bayesian statistics and stochastic modelling

Emerging Applications of

BAYESIAN STATISTICS AND STOCHASTIC MODELLING

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Contraceptive use in the absence of sex preference in Uttar Pradesh *Hemant Kr. Singh, **R.D.Singh, ***G.P.Singh, ****Ajay Singh, ***Alok Kumar *Community Medicine Department, Hapur, ** Department of Statistics, BHU Varanasi. *** Community Medicine Department& DST-CIMS, BHU, Varanasi,****Medical record Section, SS Hospital, IMS,BHU.

Abstract:

The pattern of contraceptive practices depends on sex composition of children, various background characteristics as such as residence, educational status, and religious and working status of couple. Our emphasis is to find whether women with desirable sex composition of children are more satisfied. In this chapter an attempt has also been made to assess the presence of sex preference based on examining the current use of any contraceptive method by sex composition of surviving children. The measure adopted for assessment of sex presence on studying parity-wise distribution of contraceptive was used basically to answer the question “what would happen to contraceptive use if all sex preference were to disappear suddenly?” It assumes that all couples at each parity will act in the same manner as those couples at the same parity who are currently most satisfied with the sex composition of their children, as the sex of the children would no longer be important. If the sex of the child no longer made any difference, couples with one girl would be equally satisfied as couples with one boy, and hence they would have the same rate of contraceptive use. The analysis further reveals that there is moderate son preference across residence and socio-economic background but not at the cost of balance sex composition of a boy and a girl. Son preference is stronger in rural area, below secondary level education and Hindus. Invariably women of all demographic and socioeconomic background are not all satisfied with just girl children though just boy children are acceptable. It has been found that the results of this chapter indicate that women with more number of sons have highest percentage of contraceptive use followed by balance (two sons and one daughter) in the sex composition of children.

1 Introduction In the societies of East Asia, North Africa, the middle East and other parts of south Asia including India, couples have been observed to have a strong preference for sons over daughters [3, 8, 16] and accorded low status to women . Most couples desire at least one son, often two, and want either one daughter or have no explicit preference for daughters at all. The stronger preference for sons over daughters is because sons are thought of as productive assets for labor, as providers of security in emergencies and in the parents’ old age, and as conduits to carry on the family name and perform family rituals. On the other hand, the birth of a daughter is seen as bringing neither ”benefit” nor “prestige” to the family. Daughters are often considered as an economic burden because of the dowry system. Once married, daughter become physically, as well as psychologically, isolated from the natal home and are seldom seen as making significant contribution to their natal family [7]. Previous studies have found that a number of cultural, social and economic factors influence the relative benefits and costs of sons and ultimately parent’s gender preferences [4, 1 5]. State specific analysis is important in India, where decision-making and program implementation are largely decentralized. The preference for the son varies considerable from one part of the state to another, depending on different factors such as the level of economic development, social norm, cultural and religious practices, marriage and family system, degree of urbanization, and the nature of social security system. In the context of India’s patrilineal and patriarchal family system, having one son is imperative for the continuation of the family line, and many sons provide additional status to the family [6, 10, 12, 13]. Additionally, the utility of having more sons find its roots in the widespread strong belief in the Indian society that certain religious ceremonies 66   

like putting fire to the pyre of their deceased parents by sons only can help in the salvation of their souls. Uttar Pradesh is a patriarchal state in India. In Uttar Pradesh a large majority of women also want at least one daughter because it is necessary to fulfill the Hindu religious obligation of Kanyadan (giving a daughter away at the time of her marriage), that has the highest level of merit (Punya). Some parents also cite the need to have a daughter to cry at time of their death [9]. State-specific analyses are important in India, where decision making and program implementation are largely decentralized. The strength of son preference varies considerably from one part of the country to another, as do socioeconomic conditions and levels of fertility and mortality. Of particular importance is the fact that son preference has been found to be consistently stronger in northern India than in the South [5, 11]. Inadequate knowledge of contraceptive methods and incomplete or erroneous information about where to obtain methods and how to use them are the main reasons for not accepting family planning. Studies assessing correct, adequate and timely knowledge suggest that a small proportion have complete knowledge of various contraceptive methods [14]The family planning programme has been successful in improving contraceptive acceptance and reducing fertility rates but its achievements have been modest. While contextual and structural factors (high levels of illiteracy, poor access to sources of knowledge, poverty, gender and non-gender-based disparities) are partly responsible, the direction, emphasis and strategies followed hitherto in the family welfare programme have largely contributed to the limited success of the programme.

