function of life-cycle. Leisure Sciences, 20, 253-275. Yoshi Iwasaki, Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation Studies, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada; Phone: (204)474-8643; E-mail:
[email protected]
ABSTRACTS of Papers Presented at the Tenth Canadian Congress on Leisure Research May 22-25,2002 Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta Abstracts compiled and edited by Edgar L. Jackson CCLR-10 Programme Committee Karen Fox Ed Jackson Gordon Walker
Copyright © 2002 Canadian Association for
The Canadian Congress on Leisure Research is held under the auspices of the Canadian Association for Leisure Studies Le congres canadien de la recherche en loisir Se tient sous les auspices de L'association canadienne d'etudes en loisir
BOARD OF DIRECTORS / CONSEIL D'ADMINISTRATION 1999 - 2002 President / President Susan Markham-Starr Acadia University
Past President / President-sortant Edgar L. Jackson University of Alberta
Treasurer / Tresorier Robert Soubrier Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres
Secretary / Secretaire Linda Caldwell Pennsylvania State University
Directors / Directeurs Wendy Frisby, University of British Columbia Tom Hinch, University of Alberta Peggy Hutchison, Brock University Jennifer Mactavish, University of Manitoba Lisa Ostiguy, Concordia University Stephane Perrault, Universite du Quebec d Trois-Rivieres Jerry Singleton, Dalhousie University Bryan Smale, University of Waterloo Paul Wilkinson, York University
