Dec 10, 2010 ... Helsinki University of Technology Control Engineering ... This thesis takes a
practical approach to the field of wireless control design. ...... remote control of
devices, for example cranes or dexterous and mobile robots,.
Helsinki University of Technology Control Engineering Espoo 2010
Report 167
WIRELESS CONTROL SYSTEM SIMULATION AND NETWORK ADAPTIVE CONTROL Mikael Björkbom
AALTO UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMATION AND SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY
Helsinki University of Technology Control Engineering Espoo October 2010
Report 167
WIRELESS CONTROL SYSTEM SIMULATION AND NETWORK ADAPTIVE CONTROL Mikael Björkbom Doctoral dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Science in Technology to be presented with due permission of the Faculty of Electronics, Communications and Automation for public examination and debate in Auditorium AS1 at the Aalto University School of Science and Technology (Espoo, Finland) on the 10th of December 2010 at 12 noon.
Aalto University School of Science and Technology Faculty of Electronics, Communications and Automation Department of Automation and Systems Technology
Distribution: Aalto University Department of Automation and Systems Technology P.O. Box 15500 FI-00076 Aalto, Finland Tel. +358-9-470 25201 Fax. +358-9-470 25208 E-mail:
[email protected] http://autsys.tkk.fi/ ISBN 978-952-60-3460-7 (printed) ISBN 978-952-60-3461-4 (pdf) ISSN 0356-0872 URL: http://lib.tkk.fi/Diss/2010/isbn9789526034614
Aalto-Print Helsinki 2010
ABSTRACT OF DOCTORAL DISSERTATION Author Mikael Björkbom
AALTO UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY P.O. BOX 11000, FI‐00076 AALTO http://www.aalto.fi
Name of the dissertation Wireless control system simulation and network adaptive control Manuscript submitted 27.5.2010 Manuscript revised 7.10.2010 Date of the defence 10.12.2010 Monograph Article dissertation Faculty Faculty of Electronics, Communications and Automation Department Department of Automation and Systems Technology Field of research Control Engineering Opponents Prof. Matti Vilkko, Prof. Tapani Ristaniemi Supervisor Prof. Heikki Koivo Abstract With the arrival of the wireless automation standards WirelessHART and ISA100.11a, the use of wireless technology in the automation industry is emerging today. The main benefits of using wireless devices range from no cable and lower installation costs to more flexible positioning. When using next generation agile wireless communication methods in control applications, the unreliability of the wireless network becomes an issue, due to the real‐time requirements of control. The research has previously focused on either control design and stability for wired control, or network protocols for wireless sensor networks. A marginal part of the research has studied wireless control. This thesis takes a practical approach to the field of wireless control design. A simulation system called PiccSIM is developed, where the communication and control can be co‐simulated and studied. There already exists some simulation tools, such as TrueTime, but none of them delivers as flexible and versatile capabilities as PiccSIM for simulation of specific protocols and algorithms. PiccSIM is not only a simulation system: it consists of a tool‐chain for network and control design, and further implementation for real wireless nodes. A variety of wireless control scenarios are simulated and studied. The effects of the net‐ work on the control performance are studied both theoretically and through simulations to gain an insight into the communication and control interaction. Typical control design approaches in the literature are of optimal control‐type, with guaranteed stability given certain network induced delay and packet losses. The control design has been complicated and resulted in complex controllers. This thesis concentrates on PID‐type controllers, because of their simplicity and wide use in industry. To accommodate PID controllers to control over unreliable wireless networks, several adaptive schemes, which adapt to the network quality of service, are developed. This results in flexible, self‐tuning control that can cope with non‐deterministic and time‐varying wireless networks. The proposed adaptive control algorithms are tested and verified in simulations using PiccSIM.
Keywords wireless networked control systems, co‐simulation, network adaptive control ISBN (printed) 978‐952‐60‐3460‐7 ISSN (printed) 0356‐0872 ISBN (pdf) 978‐952‐60‐3461‐4 ISSN (pdf) Language English Number of pages 173 Publisher Aalto University, Department of Automation and Systems Technology Print distribution Aalto University, Department of Automation and Systems Technology The dissertation can be read at http://lib.tkk.fi/Diss/2010/isbn9789526034614/
SAMMANFATTNING (ABSTRAKT) AV DOKTORSAVHANDLING Författare Mikael Björkbom
AALTO‐UNIVERSITETET TEKNISKA HÖGSKOLAN PB 11000, FI‐00076 AALTO http://www.aalto.fi
Titel Simulering av trådlösa reglersystem och nätverksadaptiv reglering Inlämning av manuskriptet 27.5.2010 Korrigering av manuskriptet 7.10.2010 Datum för disputation 10.12.2010 Monografi Sammanläggningsavhandling Fakultet Fakulteten för elektronik, kommunikation och automation Institution Institutionen för automations‐ och systemteknik Forskningsområde Systemteknik Opponent(er) Prof. Matti Vilkko, Prof. Tapani Ristaniemi Övervakare Prof. Heikki Koivo Sammanfattning (Abstrakt) Användande av trådlös teknologi i automationsindustrin slår nu igenom tack vare de nya standarderna för trådlös automation: WirelessHART och ISA100.11a. De största fördelarna för att använda trådlösa apparater är saknaden av kablar med påföljande lägre installationskostnader och ökad flexibilitet. An‐ vändandet av den nästa generationens flexible trådlösa nätverk i reglerapplikation medför problem på grund av nätverkens opålitlighet och den realtidsprestanda som reglersystemet kräver. Forskningen på detta område har tidigare fokuserat på antingen reglerdesign och stabilitet av trådbundna reglersystem, eller på nätverksprotokol för trådlösa sensornätverk. En marginell del har studerat trådlös reglering. Denhär avhandlingen närmar sig problemen med ett praktiskt synsätt. Ett simulations‐system kallat PiccSIM utvecklas, där den trådlösa kommunikationen och regleringen kan simuleras och studeras samtidigt. Det existerar redan ett par liknande simulatorer, till exempel TrueTime, men ingen av dem är så flexible och mångsidig som PiccSIM, där simulation av specifika protokol och algoritmer är möjligt. PiccSIM är inte endast en simulator, utan består av flera verktyg för design av nätverk och reglersystem. Flera trådlösa reglersystem simuleras och studeras. Prestandan av de trådlösa närverken och deras verkan på reglersystemet studeras både teoretiskt och via simulationer för att förstå växelverkan mellan det trådlösa nätverket och reglersystemet. Ett typiskt tillvägagångssätt i litteraturen är optimal reglering, där regulatorn planeras enligt vissa för‐ dröjnings‐ och paketförlustspecifikationer. Detta resulterar i en komplex reglerdesign. Denhär avhand‐ lingen koncentrerar sig på PID‐typens regulatorer, för de är enkla och används omfattande i industrin. För att tillämpa PID regulatorer over opålitliga trådlösa nätverk utvecklas flera adaptiva reglermetoder, som anpassar sig själv till nätverkets prestanda. Resultatet är flexibla, självinställbara regulatorer, som fungerar trots det icke‐deterministiska trådlösa nätverket. De utvecklade adaptiva reglermetoderna testas och verifieras i simulationer med PiccSIM.
Ämnesord (Nyckelord) trådlösa reglersystem, co‐simulering, närverksadaptiv reglering ISBN (tryckt) 978‐952‐60‐3460‐7 ISSN (tryckt) 0356‐0872 ISBN (pdf) 978‐952‐60‐3461‐4 ISSN (pdf) Språk Engelska Sidantal 173 Utgivare Aalto Universitetet, Institutionen för automations‐ och systemteknik Distribution Aalto Universitetet, Institutionen för automations‐ och systemteknik Avhandlingen är tillgänglig på nätet http://lib.tkk.fi/Diss/2010/isbn9789526034614/
Anyone who has a Master’s degree can become a Ph.D. – but the persistent drive to discover new knowledge is essential.
PREFACE I started my research carrier at the former Control Engineering Laboratory at Helsinki University of Technology in 2003 as a summer trainee with prof. Heikki Koivo as my supervisor. The following summer I developed the MoCoNet platform, which later was extended to the PiccSIM platform. The MoCoNet platform became a part of my Master’s thesis, which I finished in 2006. Since the Master’s thesis, I have worked in the WiSA I and II projects (Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks for Measurement and Control) where the PiccSIM Toolchain is a major contribution to the projects. My Licentiate thesis on PiccSIM was a convenient stepping stone for this Doctoral thesis, as it is now a part of the foundation of this thesis. My supervisor, prof. Heikki Koivo, has given me academic freedom in my re‐ search work. I have in other words developed my adaptive control algorithms completely myself. In the implementation of PiccSIM I have collaborated with Shekar Nethi from the Department of Communications and Networking, who has assisted with the network simulation part. Tuomo Kohtamäki has, under my guidance, done the hard work by implemented the Toolchain interfaces, which I am grateful for. Sofia Piltz did her Master’s thesis under my supervi‐ sion about the step adaptive controller. I thank her for her hard and careful work. For the simulation case studies I have received invaluable input and assistance from prof. Riku Jäntti, Shekar Nethi and Lasse Eriksson. Lasse Eriksson has also thoroughly read the thesis and given some excellent sugges‐ tions to improve it. I am very grateful for the countless hours of bedtime read‐ ing he has done. William Martin has done the proofreading with tireless detail and grammar improvements. I received the final comments from the pre‐ examiners associate prof. Anton Cervin and prof. Muhammed Elmusrati, of which the comments by Cervin were objective and insightful. The funding of the WiSA I‐II projects is from The Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (TEKES), through the Nordite program. The re‐ search has been a collaboration between Nordic universities, in our case Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (KTH) from Stockholm, Sweden. I have had the pleasure to visit Mikael Johansson at KTH for one month in May 2009, and many shorter visits later on. The research launched during the visit has contin‐ ued being fruitful. I appreciate the graduate student position I received at the Graduate School in Electronics, Telecommunications and Automation (GETA) in 2007. It enabled the freedom to solely work on one’s own subject, although
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there has not been any situation where I have needed to exercise that freedom. The wireless measurements were done at facilities of Konecranes, for which I thank D.Sc. Timo Sorsa for allowing us to visit their industrial halls. I would additionally like to thank: Finnish Foundation for Technology Promo‐ tion, Emil Aaltonen Foundation, The Finnish Foundation for Economic and Technology Sciences ‐ KAUTE, Neles Oy:n 30‐vuotissäätiö (The 30th Anniver‐ sary Foundation of Neles), the Walter Ahlström Foundation, and the Oskar Öflund Foundation for the support I have received. I have also received several travel grants to conferences from The Automation Foundation and GETA. Finally, I thank my wife Susse for listening patiently to me, when I am trying to explain, in a simple way, things that she does not understand. The marriage left an impact on the contributed papers, as my family name changed. The name Pohjola was exchanged to the, index unfriendly, Björkbom. Espoo, October 2010 Mikael Björkbom
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Table of Contents List of Publications by the Author List of Abbreviations
v vii xi xiii
List of Symbols
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1. Introduction
1
1.1. Objectives of the Thesis .................................................................................. 3 1.2. Contributions and Organization of the Thesis ........................................... 4 1.3. Background of Wireless Control .................................................................. 6 1.4. Wireless Control Systems and Simulation .................................................. 8 1.5. Research on Wireless Control Networks and Applications ................... 10 1.5.1. Wireless Networks for Control ............................................................. 11 1.5.2. Current Standards for Wireless Automation ...................................... 12 1.5.3. Wireless Sensor Networks ..................................................................... 14
2. Preliminaries – Networks and Controllers
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2.1. The Networked Control Problem ............................................................... 17 2.2. General Assumptions ................................................................................... 18 2.3. Networked Control Structures ................................................................... 21 2.4. Network Models ........................................................................................... 24 2.4.1. Packet Drop ‐ Delay Jitter ...................................................................... 26 2.4.2. Drop and Delay Models based on Markov‐chains ............................. 28
2.5. Jitter Margin ................................................................................................... 31 2.6. The PID Controller in Networked Systems .............................................. 32 2.6.1. Tuning of PID controllers in Networked Control Systems ............... 32 2.6.2. The PID PLUS Controller ....................................................................... 34
2.7. Internal Model Control ................................................................................ 35
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2.7.1. Internal Model Control Design .............................................................. 36 2.7.2. IMC‐PID Controller Design .................................................................... 37
2.8. Network Quality of Service in Networked Control Systems ................. 38 2.8.1. Network Performance Considerations ................................................. 39 2.8.2. Network Congestion and Traffic Rate Control .................................... 40
2.9. Kalman Filtering in Networked Control Systems .................................... 42 2.10. Summary ................................................................................................... 44
3. Networks and Controllers in Practice
45