2 Objective of the study The success of contraceptive usages in Uttar Pradesh is reflected in the studies of NFHS as the impressive increase in the use of contraceptive from 20 percent in 1992 to 28 percent in 1998 as well as 44 percent in 2005 resulting in substantial decline in fertility for the same period. Patriarchal social structure of Uttar Pradesh still discourages to practice contraception until they have a son. In these circumstances, son preference may exert an influence not only on contraceptive use and fertility levels, but also on the progress of fertility decline. In the present chapter, an attempt is made to assess the presence of sex preference based on examining the current use of any contraceptive method by sex composition of surviving children. The measure adopted for assessment of sex presence on studying parity-wise distribution of contraceptive was used basically to answer the question “what would happen to contraceptive use if all sex preference were to disappear suddenly?” In general, the measure is defined as Ip=

∑ C *i p i ∑ pi

where Ci* and Pi related to the maximum contraceptive use rate and equal the number of women at each parity i. The measure assumes that, couples of a particular parity will act in the same manner as those couples of the same parity who are currently most satisfied with the sex composition of their children, considering that the sex of 67   

children would no longer be important. If the sex of the child no longer made any difference, couples with one girl would be equally satisfied with as couples with one boy, and hence they would have the same rate of contraceptive use. This measure is an improvement over previous measure in both type couples. First it can handle any type of sex preference (boy preference, girl preference, balance preference or any combinations of these). Second, the method can be used with a number of behavioral and attitudinal measures related to fertility and family planning. Third, it automatically adjusts for the current level of the independent variable. Fourth, the data needed to calculate this measure are widely available. The method requires data on only the number of living children by sex plus any fertility related dependent variable such as contraceptive use. Although son preference is still common, couples desire to have at least one son and a daughter.

3 Data and Methodology The present study utilizes data from NFHS-2 (1998). NFHS-2 provided state level and national level information on the basic indictors of social progress including fertility, Family planning program, fertility preference, infant and child mortality, maternal and child health, reproductive health, nutritional states of mother and child and awareness about some sexual transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS etc. NFHS is a nationally representative survey in India, coordinated the survey by international institute for population sciences (IIPS) and funded by the united state agency for international development (USAID) through ORC, Macro, USA. It is a nationally representative two-stage probability sample design and covered 10,544 ever-married women aged 15-49 years from the selected households. This study is based on 8906 currently married women aged 15-49 years who are able to bear the children. The respondents under sterilization, widowed, divorced, and declared infecund were not considered in the sample because they were not users of the contraception in the population. In order to compare sex composition on contraceptive use, the background characteristics like place of residence, level of education, religion and employment status are considered. There are 1820 (26.7 percent of total rural respondents) respondents from rural and 786 (49.6 percent of total urban respondents) from urban areas practicing contraception according to their permanent place of residence. 2288 (32 percent of total Hindu respondents) of the respondents are Hindu and 310 (25.1 percent of total non-Hindu respondents) non-Hindu practicing contraception according to the characteristic religion. The number of respondents practicing contraception belonging to below secondary and secondary and higher level of education are 1820 (27.7 percent of total respondents below secondary level of education) and 734 (44.8 percent of total respondents above secondary level and higher level of education) respectively. The number of respondent under working and non-working group according to employment status, practicing contraception is 633 (33.2 percent of the total respondents who are working) and 1972 (30.4 percent of the total respondents who are non-working) respectively. In the present study, an attempt has been made to estimate the effects of sex preference on contraceptive use and fertility. To measure the effect of sex preference on contraceptive use [2] method was applied to this data to estimate the degree to which 68   

overall contraceptive practice rate would increase in the absence of sex preference among the selected background characteristics. This technique assumes that in the complete absence of sex preference, at any parity, all the couple would behave in similar manner as those who are most satisfied of their existing sex composition of their living children i.e.at the maximum rate within that parity. More specifically, we calculate the rate of current use of contraceptive methods among women according to number of son at parity and used the highest values at parity regardless of sex compositions, as estimates of expected contraceptive prevalence. Then the observed rates of contraceptive use are compared with expected rate of contraceptive use by sex composition. Greater the difference between these two rates, higher the impact of sex preference on family planning practices.

