Introduction Research Methods Conclusions Findings

Introduction We have long since abandoned our belief that the sun rises and sets because Helios is driving his chariot across the sky. Generally, there is a co-evolution of our understanding of the physical laws of nature and our belief systems. Yet throughout Western history the wolf has been aggressively persecuted despite evidentiary findings of its ecological benefit and minimal threat to human life and livelihood. I maintain that wolves have been irrationally persecuted because they are victims of erroneous perceptions that continually disrupt empirical thought processes, in part, due to the enduring fictions of folklore that are deeply interwoven into culture.

Research Methods 1.  Textual analysis from European antiquity through colonial America to establish the folkloric chronology of the wolf

Conclusions

Findings “Over the centuries we have transformed the ancient myths and folk tales and made them into the fabric of our lives. Consciously and unconsciously we weave the narratives of myth and folk tale into our daily existence… These myths and fairy tales are historically and culturally coded, and their ideological impact is great. Somehow they have become codified, authoritative, and canonical” Jack Zipes Scientific understanding has replaced most of the mythologies once necessary to explain unknown p h e n o m e n a . H o w e v e r, cultural fictions remain relevant in their ability to produce entrenched behaviors and reflexive action.9 “The wolf exists in the eye of the beholder”8 European populations have millennia of anti-wolf folklore. Wolf hatred is passed first through the oral tradition and later, through the written word. Folklore changes the wolf from mere animal to a supernatural and evil monster securing its place as our most ferocious enemy.2, 5, 6

•  By 1317, the wolf is considered “a symbol of greed and fraud” and the 8th circle of hell is for those who committed the “sins of the wolf” in Dante’s Inferno. •  By 1486, the wolf is seen as “wholly wicked” after Inquisitional propaganda links the wolf with Satan and witches. At this point, “folklore fused with doctrine.”5

There is a marked difference in folkloric presentations of the wolf: European folklore generally portrays a savage monster while Native American myths generally depict an anthropomorphized predatory animal with the full range of emotions.1,5,6,7,8 •  Wolves were extirpated in England and parts of Europe ~12th century. •  Colonists in America issued bounties shortly after their arrival. Millions of wolves have since been inhumanely exterminated. 6,7,8

•  N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s generally tolerated, if not valued, the wolf and the ecological benefits of its presence. Some tribes claim to be descended from wolves. 1,6,8

2.  Analysis of the cultural effects of myths, fictional narratives, and fables 3.  Textual analysis of Native American myths 4.  Critical comparison of general environmental perceptions/ethics between Native Americans and European Americans

Literature cited 1.  2.  3.  4.  5. 

Bastian, Dawn E. and Judy K. Mitchell. 2008. Handbook of Native American Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bettleheim, Bruno. 1976. The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales. New York: Knopf. Cronon, William. 1983. Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. New York: Hill and Wang. Dixon-Kennedy, Mike. 1998. Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman Mythology. Santa Barbara: ABC CLIO, Inc. Lindahl, Carl, John McNamara, and John Lindow, eds. 2000. Medieval Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Myths, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs. Vols. I and II. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. 6.  Lopez, Barry. 1978. Of Wolves and Men. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 7.  McIntire, Rick. 1995. War Against the Wolf: America’s campaign to Exterminate the Wolf… Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, Inc. 8.  Mech, L. David and Luigi Boitani. 2003. Wolves: behavior, ecology, and conservation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 9.  Midgely, Mary. 2004. Myths We Live By. New York: Routledge. 10.  Zipes, Jack. 2003. Why Fairy Tales Stick. London. Routledge.

Ø  Folklore ideologies can become embedded in cultural and individual consciousness and block fresh perceptions to govern environmental behavior (e.g. current and historic wolf pogroms). Ø  Western folklore created a supernatural monster. The wolf became the vessel into which humans exorcised the worst of themselves. Demonizing the literal animal outside created a comfortable distance from figurative animal inside us. Thus a massive boundary was created: socially/morallyacceptable human civilizations separated from the wilderness and from the wolf. Ø  Both Native American folklore and environmental behavior differ drastically from their European counterparts. Ø  Further scholarship could expand the awareness that fictional narratives may derive from and/or reinforce preexisting values.

Acknowledgments I am especially grateful to my project supervisor and Honors Thesis Advisor, Dr. Wayne Franklin. I would also like to thank my Honors Academic Advisor Dr. Mark Boyer, Dr. Carol Atkinson-Palombo, Dr. Elle Ouimet, Dr. Natalie Munroe, and Dr. Caroline McGuire for their insights, support and encouragement. Finally, this project would not have been possible without the generous sponsorship of the University of Connecticut, the Office of Undergraduate Research and the Summer Undergraduate Research Fund.