3.1. Measurements of Radio Environments ...................................................... 45 3.2. Estimated Gilbert‐Elliott Models ................................................................ 50 3.3. The Networked PID Controller ................................................................... 51 3.4. Internal Model Control in Networked Control Systems ......................... 53 3.4.1. Approximations of Closed‐loop Step Response .................................. 53 3.4.2. IMC Control and Jitter Margin .............................................................. 55 3.4.3. Sampling Interval and IMC Tuning for Jitter Margin ........................ 57
3.5. Effect of Network Quality of Service on Control Performance .............. 59 3.5.1. Network Cost for Control ....................................................................... 60 3.5.2. Simulations for Network and Control Performance Relationship ... 62
3.6. Summary ........................................................................................................ 64
4. PiccSIM – Toolchain for Network and Control Co‐Design and Simulation
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4.1. Development of the Co‐simulation Platform ............................................ 68 4.2. Review of Networked Control System Simulators .................................. 69 4.3. PiccSIM Architecture .................................................................................... 75 4.3.1. Simulink and ns‐2 Integration ............................................................... 77 4.3.2. Data Exchange Between Simulators ...................................................... 78 4.3.3. Simulation Clock Synchronization ........................................................ 79 4.3.4. Other Implemented Features ................................................................. 80
4.4. PiccSIM Toolchain ......................................................................................... 82 4.4.1. PiccSIM Block Library ............................................................................. 83 4.4.2. Toolchain User Interfaces ....................................................................... 84
4.5. Remote User Interfaces ................................................................................. 88 4.6. Automatic Code Generation and Implementation ................................... 90 4.7. Simulation Case Studies ............................................................................... 91 4.7.1. Target Tracking Scenario ........................................................................ 92
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4.7.2. Robot Squad with Formation Changes ................................................ 95 4.7.3. Building Automation Scenario .............................................................. 98 4.7.4. Crane Control in an Industrial Hall ................................................... 102 4.7.5. PiccSIM Toolchain Demonstrations ................................................... 105
4.8. Summary ...................................................................................................... 109
5. Adaptive Control in Wireless Networked Control Systems
111
5.1. Adaptive Jitter Margin PID Control ......................................................... 112 5.1.1. Delay Jitter Estimation Simulations ................................................... 113 5.1.2. Adaptive Control Tuning Scenario Simulations .............................. 116 5.1.3. Summary ................................................................................................ 118
5.2. Adaptive Control Speed Based on Network Quality of Service .......... 119 5.2.1. The Adaptive Control Speed Scheme ................................................ 120 5.2.2. Changing the Sampling Interval ......................................................... 122 5.2.3. Analysis of the Adaptive Control Speed Algorithm ........................ 124 5.2.4. Simulation Scenario .............................................................................. 126 5.2.5. Summary ................................................................................................ 129
5.3. Step Adaptive Controller for Networked MIMO Control Systems .... 129 5.3.1. Controller Tuning by Optimization for MIMO Systems ................. 132 5.3.2. Step Adaptive Controller Tuning and Simulations ......................... 133 5.3.3. Summary ................................................................................................ 137
5.4. Steady‐State Outage Compensation Heuristic ....................................... 138 5.4.1. The Steady‐State Heuristic ................................................................... 139 5.4.2. Stability of the Steady‐State Heuristic ................................................ 142 5.4.3. Simulations and Comparisons ............................................................ 146 5.4.4. Summary ................................................................................................ 150
6. Conclusions
151
References
157
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS BY THE AUTHOR Although this doctoral dissertation is a monograph, the results presented here are based on the following publications presented at international conferences or journals. [P1] Pohjola, M., L. Eriksson, V. Hölttä, and T. Oksanen, Platform for monitoring and controlling educational laboratory processes over Internet, in Proc. 16th IFAC World Congress, Prague, Czech Republic, 4‐8 July, 2005. [P2] Nethi, S., M. Pohjola, L. Eriksson, and R. Jäntti, Platform for emulating networked control systems in laboratory environments, in Proc. 8th International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks, Helsinki, Finland, 18‐21 June, 2007. [P3] Kohtamäki, T., M. Pohjola, J. Brand, and L.M. Eriksson, PiccSIM Toolchain – Design, simulation and automatic implementation of wireless networked control systems, in Proc. IEEE International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control, Okayama, Japan, 26‐29 March, 2009. [P4] Nethi, S., M. Pohjola, L. Eriksson, and R. Jäntti, Simulation case studies of wireless networked control systems, in Proc. 10th ACM/IEEE International Symposium on Modelling, Analysis and Simulation of Wireless and Mobile Systems, Crete, Greece, 22‐26 October, 2007. [P5] Björkbom, M., S. Nethi, and R. Jäntti, Wireless control of multihop mobile robot squad, IEEE Wireless Communications, Special Issue on Wireless Communications in Networked Robotics, vol. 16, no. 1, February, 2009. [P6] Björkbom, M., S. Nethi, L. Eriksson, and R. Jäntti, Wireless control system design and co‐simulation, submitted.
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[P7] Pohjola, M. and H. Koivo, Measurement delay estimation for Kalman filter in networked control systems, in Proc. 17th IFAC World Congress, Seoul, Korea, 6‐11 July, 2008. [P8] Pohjola, M., Adaptive jitter margin PID controller, in Proc. 4th IEEE Conference on Automation Science and Engineering, Washington D.C., USA, 23‐26 August, 2008. [P9] Pohjola, M., Adaptive control speed based on network quality of service, in Proc. 17th Mediterranean Conference on Control and Automation, Thessaloniki, Greece, 24‐26 June, 2009. [P10] Piltz, S., M. Björkbom, L.M. Eriksson, and H.N. Koivo, Step adaptive controller for networked MIMO control systems, in Proc. IEEE International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control, Chicago, USA, 11‐13 April, 2010. [P11] Björkbom, M. and M. Johansson, Networked PID control: tuning and outage compensation, in Proc. 36th IEEE Industrial Electronics Conference, Glendale, AZ, USA, 7‐10 November, 2010.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACS AIMD AJM ANSI AODV CAN COTS CSMA DCF FDMA FOLIPD FOTD G‐E GUI HART HVAC IAE IEC IEEE IMC ISA ISE ISM ITAE ITSE KF LAN LMI LMNR MAC MIMO MoCoNet NCC NCS
Adaptive Control Speed Additive Increase, Multiplicative Decrease Adaptive Jitter Margin American National Standards Institute Ad Hoc On‐demand Distance Vector Controller Area Network Commercial Off The Shelf Carrier Sense Multiple Access Distributed Coordination Function (MAC protocol for WLAN) Frequency Division Multiple Access First Order Lag Plus Integral Plus Delay First Order Time‐Delay Gilbert‐Elliott Graphical User Interface Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Integral of Absolute Error International Electrotechnical Commission Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Internal Model Control International Society of Automation Integral of Square Error Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (frequency band) Integral of Time weighted Absolute Error Integral of Time weighted Square Error Kalman Filter Local Area Network Linear Matrix Inequality Localized Multiple Next‐hop Routing Medium Access Control Multiple‐Input Multiple‐Output Monitoring and Controlling Educational Laboratory Processes over Internet Network Cost for Control Networked Control System
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NS‐2 OPNET PiccSIM PID RTE SAC SISO SSH TCL TCP TDMA TLC TOSSIM TSMP UDP WNCS WLAN WSAN WSN QoS QPT ZOH
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Network Simulator version 2 Optimized Network Engineering Tool Platform for Integrated Communications and Control design, Simulation, Implementation and Modeling Proportional‐Integral‐Derivative Real‐Time Ethernet Step Adaptive Controller Single‐Input Single‐Output Steady‐State Heuristic Tool Command Language Transmission Control Protocol Time Division Multiple Access Target Language Compiler TinyOS Simulator Time Synchronized Mesh Protocol User Datagram Protocol Wireless Networked Control System Wireless Local Area Network Wireless Sensor and Actuator Network Wireless Sensor Network Quality of Service Quantitative Parameter Tuning Zero Order Hold
LIST OF SYMBOLS α β γ δ δmax θ λ π , πG , πB
Weighting factor Filtering factor Time‐constant of discrete‐time filter Delay jitter Jitter margin (maximum allowed delay jitter) Markov‐chain jump parameter IMC tuning parameter, closed‐loop system time‐constant distribution Markov‐chain steady‐state probability, Good and Bad state of Gilbert‐Elliott model σ , σ D , σGE Standard deviation, of data, of Gilbert‐Elliott model σnorm Normalized standard deviation σNCC Network cost for control fairness measure σtot Total standard deviation, on several time‐scales τ Process delay (without network induced delay) ω Angular velocity Γc Controller input matrix Φc Controller state‐transition matrix Χ Stochastic process a Controller gain parameter b Set‐point weighting c Update step scaling factor of adaptive control speed algo‐ rithm Cost scaling factor cJ cv Coefficient of variation d Delay of packet d Delay difference (jitter) df Time‐constant of discrete‐time derivative filter dG , dB , dGE Packet drop probabilities of Gilbert‐Elliott model, Good state, Bad state, average dmax Maximum delay before control is switched to stop mode e, eΣ , eΔ Control error, integral of error, derivative of error ehold Error signal value hold constant during network outage f Frequency f(k) Filter for PID PLUS g Time‐constant of steady‐state heuristic h, hbase Sampling interval, base sampling interval
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i j k ks m m(k) maxcross n pGG , pBB pGB , p BG pdrop pij r, rd, rtot, rmeas Δr s t, t(k) tn u, uhold, uol
uD x, xKF , xs, xc y, yhold, yol, ys yin, yout yr y Δy z A, B, C, D
Adrop D D(z) Df Dhist Dload G, Gp G − , G +
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index Imaginary unit or index Discrete time‐index Time‐index for switching of controller Time‐scale Relative update speed of adaptive control speed scheme Maximum constraint for cross‐interaction integer, order of IMC filter State‐holding probabilities for Gilbert‐Elliott model State‐transition probabilities for Gilbert‐Elliott model Packet drop probability Markov‐chain state‐transition probability Packet drop, desired, total, and measured packet drop Velocity of adaptive control speed algorithm Laplace‐transform variable Continuous time, discrete time‐instant Time‐instant Control signal, signal value hold constant during network outage, and control signal of open‐loop system Derivative part of control signal Process, Kalman filter, sensor, controller state vector Process output, signal value hold constant during network outage, and output during open‐loop control, sensor output Input and output signal of network Control reference signal Difference in output Change in process output Process output measurement vector State‐space matrixes, state‐transition, input, output, and di‐ rect terms. Xc: controller, Xc,drop: controller during packet drop, Xp: process, Xs: sensor State‐space transition matrix for whole system during packet drop Vector of delays Denominator of discrete‐time controller Time‐constant of derivative filter Histogram of consecutive drop lengths Load disturbance Process transfer function Invertible, non‐invertible part of transfer function
Gc Gcl Gf GIMC Gm Hc Jδ ,est Jtot JIAE , JITAE , JISE , JITSE J NCC K, Km Kp, Ki, Kd, KKF L LN N N(z) Nd Nh Nmax NM P P Q R T, Tm, Tf Ti, Td Tout TGE Tr TW ΔT L Pr U
Controller transfer function Closed‐loop transfer function Low‐pass filter Internal model control transfer function Process transfer function model Controller output matrix Delay jitter estimation cost function Total cost function of MIMO process Integral error cost functions Network cost for control measure Process gain, process model gain PID controller proportional, integral, and derivative gain Kalman gain Process time‐delay (including constant minimum network induced delay) Time‐delay of network Number of Numerator of discrete‐time controller Derivative filter constant of discrete‐time PID controller Sampling instants per rise‐time Jitter margin in terms of sampling intervals Number of states in Markov‐chain Kalman filter state covariance matrix Markov‐chain state‐transition matrix State covariance matrix Measurement covariance matrix Time‐constant of process, process model, low‐pass filter Integration, derivation time of PID controller Length of network outage State‐residence time of Gilbert‐Elliott model Rise‐time Time‐window Difference in time Laplace operator Natural number Probability Uniform random distribution