4 Results and discussion In order to assess the presence of sex preference of children, we have analyzed the pattern of contraceptive use sex composition of surviving children considering by socioeconomic and socio-demographic characteristic of current married women for whom the data have been collected. If the desire for a balanced sex composition affects fertility behavior, then within a given parity that have had either all son or daughters would be less likely to accept contraception as compared to those who had children of both sexes. The tables present the percentage of currently married women using contraceptive by the number of living children respectively according to their residence (rural and urban), education (below secondary, secondary and higher level of education), religion (Hindu and non-Hindu) and working status (working and not working). In both socio-demographic and socio-economic categories, columns are divided according to the number of living children, the number of living son, the percentage of contraceptive users according to different characteristics of women and the last column shows the acceptance of contraception by the women in the absence of sex preference of children. Table 1 shows that at parity two, 31.5 percent respondents (447 respondents out of 1417) are practicing contraception. The result obtained from the birth order and corresponding sex of children, shows that respondents practicing contraception having two daughters is much lower than that of having two sons (17.2 percent Vs 44.4 percent). The difference between the proportions is statistically significant. The practicing rate of contraception is the maximum among respondent having two sons. At parity three, 44.9percent respondents (713 respondents out of 1587) are practicing contraception. The result obtained from birth order and corresponding sex of children, the couples practicing contraception having one son and two daughters those having two sons and one daughter are 33.2percent and 57.4percent respectively. The difference between the proportions is statistically significant. The contraceptive practicing rate is maximum among respondents having two sons and one daughter. Table 2 represents the percentage of currently married women using contraceptive by the number of living children respectively according to the rural and urban women. The corresponding number of respondents belongs to rural and urban areas of Uttar Pradesh is 3744 and 911 respectively. According to the type of place of residence, contraceptive users out of these women are 15.58 percent (rural) and 47.20 percent (urban) respectively. It is assumed that if the sex of the child no longer made any difference, women with two 69   

Table 1: Contraceptive use by parity and sex of birth order of children Birth Order

Parity 1 2

3

4

1 M F M M F F M F M M F F M F M M M M F M M F F M F M F F F F

2

M F M F M M F M F M F F M M M F M M F M F F M F M F F F

3

M M M F M F F F M M F M M F M F M F M F F M F F

% of respondents using contraceptive (no . of respondent)

No. of women

% of respondents using contraceptive in absence of sex preference

15.7(97) 10.1(52) 44.4(199) 27.5(101) 29.5(103) 17.2(44) 52.9(119) 53.9(118) 57.4(136) 51.2(133) 37.3(63) 40.0(56) 33.2(67) 15.6(21) 54.0(54) 52.30(45) 47.4(37) 41.0(25) 48.4(46) 50.0(49) 48.9(46) 42.9(33) 44.6(25) 56.4(62) 60.9(42) 36.9(24) 40.0(30) 38.9(28) 30.2(19) 15.6(7) 34.94%

616 517 448 367 346 256 225 219 237 260 169 140 202 135 100 86 78 61 95 98 94 77 56 110 69 65 75 72 63 45 5381

15.7

4

M F M M M F F M M M F F F M M F

44.4

57.4

60.9

I p= 46.01%

girls would be equally satisfied as women with one boy and one girl and hence they would have the same rate of contraceptive use. With this assumption, the result of last column in each parity for both rural and urban categories is obtained. Table 2 show a preference for sons especially at higher order parities in both rural and urban areas. In the survey, 10.7 percent of women with one male child reported using contraceptive as compared to 7.3 percent of women with one female child in the rural areas. With same rural background, women with two children differ in their approach to contraceptive use. Only 15.2 percent were found using contraceptive in case of those couples who were having their both children as sons compared to 10.1 percent of women who have both children as daughter. At parity two or three, the most preferred ratio of sex composition is two son or two sons and one daughter. Contraceptive use in two sons or two sons and one daughter are higher compared to two daughters or one son and two daughters. As the parity increases, the rising patterns of contraceptive use are evident. First, women with more boys than the girls are more satisfied in terms of sex composition of children, is reflected in higher percentage 70   

Table 2: Contraceptive use by sex composition and residence NLS=Number of living sons, Sex composition of living children NLC 1 2

3

4+

Number of women

NLC= Number of living children

% of respondents using contraceptive (no . of respondent)

NLS 0

Rural 384

Urban 68

Rural 7.3 (28)

Urban 29.4(20)

1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4+

422 168 430 210 96 256 327 18 38 251 425 397 332

116 38 131 76 13 71 66 18 7 71 96 73 67

10.7 (45) 10.1 (17) 14.0(60) 15.2(32) 6.3(6) 17.6(45) 22.6(74) 50.0(9) 6.7(3) 15.5(39) 21.9(93) 18.9(75) 17.8(59)

35.3(41) 42.1(16) 61.8(81) 57.9(44) 23.1(3) 46.5(33) 48.5(32) 50.0(9) 14.3(1) 46.5(33) 52.1(50) 50.7(37) 44.8(30)

3744

911

15.58%

47.20%

% of respondent using contraceptive in absence of sex preference Rural

Urban

10.7

35.3

15.2

61.8

50.0

50.0

21.9

Ip= 23.27%

52.1

Ip= 50.93%

of women going for contraception. Second, pronounced preference for two sons or two sons and one daughter in the sex composition of children is obvious from the next higher percentage of women using contraceptive when they have this sex composition of children. When we analyze the data of women adopting contraceptive at each parity by sex composition of children, it is evident that women with only daughters are less likely to be satisfied with the sex composition of children and most probably, they go for having subsequent children. If we scrutinize the data adeptly, it is evident that sex preferences have very little effect on contraceptive use in rural and urban localities since respective contraceptive use rate had increased up to 23.27 percent 50.93 percent in the lack of sex preference. Similarly, table 2 shows similar kind of pattern of preference for sex composition of children among urban women. Rather preference for son and balance in sex composition is more visible in urban than in rural area. The result of analysis based on literacy under dichotomized category of below secondary level and secondary and higher level of education are shown in the Table 3. As expected, women having secondary and higher level of education are using contraceptive as different parties. Among below secondary level educated women who have only daughter as child are not satisfied at all, though one daughter as the only child is acceptable to some degree among literate women with contraceptive prevalence rate. In case of two children, the most preferred sex composition is a boy and a girl, with contraceptive use rate (12.4 percent) in below secondary level of education and (51.4 percent) in secondary and higher level of education. The most preferred sex composition of three children is two sons and one daughter. In order of preference, this is followed by 71   

Table 3: Contraceptive use by sex composition and education BSL= below secondary level, ASL = secondary and higher level Sex composition of living children NLC 1

Number of women

% of respondents using contraceptive (no. of respondents)

% of respondents using contraceptive in absence of sex preference

BSL 344 378 157 378 206 98

ASL 107 160 49 183 80 11

BSL 4.7(16) 8.5(32) 7.6(12) 12.4(47) 14.6(30) 6.1(60

ASL 29.9(32) 33.8(54) 42.9(21) 51.4(94) 57.4(46) 27.3(3)

BSL

ASL

8.5

33.8

14.6

57.8

3

NLS 0 1 0 1 2 0

243 326 89 39

84 67 16 6

15.6(38) 20.9(68) 12.4(11) 2.6(1)

47.6(40) 56.7(38) 56.3(9) 33.3(2)

20.9

56.7

4+

1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4+

282 484 433 381

40 36 37 18

18.1(51) 24.8(120) 20.6(89) 21.0(80)