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1. INTRODUCTION The use of wireless networks in control applications, so‐called “wireless auto‐ mation”, is an emerging application area [50], [110], with the possibility to revo‐ lutionize the automation industry [16]. The primary benefit of wireless control technology is reduced installation cost, as a considerable investment is made in the wiring of factories, both financially and in labor. The use of wireless tech‐ nology is not only a replacement of cables; the benefits go beyond that. With wireless devices, increased flexibility is gained as sensors can be placed more freely, even on rotating machines. Robustness is increased, as the communica‐ tion can be done over several paths in a mesh network and failure of cables is eliminated [155]. Finally, there are the opportunities for new applications that are enabled by wireless control. Some existing or emerging applications are remote control of devices, for example cranes or dexterous and mobile robots, mobile applications, and wireless monitoring of large plants for fault detection, maintenance, production quality monitoring, and compliance to environmental regulations [59]. There is a strong aim [156] to develop and deploy wireless networked control systems (WNCS), where a control system communicate over a wireless net‐ work, in factory and home automation [9], [40], [50], [59], [82], [163]. In a related field, sensor network applications have as well received much attention [2], [11], [158], [176]. Today, wireless automation technology is mostly applied in monitoring applications, because in these applications the network require‐ ments in terms of real‐time performance are low. The industry is cautious to apply wireless to closed‐loop control, due to the unreliability issues of wireless networks. In general the current research on this subject is consequently aiming on deterministic wireless control. In addition to the technological and research interests, the simulation of WNCSs is important and necessary for several reasons. The current networked control system (NCS) research need to be complemented by simulation to assess the validity and practical benefits of the developed theory and algorithms. The applicability of the developed algorithms must be evaluated in practical case studies. Simulations are a feasible way to test and assess the network and con‐ trol strategies and theories for WNCSs before deployment. With simulations, problems occurring in the network and the resulting performance of the control
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algorithms to these issues can be studied. The critical properties and behavior of the network, and the impact on the control system can be analyzed. Especially the interaction between the network and the control system must be further understood, and the practical impact must be studied by simulation. These issues, in particular the protocol specific ones, are hard to approach analytically. Simulation studies will, hopefully, unravel these matters and lead to a coherent theory, best practices knowledge, and design expertise of WNCSs. This thesis focuses on simulations of WNCSs and controller adaptation based on the wireless network quality of service. The aim is at closed‐loop control over an unreliable network, where the control system adapts to the network uncertainties. The network uncertainties can be due to fading and interference of the wireless communication, or the non‐determinism of the network proto‐ cols, and varying demands of the application. The unreliability refers thus to the non‐determinism and non real‐time operation of the network. When starting to work on the thesis, the questions that immediately arose were: How does the quality of service (QoS) of the wireless network change? How does that affect the control system? What should the control system compensate for? How should it compensate for the changes in the network QoS? The inves‐ tigations of these issues started by the development of the communication and control co‐simulator PiccSIM. The currently available simulation tools for WNCSs are few or limited in simu‐ lation capabilities. Most of the available simulators concentrate on either the network or control part. At the moment there exist only a couple of co‐ simulators, where both the network and control system are properly addressed. The PiccSIM simulator, presented in Chapter 4, is an attempt to remedy this situation, with a complete set of modeling, design and simulation tools. The initial simulation case studies presented in Section 4.7 give some insight on how the communication and control layers interact. With PiccSIM the controller adaptive part of this thesis can be addressed. The main impact of the wireless network on the control system is the limited band‐ width and non‐determinism, causing communication delay jitter and packet losses. The adaptive control schemes developed in Chapter 5 deals with these issues. The adaptive control algorithms are not adaptive in the traditional sense that they adapt to the changes in the process [184], but rather to the network conditions. The controllers are not necessary continuously updated as tradi‐ tionally in adaptive control, but only when compensation of the network condi‐ tions requires it. Thus, the control system is be flexible in compensating for the problems in the network. The adaptive schemes are ultimately verified by simu‐ lation on PiccSIM.
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1.1. Objectives of the Thesis When the subject of the thesis was first envisioned, the premise was that in a WNCS, an unreliable network is used where the QoS will change over time due to the inherent uncertainties of the wireless communication, changes in the environment, and non‐deterministic network protocols. The solution would be to develop agile control algorithms that are flexible, self‐tuning, and adaptive to compensate for the deficiencies of the wireless communication. The field of WNCSs is cross‐disciplinary: both the network and the control system need to be taken into account. Traditionally, either the network or the control system has been studied separately. As such there has been little re‐ search focusing on both aspects at the same time. The stability of NCSs has received plenty of attention in the literature [23], [72], [178], [74], [103], [160]. Little is said about the practical implementation, behavior, and performance of the control systems. Many of the stability proofs or controller design methods are cumbersome, for instance [74], and if all the network related problems are to be taken into account, the proofs become complicated [103]. This thesis aims at simplicity, giving a practical viewpoint to WNCS operation through the simulation cases and implementation. Practical controller design methods that likely will be applied and implemented on real WNCS applica‐ tions are employed. Easy implementation is facilitated by using proportional‐ integral‐derivative (PID) controllers and internal model control (IMC) design. The PiccSIM simulator, described in Chapter 4, is merely a tool to test the de‐ veloped adaptive networked control algorithms presented in Chapter 5. The scientific contribution in this thesis is the developed adaptive control algo‐ rithms for WNCSs. The aim of this thesis is not state‐of‐the‐art WNCS control performance and stability proofs, but giving more insight into the general ten‐ dencies of WNCSs and practical implementation. Wireless networks are inherently non‐deterministic, and no network design can make it fully dependable, because of interference in the open communication media. If for instance an industrial standard WirelessHART type network is used, the network performance can largely be considered deterministic, and the research deals with communication and controller scheduling [137], [160]. In‐ stead of trying to make the network completely deterministic, which ultimately will fail, an alternative is to accept the network‐related problems and use a cheap, but unreliable, network based on ZigBee or similar commercial off‐the‐ shelf (COTS) technology. In return, the robustness of the control system to cope with these deficiencies needs to be improved. In this approach, wireless control can be applied in the automation industry and other applications, without us‐ ing, possible expensive, industrial grade hardware. Increasing the control robustness against the network uncertainty can be done, for instance by controller tuning [47]. The idea of changing the controller is in
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this thesis taken further. Several adaptive control schemes or heuristics are developed in Chapter 5 that compensate for the unreliable and non‐ deterministic network in a WNCS. The objective of this thesis is thus to develop control systems that work even if problems arise in the network. The developed adaptation schemes addresses several different situations that arise in a WNCS: the self‐configuration or self‐tuning of the controllers depend‐ ing on the network characteristics; the adaptation of control aggressiveness and generated network traffic for control according to the network congestion; the change of tuning in multiple‐input multiple‐output distributed control systems; and a heuristic to overcome network outages. All the developed algorithms are tested with PiccSIM, with promising results.
1.2. Contributions and Organization of the Thesis There are many research topics in the field of WNCSs and sensor networks, such as hardware, sensor and energy technology, network protocols, software, middleware, and control algorithms. In this thesis little or nothing is said about the hardware, lower level layers, and protocols, such as radio, medium access control, bandwidth allocation, controller scheduling, and security. The focus in this thesis is on WNCS simulation and design, and adaptive control algorithms for WNCSs. The main contributions of this thesis are the development of the simulation platform PiccSIM for communication and control co‐simulation, including the user interfaces, the case study simulations done with the simulator, and the adaptive control algorithms for WNCSs. PiccSIM is released as an open source package and it is free for use [127]. The contributions are summarized in the following list: Development and implementation of a simulation platform for communi‐ cation and control co‐simulation and design. - Development of communication and control co‐simulator PiccSIM for wireless control systems. - Development of PiccSIM Toolchain for integrated networked control system design with PiccSIM, including network design, control tuning tool and simulation graphical user interfaces (GUI)s. - Integration of additional propagation models to the network simulator ns‐2 for more realistic simulation of wireless net‐ works with data based radio environment models. - Implementations and case studies of several different scenarios simulated on PiccSIM. Simulations of all the adaptive control‐
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lers developed in this thesis. Results give new insights into the behavior of networked control systems. - Development of remote access for PiccSIM for educational re‐ mote laboratory experiments and for researchers around the world. - Automatic code generation from Simulink model block dia‐ gram for implementation on Sensinode wireless nodes, with two demonstration cases. New concepts and algorithms for networked control systems. - Network cost for control, relating network quality of service to quality of control. - IMC‐PID design for networked control systems. - Networked PID controller, a distributed version of the PID con‐ troller. - Method for online changing of controller sampling interval without bumps. Development and simulation of several adaptive controller algorithms for networked control. - Adaptive control tuning based on network delay jitter. - Adaptive control speed and sampling interval based on net‐ work congestion. - Adaptive MIMO control based on step response and load dis‐ turbance rejection. Selection of cost function for controller pa‐ rameter optimization in a decentralized MIMO control scenario. - Control heuristic and compensation during network outages. The contents of the thesis are based on the work presented in the papers [P1]‐ [P11], done in cooperation with the co‐authors. The thesis can be divided into two parts. The first part deals with practical control system design for wireless control systems. Chapter 2 gives the preliminaries of the thesis. Chapter 3 in‐ troduces some results regarding WNCSs related to network performance mea‐ surements and evaluation, and control design. Chapter 5 treats different kinds of adaptive control algorithms [P8], [P9] or heuristics [P10], [P11] for wireless control systems. Minor contribution related to this area can also be found among the control theory preliminaries in Chapter 2. The other half of the thesis deals with the development of the PiccSIM simulator and the PiccSIM Toolchain in Chapter 4 [P1], [P2], [P3], [P6]. A survey of related simulators is given in Section 4.2. Because the PiccSIM platform has evolved over the years and a considerable amount of simulations have been done, Chap‐ ter 4 concentrates on giving a whole, up‐to‐date, view of the platform and a coherent presentation of the simulations and the results. Some illustrative simu‐ lations are additionally carried out with PiccSIM in Section 4.7, where different
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simulation scenarios are considered ranging from building automation, mobile robot control, to wireless process control [P4], [P5], [P6]. The main work of the author is the development of PiccSIM and the implemen‐ tation of the simulation cases in Chapter 4, the practical control results in Chap‐ ter 3, and the network adaptive control algorithms in Chapter 5. The co‐authors of the related papers have mainly been involved in planning the simulation cases and writing the publications. In addition, Shekar Nethi has in particular developed the ns‐2 part of PiccSIM, made the wireless measurements in Section 3.1, and assisted in the simulations. Jenna Brand has developed the wall‐fading model in Section 4.3.4. Huang Chen from Vaasa University of Applied Sciences has implemented the ns‐2 configuration tool presented in Section 4.4.2, with further development by Tuomo Kohtamäki, who has also implemented the PiccSIM user interfaces and the simulator time‐synchronization and data‐ exchange mechanisms. Sofia Piltz has executed the simulations in Section 5.3. Kohtamäki and Piltz have done the work under the supervision and co‐ development of the author. The author has made the field overview and litera‐ ture survey in Chapters 1 and 2, and developed the theory in Chapter 3. The organization of the thesis is the following: in Chapter 2 the preliminaries used in the later chapters are established. Most notable is the jitter margin tun‐ ing and PID controllers, Sections 2.5 and 2.6, and the IMC design framework in Section 2.7, which are used in several of the adaptive control schemes. In Chap‐ ter 3, new results regarding WNCSs are presented. Measurements of packet drop and estimated network models are shown. The application of IMC design in NCSs is analyzed. A novel network QoS measure for NCSs, based on packet drops, and the corresponding effect on the control systems is presented in Sec‐ tion 3.5. The proposed network cost for control measure correlates with the resulting obtainable control performance, and hence gives a good network design objective for WNCSs. The network and control co‐simulator PiccSIM is introduced in Chapter 4, including the technical details and the PiccSIM Tool‐ chain, Sections 4.3‐4.6, and some simulation results which point out special characteristics of WNCSs in Section 4.7. In Chapter 5, the adaptive control algo‐ rithms and heuristics are developed. The adaptive schemes are presented in separate sections, with the simulations, results, and conclusions obtained with PiccSIM. The thesis is finalized with conclusions in Chapter 6.