52.5(21) 61.1(22) 62.2(23) 50.0(9)

24.8

62.2

3838

894

15.67%

46.32%

I p=19.0%

I p=50.98%

2

Table 4: Contraceptive use by sex composition and Religions H = Hindu, N.H.= Non Hindu Sex composition of living children

Number of women

NLC

NLS

H

N.H

H

N.H

H

N.H

1

0

443

60

10.2(45)

6.7(4)

15.4

18.5

1

545

81

15.4(84)

18.5(15)

0

203

34

15.8(32)

20.6(7)

1

621

103

26.7(166)

35.0(36)

45.3

41.7

2

404

48

45.3(183)

41.7(20)

0

109

18

11.0(12)

11.1(2)

1

399

57

35.1(140)

33.3(19)

57.1

33.3

2

695

77

57.1(397)

28.6(22)

3

209

20

54.1(113)

30.0(6)

0 1 2 3 4+

52 418 838 668 364

10 73 145 165 111

11.3(7) 35.6(149) 50.0(419) 43.7(292) 46.2(168)

32.9(24) 35.2(51) 26.7(44) 35.1(39)

5968

1002

36.96%

28.86%

2

3

4+

% of respondent using contraceptive (no. of respondents)

72   

% of respondent using contraceptive in absence of sex preference

50.0

I p =44.98

35.2

I p =33.72

Table 5: Contraceptive use by sex composition and Working Status W.Y = Working Yes, W.N = Working No Sex composition of living children NLC 1 2

3

4+

NLS 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4+

Number of women w.y 66 86 43 103 51 33 59 101 30 17 80 157 113 98 939

w.n 386 452 163 458 235 76 268 292 75 28 241 363 357 301 3695

% of respondents using contraceptive (no. of respondents) w.y 4.5(3) 15.1(13) 25.6(11) 23.3(24) 17.6(9) 0 25.4(15) 19.8(20) 13.3(4) 11.8(2) 15.0(12) 25.5(40) 24.8(28) 21.4(21) 21.51%

w.n 11.7(45) 16.2(73) 13.5(22) 25.5(117) 28.5(67) 11.8(9) 23.5(63) 29.5(86) 21.3(16) 3.6(1) 24.5(59) 28.4(103) 23.5(84) 22.6(68) 22.01%

% respondents using contraceptive in absence of sex preference w.y 15.1

w.n 16.2

25.6

28.5

25.4

29.5

28.4

25.5

I p=26.48%

Ip=25.89%

Table 6: Effect of sex preference on Contraceptive Prevalence Rate Characteristics

Actual

Rural Urban Total Below secondary level Second. & higher level Total Hindu Non-Hindu Total Working Not working Total

15.58 47.20 21.88 15.67 46.32 21.44 36.96 28.86 35.81 21.51 22.01 21.45

Contraceptive prevalence rate In absence of sex preference 23.27 50.93 29.01 19.13 50.98 24.70 44.98 33.72 43.51 26.48 25.89 23.44

%age difference 33.05 7.32 24.58 18.09 9.14 13.20 17.83 14.41 17.70 18.77 14.99 8.49

two sons and one daughter with a figure of 56.7 percent and 20.9 percent contraceptive use among secondary and higher level below secondary level women respectively. The composition of three children having only one sex either sons or daughters is not at all preferred. Among below secondary level and secondary and higher level of educated women having all three children as daughters are not satisfied though they can accept all three children as sons. When women have children of both sexes, the sex preference is to accept more number of sons than daughters in illiterate categories. At higher order parities, women in literate categories seems to bother more about discontinuation of child bearing rather than stressing on sex composition probably because they are satisfied by achieving desired sex composition of children at these parities. Overall, it is evident that sex preferences have very little effect on contraceptive used in both below secondary, secondary and higher level of education since contraceptive use rates would increase from 73   