1.3. Background of Wireless Control One of the first real wireless control systems can be traced to the US patent no. 613809 by Nikolai Tesla, which was filed on 1st of July 1898. The patent named “Method of an Apparatus for Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vehicle or Vehicles“ described how to remotely, without mechanical devices or wires control a boat by switching either on, off, or hold the state of electrical motors. In one demonstration Tesla remotely controlled a boat from 18 miles away on
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the Isle of Wight [57]. The design was improved by Leonardo Torres‐Quevedo in 1903 (patent in Spain) with his Telekino, which introduced multiple states and codewords to control multiple devices (up to 19) of different types [125]. Later, Torres‐Quevedo envisioned implementing the same technology on tor‐ pedoes. He had additional plans to apply the Telekino to remote control dirigi‐ ble balloons and planes (because test flying was dangerous), but lack of funding made him abandon the development of his inventions. The few early remote control applications used analog commands and the me‐ chanism of radio controlled electromechanical escapement, similar to the “Tesla boat” or the Telekino of Torres Quevedo. In the 1960s remote control developed drastically with transistor based radios and multi‐channel communication, which allowed the simultaneous control in several control dimensions. An example is the control of the pitch, yaw, and motor speed of a remote controlled model plane. The space age drove the technology forward, dictated by the need to get data from the spacecraft (telemetry) or send commands to it (remote control). The first packet based radio network, ALOHANET, was deployed in 1971 for the University of Hawaii [57]. The industrial applications started also to emerge, as more information to separate devices could be communicated. In the beginning the wireless communication used proprietary protocols. The first widespread industrial applications emerged in the 1980s when remote con‐ trolled switchyard locomotives and cranes appeared. At that time proprietary devices working on standardized radio communication protocols were devel‐ oped [140], [150]. The wireless local area network (WLAN) operating on the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) radio band started to be developed in 1985, which later be‐ came generally accepted by the IEEE 802.11 standard, which solved the limita‐ tions of the previous implementations [57]. Wireless digital communication developed in the early 1990s for cellular phones. Nowadays coded pulse width modulation or pulse‐code modulation are used for planes and similar remote controlled toys. Some more advanced model plane remote controls use the license‐free ISM radio band at 2.4 GHz. At the moment the standardization of digital wireless communication and protocols suitable for industrial control systems, such as IEEE 802.15.4 “ZigBee” [180], have sparked the field and new interoperable devices from different vendors are emerging [16]. These advances have enabled the use of cheap and ubiquitous devices for wireless automation of today and wireless devices are currently starting to be applied for wireless automation applications. The development from fieldbus based automation systems to networked systems, such as real time Ethernet (RTE), and in the near future to wireless networks is described in [50].
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1.4. Wireless Control Systems and Simulation In a networked control system, sensors, controllers and actuators are connected with a computer network [9]. The standard approach in automation is to use a fieldbus, which connects all the devices through a shared network. One of the benefits of NCSs is reduced cabling cost [115], which is removed completely by the introduction of wireless devices. Other advantages include ease of adding field devices, introducing two‐way communication with field devices for re‐ mote configuration, device status, diagnostics and health monitoring, and uti‐ lizing more advanced control strategies because of improved field data [59], [115]. The cheap and proven technology from office environment is being applied to automation. Ethernet networks are becoming regularly used and have to some extent replaced fieldbus technology in control applications [110]. The “Industri‐ al Ethernets” or RTE [36], [115], which allow for real‐time operation, where an operation is guaranteed to be executed in a given time, are gradually being applied. The same benefits are also available by means of wireless technology, with the addition of accessing the data wirelessly using a handheld device, enabling in‐situ inspection of the process [19]. The terms wireless networked control system or wireless sensor and actuator network (WSAN) refer to a control system, which communicates over a wireless network. These systems deliver more benefits in terms of flexibility and cost compared to NCSs as there are no wires, but also more problems, mainly be‐ cause of the open air and shared communication medium. The general conven‐ tion to distinguish between these two terms is related to the background of the researchers working in this field. WSAN refers to a wireless sensor network (WSN) [11] with the addition of actuators, where a WNCS is more aimed at wireless industrial automation. The former is rooted in the networking area and is more ad‐hoc, redundant and tolerates failures in the system, whereas the latter comes from the control area and is designed for high reliability and de‐ pendability. An overview of NCSs can be found in [9] and [65]. The benefits of NCSs are that cabling is reduced, similarly as using an automation fieldbus, and cheaper of‐ fice grade hardware is utilized [21]. The general development and philosophy of networked control systems is presented in [21] and [50]. There are many technological and social obstacles to using wireless networks in control. The main concern against deploying wireless networks for control is the uncertainty of communication, co‐existence with other wireless networks [50] and security. The inability to guarantee a sufficient quality of service for the control system is a real concern. Control engineers are hesitant to apply technology that cannot be trusted, since failure in control can cause physical damage. The network must therefore provide real‐time and constant operation [110]. This required
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real‐time operation may not always be guaranteed, which causes problems for the control system design [93]. This thesis tries to show through simulations that hard real‐time operation is not necessarily needed in practical applications. Soft real‐time operation is enough, if it is taken into account in the control de‐ sign, for instance through adaptation. Another concern hindering the adoption of wireless technologies is security, since the wireless medium is open for eavesdropping and interference [112]. WNCSs are in essence non‐deterministic, stochastic and asynchronous systems, which are difficult for traditional control theory, where constant sampling in‐ terval is assumed, cf. the Z‐transform. Therefore simulators for NCSs are needed, where the asynchronism and issues related to the network and control interaction can be studied. Uniform packet loss or analytical delay distributions are usually used in networked control design. These assumptions do not neces‐ sary hold in practice. Simulation of WNCSs with specific network protocols is thus needed. Therefore the network and control co‐simulator PiccSIM is devel‐ oped in this thesis. The strength of PiccSIM is to enable one to quickly test sev‐ eral control algorithms in realistic WNCS scenarios [P2]. With the automatic code generation capabilities, the algorithms can further be tested easily in real applications [P3]. There are already some suitable simulators for WNCSs, such as TrueTime [22] and Modelica – ns‐2 [17], reviewed in Section 4.2. PiccSIM integrates two simu‐ lators to achieve an accurate and versatile simulation system at both the com‐ munication and control level for WNCSs. It has the unique feature of delivering a whole chain of tools for network and control modeling and design, integrated into one package with communication and control co‐simulation capabilities. By combining the design and simulation of WNCSs into one tool, a flexible, integrated, and powerful co‐simulation platform for research is obtained [P3]. With PiccSIM, the specific characteristics of WNCSs can be studied by simula‐ tions, as is done in some example simulations presented in Section 4.7. The algorithms developed in this thesis are aimed at future agile wireless con‐ trol systems, either in the industry or consumer applications. The adaptive control algorithms are designed to work when using a non‐deterministic net‐ work for control system communication. The network used would either be classified as an office network or a WSN/WSAN. The target applications are process control as opposed to discrete factory automation. Typical usages are stable processes in the industry, toys and home applications, or in the society related to ubiquitous applications. Examples of home applications are building automation, remote controlled radio cars and robots. In a ubiquitous computing future, the applications would be diverse. The initial industrial applications would be such that by adding a cheap wireless control system, additional value would be obtained from the assistance of this secondary control. Nothing pre‐ vents the use of cheap wireless control in the future for a whole plant, provided
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that it is stable and non‐critical. In critical and unstable industrial processes, special industrial networks and protocols, which can deliver deterministic real‐ time performance, are recommended.
1.5. Research on Wireless Control Networks and Applications The wireless roadmap developed by the RUNES project, with the needed tech‐ nological and social development for the adoption of wireless technology in automation, is summarized in [80]. A comprehensive overview of current tech‐ nologies, future issues, and research topics of wireless industrial networking is given in [59] and [165]. Several wireless standards are presented and the anti‐ cipated promising research topics are introduced. Some of them are: network architecture and scalability, network standards, quality of service measures, provisioning and analysis of wireless industrial networks, real‐time and relia‐ bility, security, and energy efficiency. Another source of information on indus‐ trial wireless control is the report [46], where the whole field is reviewed start‐ ing from wireless communication to control issues and theories, and finally simulation tools. The wired NCS case with similar MAC, QoS and other issues as the wireless case, is discussed in [110]. There are many other papers giving an overview of the current wireless tech‐ nologies and networks for control, e.g. [59], [69], [124], and [163]. Gungor re‐ views the challenges, design goals, and technical solutions for industrial wire‐ less sensor networks [59]. Willig [163] discusses several properties and chal‐ lenges of using wireless in real‐time control applications. Some of the network related issues are: interference, path loss, timing and timeliness, co‐existence of other wireless networks, and connection to an existing wired automation sys‐ tem. Pellegrini [124] discusses the requirements and features for using wireless at the device level in an automation system, including power consumption, security, and connection to the wired control system. The necessity of wireless protocols aimed specifically at control applications is also pointed out. Wireless communication can be applied in many control applications in process control and factory automation. The first benefit is the reduced wiring and installation costs [19]. The savings naturally increase with increasing plant size such as oil refineries and with increasing number of sensors. Use of wireless technologies in automation enables one to more freely place sensors in a factory and even in places where it previously was expensive or impossible, such as explosive environments and rotating devices. Industrial robots will also become more agile, as the wires are removed [150]. New applications using wireless communication will emerge, such as mobile applications.
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1.5.1. Wireless Networks for Control Wireless networks for control applications are currently envisioned to use stan‐ dard existing wireless devices such as Bluetooth, ZigBee (based on IEEE 802.15.4 radio) [11], and WLAN (IEEE 802.11). The wireless network design problems are presented for instance in [82]. Traditional computer networks, such as Ethernet and WLAN, use carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) type medium access control (MAC) with exponential back‐off in case of collisions. Several MAC‐types are compared and their suitability for control purposes are evaluated in [25], where, among the compared protocols, the CSMA‐type was found to be the best because of the immediate transmission opportunity. This result does not hold in high traffic conditions where collisions triggers back‐ offs, which were not taken into account in [25]. The non‐deterministic exponen‐ tial back‐off of the default CSMA protocol is not suitable for wireless control applications, since the communication delay, which is important for the control stability [23], cannot be bounded and packet drop due to congestion decreases the performance [96]. The current preferred solution is to use deterministic networks, using polling (e.g. Bluetooth) or scheduling (WirelessHART and ISA100.11a). Wireless networks are already used for control. Some early adoptions of wire‐ less devices as cable replacements are listed in [80]. The first wireless deploy‐ ments have been mostly cable replacements using Bluetooth. Bluetooth has, however, given way to ZigBee, as ZigBee has lower power consumption and more flexible networking. An overview of ZigBee/IEEE 802.15.4 can be found in [11]. ZigBee has rightfully been criticized for being unreliable, lacking tech‐ niques to mitigate the communication problems, and unsuitable for industrial control [88]. ZigBee is more suitable for small applications, and there are sepa‐ rate industrial standards for wireless automation. Using standard wireless hardware for automation is considered in [124], where two application layer protocols suitable for real‐time control are designed and evaluated. In the current wireless automation applications, the radios typically operate in the open ISM frequency band. The ISM band is quite crowded, as also the office networks (WLAN, Bluetooth) operate at the same frequencies. In the future, a separate frequency band could be reserved world‐wide exclusively for indus‐ trial automation applications, to enable proper, interference free wireless con‐ trol operation. The use of heterogeneous networks spanning the whole automation system from low level devices to high level functions, such as production monitoring, is considered in [115] and [110], where the applicability of different networks at the different levels and tasks are evaluated. For the higher level functions, such as plant monitoring and production planning, trend analysis, or gathering of batch information, real‐time operation is not necessary, and office grade wire‐ less networks are suitable for these tasks. In the current wireless automation
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standards, only device level wireless networks, where sensor devices report their measured values and possible health data to a gateway and the rest of the automation system, are considered. The network is thus used only at the lowest device level in the whole automation system [150]. In practice, also plant wide wireless networks with proprietary protocols based on the office grade IEEE 802.11 standard are used. Despite the wireless communication, the devices may still have wired power, because of large power requirements of the sensor or, more often, the actuator. For truly wireless devices, the power source must be local. A battery contains a finite amount of energy, and thus either the device lifetime is limited, or energy must be gathered during operation from the environment with energy harvest‐ ing techniques. Sources of auxiliary energy are for example electromagnetic waves, light, vibration, or temperature differences [123]. Another solution to completely get rid of cables is wireless power transportation. An existing solu‐ tion is inductive power transfer to devices located inside a cage [140]. The cage walls induce a rotating magnetic field that solenoids in the devices convert to current. Typical power transfer ranges from 10 to 100mW [150].
1.5.2. Current Standards for Wireless Automation Currently, there are two standards for industrial wireless automation applica‐ tions: WirelessHART and ISA100.11a. Both industrial standards are based on the IEEE 802.15.4 radio [180]. The IEEE 802.15.4 standard is suitable for building automation [76], industrial monitoring, and control applications [40], [161]. The main characteristics are low bit rate and low power consumption. The Wireless‐ HART standard and some implementation details are discussed in [148]. ISA100.11a is in practice very similar to WirelessHART, as both have similar design goals and use the same radio, but the two standards are not compatible. The WISA system is a complete solution for a reliable wireless cell in industrial manufacturing [140]. The architecture of both industrial wireless network standards include sensor nodes, wireless routers communicating with each other, and a gateway, which is connected to the automation fieldbus and the rest of the automation system. Mesh networking is possible for reliability, but all communication between devices in the wireless network is routed via the gateway. This routing con‐ straint makes the network scheduling and routing design easier. WirelessHART was approved by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as a full international standard (IEC 62591Ed. 1.0) in March 2010. Several manufacturers have released devices for WirelessHART and it is by now in use in control applications [166]. The ISA100.11a standard [70] was published in September 2009, gained IEC approval in 2010. Hence, the field of industrial wireless control has taken its first steps. The standards are designed for deter‐ minism, such that traditional control can readily be applied. Although deter‐
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minism is the main design goal, this is never fully assured and is on the expense on performance and flexibility. WirelessHART uses a combination of time division multiple access (TDMA) and frequency division multiple access (FDMA) MAC protocol. The TDMA slot is 10 ms, in which the data packet with sensor or control information and an acknowledgement are exchanged between two nodes. The network and trans‐ port layers are based on the Time Synchronized Mesh Protocol (TSMP) original‐ ly developed by Dust Networks [155]. Each node pair is assigned a unique time/frequency slot for contention free communication by a centralized network manager [155]. Some slots can be reserved for contention based access using CSMA, for communicating rare event messages or retransmissions in case of dropped packets. Additionally, frequency hopping is used to mitigate interfe‐ rence on some channels. A more detailed presentation of WirelessHART can be found in [148]. The benefits of WirelessHART and how to accommodate the control system to the wireless network, and meet the required control perfor‐ mance, are discussed in [117]. ISA100.11a uses similar techniques and both network standards can be applied where the application can tolerate a delay jitter in the order of 100 ms. The delay jitter stems from packet drop due to interference. The scheduling and routing of the WirelessHART and ISA100.11a networks are left open in their standards. Due to the determinism of the TDMA approach with a pre‐determined schedule, fixed bounds on the communication can be advertized, although not guaranteed. In the case of packet drops, retransmis‐ sion is needed, which may cause the information to exceed the delay bound. Retransmission slots must thus be incorporated into the schedule, which reduc‐ es the bandwidth usage and unavoidably introduces delay jitter. Retransmis‐ sion can take place on the slots allocated for random access, or on extra slots allocated in the schedule. The schedule and retransmissions determine when information is available to the control system, and hence affect the control oper‐ ation. There exists work where the actual network MAC protocol and related functions such as duty‐cycle [102], or routing and schedule [137], [160] are taken into account in the control stability proof. The current standards are designed for reliability and are thus conservative, which implies that closed‐loop control of fast processes is not possible. The design decisions of both standards ensure a relatively simple network design. The use of TDMA ensures determinism (disregarding packet drop due to inter‐ ference) and the routing via gateway constraint results in a simpler routing design. Current research related to the standards is for instance the optimality of the time/frequency‐slot scheduling and routing [160]. The room for im‐ provement is thus limited. The future research issues therefore include new technologies and algorithms to advance the capabilities of wireless control. The introduction of new agile and
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intelligent communication methods will improve the field. These new networks will probably not guarantee a certain QoS or be deterministic, such as the case when using TDMA. One research direction is then the introduction of adaptive control methods to compensate for the deficiencies of the wireless communica‐ tion, which this thesis focuses on. In the future, wireless control systems with low performance requirements are likely to emerge. These can be based on commercial off‐the‐shelf hardware, by adopting robust control algorithms. Today’s COTS hardware, such as WLAN, Bluetooth, and IEEE 802.15.4, utilizes mostly CSMA type communications [69]. This implies that the network is inherently non‐deterministic and unreliable. There are no quality of service guarantees, such as designated transmission slots. This does not mean that wireless applications on this hardware are im‐ possible; it is rather a research opportunity. Several practical applications can be proven to work satisfactorily, using simulations and pilot implementation.
1.5.3. Wireless Sensor Networks Wireless sensor networks are a field closely related to WNCSs, with a lot of ongoing research. In WSNs a low powered wireless network with hundreds or thousands of nodes are sensing or observing some phenomenon and collaborat‐ ing on environment monitoring to deliver situation awareness to the user [73]. The nodes are small and low cost with a limited operational time [158]. The limited power source of WSN nodes demands for algorithms with low compu‐ tational and communication requirements to enable a long lifetime of the appli‐ cation [59]. The applications range from environmental, agricultural or struc‐ tural health monitoring (forest, crop, earthquakes, bridges, buildings, among others), asset management (inventory surveillance, plant monitoring, and main‐ tenance), to military and battlefield applications (detection of events such as enemy activity, poisonous gases, or radioactivity) [11]. The key properties, applications, and open research problems of wireless sensor networks are summarized in [176], [2] and [59]. The leading research is summarized in [11]. The network related research topics in WSNs are mostly medium access control or routing [73]. The networking issues are similar to WNCSs, but there is usual‐ ly no closed‐loop control and thus the real‐time operation requirement is not as strict as in wireless automation. Reliability is obtained with redundancy and distributed computation. The low power consumption of the tiny network nodes is necessary to save the battery. This boils down to hardware and MAC protocol design, for example in the WiseNET sensor network [43], or TUTWSN developed at the Tampere University of Technology, Finland [78]. Other topics in sensor networks are data compression, storage, transportation, processing and enhancing [54]. Sensor networks can be used as a monitoring system for plants, where the sen‐ sors deliver additional measurements of a plant, independent of the automation
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system. The increased demand on high efficiency and ecological production require new, cheap, and flexible production monitoring technologies. Industrial wireless sensor networks can be used for production monitoring of energy efficiency and compliance to environmental regulations [59]. Another similar application is the “mobile wireless industrial worker,” where a serviceman can walk in a factory and monitor the nearby sensors and actuators with a wireless handheld device [19]. The issues and challenges of applying a sensor network to factory automation are summarized in [179]. Such lessons are valuable for the deployment of wire‐ less control in industrial environments, as the conditions may be quite harsh, including shadowing and interference from motors and devices [164]. There are some reports on the experiences of sensor network deployments in industrial environments. A four month continuous monitoring campaign of a plant has been reported, where power management protocols and periodic system resets were used [81]. Another example is a sewage overflow control system called CSOnet. This is a metropolitan wide sensor and actuator network, consisting of about 150 wireless sensor nodes, used to control sewage overflow by measuring the water levels in the sewage and controlling storm water flow to prevent overflow, in case of heavy rain [109]. The experiences of a WSN deployment in a mine are presented in [1].
15
2. PRELIMINARIES – NETWORKS AND CONTROLLERS In this chapter preliminary information and relevant theory that are needed later are summarized. First the general assumptions of the WNCS used in this thesis are listed and networked control structures are discussed. A defining feature of WNCSs is packet drop, therefore several packet drop models are presented in Section 2.4. Measurements and estimation of corresponding packet drop model are done in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. In the following sections some controller design and tuning methods for WNCSs are presented. First, a stability criterion for NCSs, used in many of the controller tuning algorithms, is given in Section 2.5. Several PID controller structures suitable for NCSs are then presented in Section 2.6 and later, in Sec‐ tion 3.3, a new control structure is proposed. The internal model control frame‐ work is treated in Section 2.7, including the IMC‐PID controller design. In Section 2.8, some initial approaches in the literature on network adaptive control or control traffic adjustment are reviewed. Network congestion and adaptation methods of control traffic are also discussed. These issues are later developed further in Section 3.5. Finally, Kalman filtering in NCSs with packet dropout is presented in Section 2.9.
2.1. The Networked Control Problem The general problem in the NCS field is related to the stability of the control system in the case of information loss. In a traditional wired control system, the operation is deterministic and the sampling instants are equally spaced. These dynamic systems can be analyzed effectively using the Z‐transform, where several proofs of stability exist, based for instance on the poles of the closed‐ loop system transfer function. In the wireless control case the information flow between some of the compo‐ nents is stochastic and the situation becomes problematic. In this case the stabil‐ ity depends on the varying delay and packet drop of the network. Often also the system is not synchronized or periodic sampling is not possible as the sen‐ sors and controllers are distributed, which means that the Z‐transform cannot
17
be readily applied. This results in stochastic stability proofs or cases where for example all the possible packet drop realizations have to be enumerated for proving the stability. Current wireless control system research has its roots in networked control system theory, as the issues of a shared communication medium are the same. The research problems are mainly related to variable communication time‐ delays and packet losses, and system architecture design, see [179] and [165]. Both fields deal with network protocols [6], [102], transmission scheduling [160], [159], communication and control co‐scheduling [137], [153], traffic reduc‐ tion [27], [92], congestion control [134], [157], and estimation [113], [173], [177]. The main difference between NCSs and WNCSs is that wireless communication is less deterministic because of external interference and finite communication range, but problems with wiring and failing connectors are eliminated. Some of the approaches for proving controller stability include: LQG control [60], Linear Matrix Inequalities (LMIs) [178], Markov Jump Linear Systems (MJLS) [74], the jitter margin, [23], [72], Lyapunov functions [103], power spec‐ trum [94], and optimal communication scheduling for stability [160]. Other control related theory relates to Kalman filtering [144], [171], controller tuning [47], [67], and control performance [91], [94].
2.2. General Assumptions Throughout this thesis certain assumptions on the studied WNCS are made. The assumptions are declared and motivated here. Previously the majority of the literature focused on wired networked control systems. Nowadays, wireless NCSs are also considered. This thesis focuses solely on WNCSs and the simu‐ lated cases are all with a wireless network. Some of the developed theory can be applied to wired NCSs, although the problems with NCSs are exaggerated in the wireless NCS case, as wireless networks are, in general, less reliable than wired ones, because the shared and open transmission medium is susceptible to interference. The wireless network is thus assumed to be unreliable, with time‐varying deli‐ vered quality of service and with the possibility of longer outages. The unrelia‐ bility is either due to the properties of the wireless communication, or due to the used non‐deterministic network protocols, such as CSMA‐type MAC. The adaptive algorithms adapt to the general, slowly changing, performance of the network. Instantaneous accommodation to sudden bursts of packet drops is in practice impossible, and can cause instability due to switching of controller parameters. The adaptation is done slowly, such that problems of instability due to switching of tuning are not an issue, as is customary in adaptive control approaches [184].