15.67 percent to 19.0 percent in below secondary level and from 46.32 percent to 50.98 percent in secondary and higher level of education in absence of sex preference. The results of Table 4 and Table 5 follow the similar pattern as the religions and working status of respondents with number of surviving children of sex composition are same. We see that contraceptive prevalence rate is higher at different parity i.e. Overall, it is evident that sex preferences have effect on contraceptive use rates would increase from 21.51 percent to 6.48 percent in working women and from 22.01 percent to 25.89 percent in non-working women in absence of sex preference. Contraceptive prevalence rate is higher among working respondents as compared to not working women. It is evident that sex preferences have effect on contraceptive used in both Hindu and non-Hindu religion since contraceptive use rates would increase from 36.96 percent to 44.98 percent in Hindu and from 28.86 percent to 37.72 percent in non-Hindu in absence of sex preference i.e. contraceptive prevalence rate is higher among the Hindu respondents as compared to nonHindu respondents The difference is statistically significant for any parity. In above, all tables show that contraceptive use rate is higher among the balance sex composition (two son or two sons and one girl). This result shows desire of balance sex composition in among respondents Uttar Pradesh. In this table an enhancement in contraceptive prevalence rate of women coming from different socio-economic and socio-demographic backgrounds. With their present sex composition of children, those women who are satisfied with their sex composition would have highest contraceptive prevalence and its use would be at the same level for women coming from different socio-economic and socio-demographic backgrounds. The contraceptive use has been categorized according to the sex composition. There are characteristic column, actual column, in absence of sex preference column and lastly the difference between absence of sex preference and actual column. These differences have been estimated using this method [1]. Table 6 represents the estimates of couples who have accepted contraception in the absence of sex preference. The proportion of couples accepting contraception has been estimated using this procedure in absence of sex preference at any parity, for the country as a whole. It has been observed that the proportion of couples accepting contraception has increased from actual 15.58 percent to 23.27 percent (in absence of sex preference). It can be easily observed that there is a modest increase of 33.05 percent among rural respondents. It has been observed that the proportion of couples accepting contraception has increased from actual 47.20 percent to 50.93 percent (in absence of sex preference). It can be easily observed that there is a modest increase of 7.32 percent among urban respondent. The difference of 24.58 percent can also observed when the type of place of residence is considered. It has been observed that the proportion of respondents accepting contraception has increased from actual 15.67percent to 19.13percent, (in absence of sex preference). It can be easily observed that there is a modest increase of 18.09 percent among below secondary level of education. It has been observed that the proportion of respondents accepting contraception has increased from actual 46.32 percent to 50.98percent, (in absence of sex preference). There has been a modest increase of 9.14 percent among secondary and higher level of education. The difference of 74   

13.20percent.can also observed when the level of education is considered. Here, the proportion of respondents accepting contraception has increased from actual 36.96 percent to 44.98 percent, (in absence of sex preference). A modest increase of 17.83 percent among the Hindu respondents, and their proportion of couples accepting contraception has increased from actual 28.86 percent to 33.72 percent (in absence of sex preference). A common phenomenon is that the proportion of couples accepting contraception has increased from actual 21.51 percent to 26.48 percent (in absence of sex preference). It can be easily obtain that there is a modest increase of 18.77 percent among working couples. As a matter of fact proportion of couples accepting contraception has increased from actual 22.01 percent to 25.89 percent (in absence of sex preference). In this way we can say that there is a modest increase of 14.99percent among the not working respondent. The difference of 8.49percent.can also observed when the working status is considered. Thus, we can see that higher difference shows higher sex preference in respondents corresponding to these characteristics. The effect of sex preference on contraceptive prevalence rate was highest among rural respondent and lowest urban respondents. Since the proportion of respondent practicing contraceptive in the absence of sex preference are estimated hypothetically under the assumption that in the complete absence of sex preference, at any parity, all the couples would behave in a similar manner to those who are most satisfied with their existing sex composition i.e. at the maximum rate within that parity. There is gain in contraceptive prevalence if the women in the rural, below secondary level, Hindu, non-Hindu, working and non-working are satisfied with the present sex composition of children and it would be 33.05percent, 18.09percent,17.83percent, 14.41percent, 18.77percent and 14.99percent respectively.

5 Conclusions Contraception is an important part of family planning programs. Succeeding program plans have been moderated as well as strengthened in this regard. Besides supporting the findings of earlier studies on how the combination of the selected factors influences the current contraceptive practice of women in Uttar Pradesh, this study shows that the sex composition of the surviving children moderately influences women’s decisions regarding contraceptive using lower parities. More sons a woman has, the more likely she is to practice contraception. This phenomenon holds true among women with one, two or three children, but breaks down among families with four or more children. At lower parities, this behavior may be primarily because in such situation, women become more aware of the sex of their children. However, preferred sex composition is not always achieved within a preferred family size, and contraceptive use thus depends on the couple’s trade-off between sex preference and family size preference. In such a situation, women become more aware of the sex of their children. This study also shows that some of the women with higher parities, four or more children, who have all sons, avoid the use of contraception until they have at least one daughter. These findings resemble the earlier findings that couples have a strong preference for sons but also want to have at least one daughter after having several sons (Rahman and Da Vanzo, 1993). Although it is difficult to quantify the effect of son preference on fertility and family planning, Arnold (1985) developed a measure to estimate the effect. According to the measure, the contraceptive 75   

prevalence rate would increase modestly from its current level of 57.0 percent to 60.3 percent, if there were no sex preference. Although moderate, an increase of this magnitude (3.3 per cent) would be a boon for the state family planning program. Women’s contributions are often unrecognized in the family as well as by society; however their worth is predicated mainly on their ability to produce children, particularly sons. The social and cultural environment does not allow women to work outside the home, especially in rural areas. There following points should be accelerating on high scale. 1- They should practice contraception more in their early reproductive lives. 2- They should not discriminate between male & female child. 3-They should be encouraging share their family planning matters with friends & relatives. 4- Assess to family planning service should be made more convenient for women.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Arnold, Fred. : Sex preference and its demographic and health implications. International Family Planning Perspectives 18(1992), 93-101. Arnold, Fred: Measuring the Effect of Sex Preference on Fertility: The Case of Korea, Demography, Vol. 22, No. 2, (May, 1985),pp. 280-288. Arnold, Fred, K.C.M, and T. K. Roy, : Son preference, the family building process, and child mortality in India. East-West Center Working Papers, Population Series, No. 85, (1996), Honolulu: E-W Center. Arnold, Fred, R. A.: The value of children: A cross-national study. Introduction and comparative analysis Vol. 1, (1975). Bhatia, J. : Ideal number and sex composition of children in successive childbearing decisions.. Demography 24(2) (1981), 3-16. Caldwell, John, P. Reddy, & Caldwell P.: The causes of demographic change: Experimental research in South India (1989). Chowdhury M. : “Mother education and effect of son preference on fertility in matlab Bangladesh”, population research and policy review, Vol.13 (1994) pp-257-273. Cleland, John, J. V, and Vaessen M. : Preferences for the sex of children and their influence on reproductive behavior. World Fertility Survey, Comparative Studies, No. 27 (1983). Dharmalingam, A.: The social context of family size preferences and fertility behavior in a South Indian village. Genus 52, (1996), pp. 83-103. Dyson, Tim, and M. Moore: On kinship structure, female autonomy, and demographic balance. Population and Development Review 9, (1983), pp. 35-60. Kanitkar, T., and Murthy, B. : Factors associated with contraception in Bihar and Rajasthan: Findings from recent sample surveys. Dynamics of population and family welfare (1983), pp. 165-98. Kapadia, K. M. : Marriage and family in India (1966), 3rd ed. Bombay. Karve, I. : Kinship organization in India, Bombay: Asia Publishing House,(1965). Rajaretnam,T and Despande, R. : The Effect of Sex Preference on contraceptive Use and Fertility in Rural South India, International Family Planning Perspectives, Vol. 20,No. 3, (Sep., 1994), pp. 88-95. Vlasoff, Carol. The value of sons in an Indian village: How widows see it. Pop St., 44, (1990), pp. 5-20. Williamson, N. : A Cross cultural survey of Parental Preferences, (1976) Baverly Hills: Sage Publications.

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