18
Time‐driven sensors, controllers, and actuators are assumed the whole time. This implies that the observed delays and delay jitters are effectively quantized to multiples of the sampling interval. This simplifies the analysis, since actions between sampling instants need not be taken into account. In the case event‐ driven controllers and actuators are assumed, which is sometimes the case in the literature, the theory and implementation would be more complicated, as the algorithms would become truly time‐variant. In practice, systems are still asynchronous, as there might be a time‐offset between the sampling instants of the clocks of all the nodes in the WNCS, if they are not synchronized. Random time offsets are automatically used in the PiccSIM simulator. Due to the choice of time‐driven operation, a zero order hold (ZOH) is assumed at the receiver until the next sampling instant. In the case of a dropped packet, ZOH is also used, such that the previously received information is held until a new value is received. The wireless nodes are assumed to be ideal, in the sense that the input/output and computational tasks are always performed on time. The hardware includ‐ ing the microcontroller and radio are not modeled. The scheduling of the tasks in the microcontroller and resulting computational delays are not taken into account in the PiccSIM simulator. It is assumed that the operations are bounded by the sampling interval, such that sampling, transmission, and reception, are executed before the next sampling instant. This is motivated by the short com‐ munication delay compared to the sampling interval, typically observed in the simulations of this thesis. The wireless network is often assumed to reside between the sensor and con‐ troller. The controller is co‐located at the actuator, which then naturally elimi‐ nates one (unnecessary) wireless communication link between the controller and actuator, and the controller can take advantage of the wired power often required by the actuator. Only wireless measurements are assumed in the theory because of technical aspects, where stability proofs are only formulated for this case. In practice, depending on the application, some simulation cases have also wireless communication between the controller and actuator. Stable processes are assumed, as an outage in the network makes the control system work in an open‐loop configuration, which would be detrimental in control of an unstable process. Furthermore, a simple process model is pre‐ ferred. When doing control design, generally a first‐order process with time delay (FOTD) [185] of the form G ( s) =
K − τs e , Ts + 1
(1)
19
where K is the process gain, T is the time‐constant and τ is the time‐delay, is assumed. In the case of higher‐order processes, a first‐order approximation can in some cases be used. The total time‐delay L in a control loop is defined as
L = τ + LN ,
(2)
where LN is the constant minimum communication delay of the network [23]. The control design is always done for the total delay L. On top of the constant time‐delay, an additional varying delay δ(t), caused by the network, is often present. For communication, today’s commercial off‐the‐shelf radios, or similar, are assumed to be used. In the PiccSIM simulations an IEEE 802.15.4 network [11] is always used. This network type is selected, because it is well suited for low power, low bandwidth communication, and the current wireless automation standards use it. Non‐deterministic operation of the network is assumed, main‐ ly due to the CSMA type MAC protocol. Deterministic approaches such as WirelessHART are not considered, because they do not pose the same problems of varying delivered QoS. UDP‐like (User Datagram Protocol) communication is used, since the sensors and controllers are time‐driven and they send packets with a fixed rate. UDP does not have retransmissions in case of packet drop, but this is not required in control applications, since due to the real‐time operation, sending new information is more desired than retransmitting old, which may be outdated when retransmitting. Traffic rate adopting protocols, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), cannot be used in control applications, because of the constant packet rate produced by the sensors. Thus, before dep‐ loyment of a wireless automation system, the designer has to verify, for in‐ stance by simulation, that the bandwidth of the network is adequate for the application. In Section 5.2 a controller with adaptive communication rate is developed to alleviate this situation. In this thesis only problems of packet drops in the network are considered. Due to the time‐driven assumption, packet drop can be thought of as a kind of vary‐ ing delay, as shown in Section 2.4.1, since the controller has to wait for the next measurement packet if the current one is dropped by the network. In the simu‐ lation cases of this thesis the varying delay induced by the network is negligible compared to the sampling interval, thus only packet drop needs to be consi‐ dered in the control design. Only lightweight control algorithms, such as variations of the PID controller, are considered. The low computation capabilities and power saving require‐ ment of wireless nodes necessitates the usage of simple algorithms. PID control‐ ler is also favored because of the widespread use of it in the industry.
20
2.3. Networked Control Structures When designing a control system for a WNCS, the selection of the control struc‐ ture is important, as it determines what information is processed in which part of the network, and what information needs to be communicated to the other nodes in the control system. The controller algorithm can then be constructed with special logic to handle separate cases depending on what information has been received or lost. There are many possible control structures and design approaches for NCSs or WNCSs, of which only some are discussed here. In this work single‐input single‐output (SISO) control loops are mainly consi‐ dered, which can be extended to the multiple‐input multiple‐output (MIMO) case by parallelizing several SISO loops. Other MIMO architectures, such as centralized or hierarchical, are naturally possible. Three main control design and tuning approaches, with more or less traditional control structures, for NCSs are considered next. The first and most complicated approach is to design an optimal controller that can stabilize the process with given delay and loss specifications. In the literature, the controller is usually of state‐feedback type, either time‐varying or constant, and depicted in Figure 1a. The control system may need a state observer at the transmitter, if the state is not directly observa‐ ble. The optimal controller is usually designed by casting it to an optimization problem of linear matrix inequalities, see e.g. [65] and [67]. The math is quite involved and it is thus unlikely that this method will become a mainstream approach in practical applications, where the operator should be able to under‐ stand the control algorithm and be assured that it works properly. During packet drops it seems intuitively clear to use a model to predict the process output at the controller during outages. The objective is to estimate the current process state, as shown in Figure 1b, by using the received intermittent and delayed measurement packets [108]. The network delays are taken into account in the state‐estimator and the state can be predicted if a packet is dropped. In this way there is always a current process state estimate available for the controller, which can be any conventional (non‐network aware) control‐ ler [98]. A suitable estimator for NCSs is the Kalman filter (see Section 2.9), because of its convenient form with a prediction and an update phase. In [141] and [174] a ʺsmart sensorʺ is used, capable of doing some processing on its own. The filtering is done at the sensor and the state estimate is sent over the network. This ensures that the estimate is optimal, since no measurements are lost, and the current state can be calculated by prediction, if packets are dropped. The estimation at the sensor has the downside that the control input to the process has to be transmitted to the sensor without delay and loss, which is not practically achievable. Further, ztate‐estimators at both sensor and con‐ troller can be used to reduce the traffic, by estimating the current process state without the need to transmit all the measurements [177]. In this case the esti‐
21
mates are updated by communication only if the estimation error grows too large. The third alternative is to still use a conventional controller, such as the PID controller (Figure 1c), and tune it to be robust to the packet drops and delay jitter (Section 2.5) [47]. The advantage of this approach is that the PID controller is widely used in the industry. When wireless communication is adopted for control applications, the PID controller is already available in the automation system and implementing a new controller suitable for wireless automation is more laborious than retuning an existing PID controller. Thus, PID controllers will most probably be adopted for wireless control applications. Additionally, the operators are familiar with them, they understand how the control law works, and they have confidence in it. u
yr Reference
control
State feedback
u z
output
Process
y
State estimator
y out y in Network
(a) Optimal state feedback yr
PID
Reference
u
control
Conventional PID Controller
y
output
y
Process
u z
y out y in
State estimator
Network
(b) State estimator and regular PID controller yr Reference
PID
u
control
Network aware PID Controller
output
y
Process
y out y in Network
(c) Jitter margin tuned PID controller Figure 1. Some control structures suitable for networked control systems.
22
u(t)
yr Reference
State feedback
control
output
y (t )
Process
y (t )
y (k) y (k)
in
out
Network
u(k)
yr Reference
PID
control
output
y (k)
Process
y ( k − 1)
y (k)
y ( k − 1)
out
in
Network
Figure 2. Approaches to control with discrete‐time feedback information in NCSs. Discrete‐time signal indicated with dashed line. Top: only communi‐ cation is in discrete‐time, Bottom: Discrete‐time controller.
The simulations in Section 4.7.2 compare these control structures. The rest of the simulations use, in general, the structure of case (c), whereas the proposed Networked PID in Section 3.3 is an attempt to use the advantages of case (a) in a lightweight manner. This is further combined with case (b) to achieve more benefits, in the steady‐state heuristic suggested in Section 5.4. Besides controller structures, the approach of control design with packet based communication, is another fundamental issue. In the literature there are two approaches to deal with the case when the feedback information is received as discrete‐time packets over the network, as depicted in Figure 2. One is to look at the control as a continuous‐time system, where, for implementation reasons due to the network, only the feedback information is in discrete‐time, such as in [103]. In this case, the discrete‐time communication approaches asymptotically the continuous‐time system when decreasing the sampling interval. Typical approaches are state‐feedback controllers [128] or other continuous‐time con‐ trollers with information updated at discrete time‐instants [103]. With truly discrete‐time controllers, the control algorithm is calculated whether a packet is received or not. This might cause some trouble to the correct opera‐ tion. On the other hand, if the control algorithm is only calculated at the recep‐
23
tion of a new packet, the control response changes depending on the timing of the execution events. In this case the constant operation approach is not valid. The controller must be changed as a function of the packet inter‐arrival time or rate, similarly as the PID PLUS controller in Section 2.6.2 or [53], to produce in the same operation as the ideal continuous‐time counterpart. This is typically not done in the literature, e.g. [4], [20], and [128], and as a consequence the control response degrades when the actual sampling interval deviates from the designed one. Proper changing of the controller sampling interval and tuning is shown with one of the developed adaptive control schemes in Section 5.2.2. Both continuous‐ and discrete‐time approaches have their advantages. In the former case, the control design is done in continuous‐time, where event‐driven feedback is most naturally formulated [8], [153]. In the discrete‐time controller case, packet drop is more natural to deal with, as the signal value is hold until the next sampling instant. The resulting network traffic is predictable as the sampling interval is constant, and the implementation is better suitable for scheduled networks.
2.4. Network Models In WNCSs, the essential challenges for the control system are packet drop and delay jitter caused by the network. Delay jitter is in general caused by packet drop, random transmission opportunities in CSMA‐type MAC protocols or different sequences of timeslots in TDMA MAC protocols. In all cases the delay jitter is aggravated in multihop communication, typical for WNCSs, as the de‐ lay accumulates at every hop. Packet drop occurs when there is packet collision, poor signal strength or interference. For simulation of WNCSs and analysis purposes, network models that imitate the packet drop and delay jitter of real wireless networks are needed. In industrial or factory environments the radio propagation signal deviates considerably from the ideal free space propagation models used in most net‐ work simulator models. Besides the simple free space model there exists many other fading models for wireless communication [57]. Metal and obstacles cause shadowing and multipath effects that amplify or attenuate the radio signal strength. The radio environment in a factory can be harsh with interfering elec‐ tromagnetic radiation from motors and moving machinery temporarily block‐ ing links of the wireless network. Reflections of radio waves can in these envi‐ ronments be an advantage, because shadowed locations can obtain a strong signal through reflections. There are several studies of the performance of IEEE 802.11 networks, e.g. [131] where the network design is also discussed. There are some reports on studies of measurements done in industrial environments. The received signal strength in a chemical pulp factory, cable factory and a nuclear power plant was meas‐
24
ured with an IEEE 802.11 network at the 2.45 GHz ISM radio band [77]. The conclusions of the experiments were that the radio environment is not as harsh as initially thought; reflections and diffractions improve the signal strength in shadow areas. The study in Section 3.1 reveals that, while many locations are improved by multipath fading, communication in some locations is impossible, due to no signal or destructive interference, even if the distance is short. Anoth‐ er study presents measurements of the bit‐error‐rate and more importantly, the error pattern, of an IEEE 802.11 network in an industrial environment [162]. Interesting findings were that the packet losses are correlated, error burst and packet loss burst lengths fluctuate several orders of magnitude with time. This means that the consecutive packet drops may be long in some instants and hard to eliminate, for various physical reasons caused by the environment and the radio. On the other hand, error free periods vary also and can be long. Packet loss rates vary from the high 80 % to less than 10 % in generous situations. In the Internet, packet drop is found to be mostly random [15]. In office environments, similar measurements can be made. An example is [169], where the propagation channel is measured. Among the tested models, the Ricean model fits the data best. Ricean models are estimated for different distances and configurations between the transmitter and receiver. Because of multipath propagation, the parameters of the model are not linearly dependent on the transmission distance, as generally assumed. On large scales, the log‐ normal distribution fitted the data well [169]. Wired Ethernet traffic is studied in [87], where the self‐similar property of the traffic is demonstrated. Similar behavior can be assumed with WLAN networks in office environments, as they both use CSMA. Studies of the traffic properties in the Internet have also been done [111]. In this section the focus is on models for the packet drop in the network. This restriction is made because the main limiting factor in real‐time control is the loss of feedback, for instance caused by packet drop. First the relationship be‐ tween packet drop and delay is established. Both simple and data‐based packet drop models, which are adequate for basic simulations of unreliable networks, are developed in the following subsections. For more realistic packet drop be‐ havior of the network, a network simulator, where also the network protocols and packet collisions are taken into account, can be used as discussed in Section 4.3. Real environments have also been measured in this thesis, as reported in Section 3.1, to make the simulation results more realistic. Based on the radio environment measurements, packet drop models are estimated and the model fit is evaluated in Section 3.2. These network packet drop models are integrated into the network simulation model as described in Section 4.3.4.
25
2.4.1. Packet Drop ‐ Delay Jitter Although delay jitter and packet drop are two distinct phenomena with differ‐ ent causes, they are linked in a sense, as the effects on the control system are similar. Consider a controller with zero‐order‐hold. When a packet is dropped, the controller will use the most recently received data. The drop of a packet will thus effectively cause an increase in the delay, seen as a delay jitter. In the thesis the notion delay jitter is used even if the actual underlying event is packet drop. With a pure delay jitter no information is lost, but in a real‐time system it may become outdated and thus useless. In wireless communication, packet drop due to interference or collisions can be approximated with a uniform random packet drop defined by a certain proba‐ bility [15]. Consider a network with a constant delay LN = nh , where n ∈ indicates the delay in terms of sampling intervals h, and a random packet drop with probability pdrop. With time‐driven algorithms and the ZOH assumption at the receiving side, it follows that in the network simulations the output of the network is described by ⎧⎪ yin ( k − LN / h ) , r ( k ) > pdrop yout ( k ) = ⎨ , r ( k ) ∼ U ( 0,1) y k − 1 , otherwise ( ) ⎪⎩ out
(3)
where yin and yout are the input to, and output from the network respectively, and r is a uniformly distributed random number between zero and one. The previous output is thus held if a packet is dropped. The resulting delay jitter caused by packet drop according to the above model is thus δ ( t ) = t − tn ∀t ∈ ⎣⎡tn , tn+1 ⎣⎡ , tn = t when r ( k ) > pdrop
(4)
where tn are the times of the received packets. An example realization of the packet drop induced delay is plotted in Figure 3 for a uniform packet drop probability of pdrop = 0.2, and sampling interval of h = 0.1 seconds. Notice the additional constant minimum delay LN related to transmission. At the receiving side, the communication delay is in certain cases needed by the control algorithm. The delay estimation with a linear estimator, assuming slow‐ ly changing random delay is presented in [139]. A simple delay jitter estimation algorithm for a quickly changing delay, where the delay can change on every time‐ step, is presented next. It relies on counting the timestamps, and the gaps due to packet drop, between the received packets.
26
0.7 0.6
Delay [s]
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0
5
10 Time [s]
15
20
Figure 3. Delay with uniform packet drop probability of pdrop = 0.2, and sampling interval of h = 0.1 s.
On the reception of a packet with timestamp tn‐1, the next packet is expected at time tn‐1 + h, where h is the sampling interval of the sensor. If however one pack‐ et is dropped, the next packet received has timestamp tn = tn‐1 + h + dn, where dn > 0 is the additional delay. The delay difference d is the difference in time‐ stamps between the two most recently received packets tn‐1 and tn according to
dn = tn − tn−1 − h .
(5)
If dn = 0 , there is no delay jitter. To record the delay jitter, the tuple: delay jitter dn and timestamp tn, of the received packet are stored. In practice, the delay statistics of a given time‐window ⎡⎣t − TW , t ⎦⎤ of length TW is used. Thus, all the jitters from the current time‐period TW , are collected in D(k).
{
}
D ( k ) = dn , tn |∀tn ∈ ⎡⎣t ( k ) − TW , t ( k ) ⎤⎦ .
(6)
Here t(k) refers to the current time. The maximum delay jitter in the time‐frame ⎡⎣t ( k ) − TW , t ( k ) ⎤⎦ is defined as
{
}
δmax ( k ) = arg max D ( k ) . d
(7)
This delay counting is used in the adaptive jitter margin controller of Section 5.1 and the notion of packet drop caused delays (4) is used in all the simulations.
27
The assumptions of this method are that every packet has a timestamp and that the delay jitter seen by the controller is only due to dropped packets. This means that the delay variation of successfully transmitted packets is considera‐ bly smaller than the sampling interval of the controller. In most applications this can be assumed if the network is small and the communication times are small compared to h. A more complex delay estimation algorithm, which avoids these assumptions, is the Kalman filter based maximum a posteriori method presented in [P7].
2.4.2. Drop and Delay Models based on Markov‐chains Instead of using a static drop probability as a model for the network, a Markov‐ chain can be used to model correlated network delay or packet drop [172]. In this section several Markov‐chain packet drop models are described and Gil‐ bert‐Elliott model identification presented. These models are identified from data in Section 3.2 and used later in the thesis in the simulations. A Markov‐chain is a sequence of random variables Χ ( k ) defined by the proba‐ bility of being in a state χ according to
(
)
P = Pr Χ ( k + 1) = χ ( k + 1)|Χ ( k ) = χ ( k ) ,
(8)
where P = ⎡⎣ pij ⎤⎦ is the state‐transition matrix, giving the probability of changing from state i to state j. The steady‐state state distribution of the Markov‐chain is given by the left eigenvector of the equation π = πP , corresponding to the ei‐ genvalue 1. [34] For modeling a network with a maximum delay jitter of δmax , a Markov‐chain with N M = δmax / h states, each corresponding to a delay value, can be used. The delayed output of the network is then dictated by the current state of the Mar‐ kov‐chain.
If a network with constant delay and only packet drops is considered, a Mar‐ kov‐chain can also be used. In this case the delay increases by one sampling interval if a packet is dropped, or it returns to the minimum delay if a packet is transmitted successfully. Thus, with uniform random packet drop and a maxi‐ mum number of consecutive packet drops of N M = δmax / h , the Markov chain state‐transition matrix is of the form
⎡1 − pdrop ⎢ ⎢1 − pdrop P=⎢ ⎢ ⎢ 1 ⎣
28
pdrop
0
0 0
0
0 ⎤ ⎥ 0 ⎥ . pdrop ⎥⎥ 0 ⎥⎦
(9)
pGB
Good dG
pGG
Bad dB
pBB
pBG
Figure 4. Gilbert‐Elliot model with states Good and Bad. State‐transitions and probabilities indicated.
In the case that the packet drop probability is not uniform, different transition probabilities can be used for the separate states and thus correlated packet drops can be simulated. Other Markov chains are also possible, see e.g. [172]. A common way to model a network with packet drops is the Gilbert‐Elliott (G‐E) model [41], [56], which is based on the Markov‐chain. The G‐E model has two states: one corresponding to good (G) and the other to bad (B) conditions, with separate packet drop probabilities in the good and bad state, P ( drop |G ) = dG and P ( drop | B ) = dB , respectively. The transitions between the states follow a two‐state Markov model. The state‐transition matrix is given by
⎡p P =⎢ GG ⎣ pBG
( (
) )
pGB = P Χ ( k ) = B|Χ ( k − 1) = G , pGG = 1 − pGB pGB ⎤ , ⎥ , pBB ⎦ pBG = P Χ ( k ) = G |Χ ( k − 1) = B , pBB = 1 − pBG
(10)
where pGG and pBB are the state‐holding, and pGB and p BG are the state‐ transition probabilities as illustrated in Figure 4. The state residence time of state i is given by
TGE ,i =
h , 1 − pii
(11)
where h is the time‐step of the Markov‐chain. The average good and bad state probabilities of the G‐E model are πG =
pBG pGB , πB = , pBG + pGB pBG + pGB
(12)
and the mean packet drop is [66] dGE = πG dG + πBdB .
(13)
In Section 3.2, the Gilbert‐Elliott model is fitted to the data collected from an industrial environment. These models are implemented, as explained in Section 4.3.4, for realistic simulation purposes. To fit the G‐E model to the data, the two drop probabilities ( dG and dB ) and the state‐transition probabilities ( pGB and 29
p BG ) must be identified from the data. The model identification is a Hidden Markov Model fitting problem [66], where the observations, in this case the packet drops, are available and the underlying states and emission probabilities are estimated. To evaluate the model fit on the data, using second order statis‐ tics over different time‐scales is a standard approach [66]. The time‐scales are defined as follows. The stochastic process Χ can be ex‐ amined on different time‐scales m by taking the average of non‐overlapping blocks of size m Χ( m ) ( k ) =
(
)
1 Χ ( mk − m + 1) + m
+ Χ ( mk ) .
(14)
For time‐series with little data, averaging with a sliding window or partly over‐ lapping windows of size m can be used. The model fit is evaluated by the mean packet drop (13) and the normalized error in standard deviation σnorm ( m ) =
σD ( m ) − σGE ( m ) σ D ( 1)
,
(15)
where σ D and σGE are the standard deviations of the data and the Gilbert‐Elliott model, at time‐scale m. The error (15) is zero if the variances coincide and one if the difference in variances is as large as the variance in the data. The overall model fit is evaluated with the mean of the normalized standard deviation error over logarithmically spaced time‐scales, listed in the set M σtot =
1 M
∑
m∈M
σnorm ( m ) .
(16)
The statistical properties of the Gilbert‐Elliot model and higher order Markov models are derived in [66]. The coefficient of variation
cv ≡
σ (Χ)
E (Χ)
(17)
for the G‐E model is cv ( m ) = =
1 m
⎛ 2 p p ( 1 − p − p )( d − d )2 1 GB BG G B − 1 + ⎜ GB BG 2 ⎜ ( p + p )( p d + p d ) dGE GB BG GB B BG G ⎝
⎞ ⎛ ( 1 − p − p )m ⎞ , (18) GB BG ⎟⎜1− ⎟ ⎟⎜ m ( pGB + pBG ) ⎟ ⎠⎝ ⎠
from which the variance at different time‐scales can be calculated σGE ( m ) = cv ( m ) dGE .
30
(19)
2.5. Jitter Margin Control with packet drops and varying delay stemming from a network is a complex case to analyze, because of the stochastic and time‐varying nature of the problem. Ensuring stability of NCSs has been under much research lately [65]. Some results deal with optimal control [95], jump‐linear Markov models [172] and the jitter margin [23], [72]. The jitter margin [23] defines the amount of additional delay that a control system can tolerate without becoming unstable. The delay may vary in any way, provided that it is bounded by the jitter margin δmax. By selecting a tuning of a conventional controller such that the control loop has a positive jitter mar‐ gin, the control loop is stable for network induced delay jitter and packet drop bounded by the jitter margin. The theorem for the jitter margin states that in the continuous‐time case, the closed loop system with process G(s) and controller Gc(s) is stable for any addi‐ tional delay 0 ≤ δ ( t ) ≤ δmax in the loop, if [72] Gcl ( s ) =
G ( jω ) Gc ( jω )
1
(65)
for the jitter margin. Conversely, the corresponding tuning λ can be solved, given a jitter margin constraint. In the case of a FOTD process, where the non‐invertible time‐delay makes the approximation (53) invalid, as the delay must be approximated in the control
55
implementation, the above stability to delay jitter is not guaranteed. The jitter margin depends then on the approximation method used for the time‐delay, e.g. one of (58)‐(60). Now Gcl is according to (56) and the jitter margin inequali‐ ty (21) becomes
δmax
rd otherwise
(94)
where ri is the QoS of the ith loop and rd is the desired QoS. If any loop expe‐ riences worse QoS than desired, all loops use max ( r )i − rd . This decreases the i traffic generated by all loops to obtain a better QoS for the loop that has too low QoS. This global adjustment is used because bad QoS is usually due to the other control loops taking too much of the available bandwidth. Otherwise the loops
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adjust λ according to the local QoS. Moreover, the update speed depends on Δr ( k ) such that ⎧⎪λ / T , if Δr ( k ) ≤ 0 m(k) = ⎨ ⎪⎩T / λ , if Δr ( k ) > 0
(95)
where T is the time constant of the process. The update speed thus depends on how much the control speed λ differs from the natural speed of the process T. In case of a process model of higher order, the dominating time‐constant is used for T in the adaptation algorithm. At every time‐step the control speed λ is updated and the corresponding IMC controller is calculated. The sampling interval is updated according to (74). The sampling interval of the sensor and controller is thus proportional to the control speed. The sampling interval is additionally quantized to a multiple of two of a base sampling interval hbase such that ⎛ ⎛ λ(k) h λ ( k ) = hbase 2 p , where p = floor ⎜ log 2 ⎜ ⎜N h ⎜ ⎝ h base ⎝
(
)
⎞⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎠⎠
(96)
where floor rounds down to the nearest integer. Quantization is used for prac‐ tical reasons, because the controller cannot change the sampling interval conti‐ nuously. The procedure for the change is described in the next subsection. According to (75), a suitable jitter margin for the ACS scheme can be selected directly by specifying Nh. The jitter margin in terms of consecutive packet drops is thus the same regardless of the control speed. The actual jitter margin accord‐ ing to (22), with IMC‐PID control and the parameters given in the simulation case described in Section 5.2.4 (T = 10), is solved previously in this thesis and plotted as a function of control speed in Figure 15. Without quantization the obtained jitter margin is as specified at Nh = 8, but quantization alters the jitter margin.
5.2.2. Changing the Sampling Interval The algorithm for changing the sampling interval starts by a change in the cal‐ culated quantized h(k) (96) at the controller. The process model is first re‐ discretized and then the new IMC controller is calculated. Changing the sam‐ pling interval in the middle of a run requires some calculation to make a seam‐ less transition [3]. The decision to use quantized sampling intervals in the ACS algorithm simplifies the transition calculations and avoids changing sampling intervals continuously. Changing to a longer sampling interval is easy, as it is in this case doubled: the new samples are calculated as averages over pairs of previous control in‐ put/output values and the new controller is switched on immediately. When
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halving the sampling interval, the controller needs to be initialized with in‐ between samples. There exist several applicable methods to change the sam‐ pling online without bumps. One can use interpolation with splines or optimi‐ zation to find the in‐between values [3]. Here, an algorithm that matches the output of the old and new controllers is proposed [P9]. The change to a shorter sampling interval is sketched in Figure 52. The sensor is first informed of the new sampling interval, and it starts transmitting with it. The old controller is still run during the initialization phase, using every other measurement of the new sampling interval. Once enough samples with the faster sampling rate are received, the initialization is done according to the following algorithm and the new controller is applied. The switch is done at the time‐instant k = ks, with indexing according to the new, faster sampling rate. As the slow‐sampling controller has been used, every other control value is matched such that the same output response is achieved, i.e. “u(k)” of the old controller must equal “u(2k)” of the new. The in‐between u‐ values (indicated in Figure 53) are solved using the controller equation D ( z ) u ( ks − m ) = N ( z ) y ( ks − m ) ,
(97)
where Gc ( z ) = N ( z ) D ( z ) . The values u ( ks − even ) are fixed by the old control‐ ler and u ( ks − uneven ) are unknown (even = 0, 2, 4,… and uneven = 1, 3, 5,…). The “uneven” values u ( ks − uneven ) are found, by solving x from the linear equation Ax = b , using the fixed even values (Figure 53), where
Figure 52. Proposed method to switch to a shorter sampling interval, with deg Gc = 5 . Control signal and instants for process measurements shown.
( )
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D ( 1) u ( k s ) + D ( 2 ) u ( k s − 1 ) + D ( 3 ) u ( k s − 2 ) +
= N ( 1) y ( k s ) + N ( 2 ) y ( k s − 1) +
D ( 1) u ( k s − 1) + D ( 2 ) u ( k s − 2 ) + D ( 3 ) u ( k s − 3 ) +
= N ( 1) y ( k s − 1) + N ( 2 ) y ( k s − 2 ) +
D ( 1) u ( k s − 2 ) + D ( 2 ) u ( k s − 3 ) + D ( 3 ) u ( k s − 4 ) +
= N ( 1) y ( k s − 2 ) + N ( 2 ) y ( k s − 3 ) +
D ( 1) u ( k s − 3 ) + D ( 2 ) u ( k s − 4 ) + D ( 3 ) u ( k s − 5 ) +
= N ( 1) y ( k s − 3 ) + N ( 2 ) y ( k s − 4 ) +
Figure 53. Unknown u‐values to be solved indicated by box when switch‐ ing from slower to faster sampling.
x = ⎡⎣u ( ks − 1) u ( ks − 2 − 1)
(
u ( ks − 2 M + 1) ⎤⎦ ,
(
))
A row 2m and 2 m + 1, columns m to m + ceil deg ( D ) / 2 =
⎡D ( 2) D ( 4) =⎢ ⎣⎢ D ( 1) D ( 3 )
D ( even ) ⎤ ⎥ D ( odd ) ⎦⎥
where deg ( D ) > 2 is the order of the polynomial D(z), D(n) is the term of the nth power of D, ceil rounds up to the nearest integer, and b ( rows 2 m and 2 m + 1) =
⎡ N ( z ) y ( ks − m ) − D ( 1 + even ) u ( ks − 2 m ) ⎤ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ N ( z ) y ( ks − m − 1) − D ( 1 + uneven ) u ( ks − 2m − 1) ⎥⎦
where one‐based indexing is used for the elements of D, m = ⎡⎣0 … M / 2 ⎦⎤ , and M = deg ( D ) − 2 . If deg ( D ) ≤ 2 , no solving needs to be done, the new controller can continue immediately using every other previously received value. An example of changing the sampling interval is given in Figure 54, for both increasing and decreasing the sampling interval. With the initialization calcula‐ tion presented above, the control continues smoothly after the switch.
5.2.3. Analysis of the Adaptive Control Speed Algorithm In this section the ACS algorithm is shown to be of additive increase, multiplic‐ ative decrease‐type (AIMD), which is a typical approach for bandwidth control of network traffic. AIMD is for instance used in TCP. The evolution of λ is analyzed by combining (93) with (95) and using (96), neg‐ lecting the rounding by using h ( k ) = λ ( k ) / N h instead. When Δr > 0, (93) be‐ comes
λ ( k + 1) = λ ( k ) + and when Δr ≤ 0
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cT Δr ( k ) Nh
(98)
3 yr u y
2
1
0
0
5
10
15 Time [s]
20
25
30
3 yr u y
2
1
0
0
5
10
15 Time [s]
20
25
30
Figure 54. Switching of sampling interval. Top: slow to fast (h = 1 s to 0.5 s). Bottom: fast to slow (h = 0.5 s to 1 s), at time t = 8 s. Controller switches to fast sampling at t = 10 s (top) because of required initialization. Control sig‐ nal u and process response y plotted.
⎛ ⎞ c λ ( k + 1) = λ ( k ) ⎜ 1 + Δr ( k ) ⎟ . ⎝ TN h ⎠
(99)
Equations (98) and (99) show that λ is increased additively when it is too small and decreased multiplicatively, when it is too large. Thus the ACS is an AIMD type algorithm. The additive and multiplicative constants are proportional to the error from the desired QoS, Δr ( k ) . The main difference between this algo‐ rithm and any TCP algorithm, is that this adjusts the control speed, where the actual traffic amount on the application layer is adjusted, instead of adjusting the traffic speed on the transport layer. Now the stability of the ACS scheme is analyzed. The general stability of an AIMD type rate control algorithm is difficult to prove. An early analysis is by [30]. One can consider several cases, such as one [14] or several bottleneck links [105], [75]. Below is a very simplistic proof, for the case with one bottleneck and instantaneous packet drop feedback and no queue overflows. Consider a sys‐
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tem with several control loops all governed by the ACS scheme. If the desired QoS is reached, then Δr = 0 and the control speed update (98), (99) remains constant, λ ( k + 1) = λ ( k ) . As there exists an equilibrium, we next assess what happens when the ACS is not at steady‐state. Assume that the network QoS is a function of the traffic over a bottleneck link ⎛ 1 ⎞ r (k) = f ⎜ ∑ ⎟= ⎜ i h (k) ⎟ i ⎝ ⎠
⎛ Nh ⎞ f ⎜∑ ⎟ , ⎜ i λ (k) ⎟ i ⎠ ⎝
(100)
where the sum is the packet frequency over that link, summed over all the con‐ trol loops with sampling intervals hi. As traffic increases, f gives the QoS cost r as a positive increasing function of the traffic (and ultimately the control speed). Hence, the network QoS cost increases in some (non‐linear) manner if the traffic over the network increases, which is a typical behavior of networks with a CSMA type MAC. If Δr > 0, (98) implies λ ( k + 1) > λ ( k ) , and since f is positive and increasing f ( k + 1) < f ( k ) and Δr ( k + 1) < Δr ( k ) . Similar reasoning when Δr ≤ 0 gives in (99) λ ( k + 1) < λ ( k ) and f ( k + 1) > f ( k ) , which leads to Δr ( k + 1) > Δr ( k ) . The reasoning is the same for all the control loops, as they all measure the same r, thus Δr ( k ) is always decreasing until Δr approaches zero. In practice this may never happen, as packet drops are randomly distributed and all loops do not observe exactly the same QoS. The following simulations indicate that the ACS is still well behaving. As with any similar learning algorithm, the choice of c determines the rate of convergence of the algorithm. Selecting a small value makes convergence slow, but a too large value may cause oscillation around the optimum.
5.2.4. Simulation Scenario The simulation scenario consists of six control loops using ACS. Measurements of the controlled processes are transmitted wirelessly over an IEEE 802.15.4 network. The network topology is shown in Figure 55, where all control loops communicate over one bottleneck in the center of the network. The distances are such that the radio signal reaches only the nearest neighbors, thus multihop communication is used. AODV [126] is used as the routing protocol. A simula‐ tion for 6000 seconds is done, where loops 5 and 6 are initially idle and start operation at times t = 2000 s and t = 4000 s, to show how the ACS algorithm reacts when traffic is suddenly increased. The process models in the loops are continuous‐time, first order transfer func‐ tions with unit gain and time‐constants as indicated in Figure 55. All the processes have a delay of τ = 0.5 seconds. A PID controller, with the IMC‐PID tuning without a pre‐filter, described in Section 2.7.2 is used.
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4 1 Sensor 2 Sensor 3 Controller 3 Sensor 1 3 5 T = 30 s Controller 5 T = 20 s 7 6 8 9 Controller 4 Sensor 4 Controller 6 T = 40 s 9 T = 30 s 9 Sensor 5 Sensor 6 2 0 Controller 2 Controller 1 T = 20 s T = 10 s
Figure 55. Network topology in simulated scenario, consisting of six wire‐ less control loops. Possible communication routes are indicated.
The selected parameters for the ACS algorithm are the following: the packet drop low‐pass filter coefficient is β = 0.98 and the update speed is c = 2. The desired packet drop is rd = 4 %. The base sampling interval is set sufficiently low at hbase = 0.01 s and Nd = 8. Changing the sampling interval in practice commences by the controller send‐ ing a packet to the sensor, instructing it to use the new interval. The measure‐ ment packets from the sensor contain the used sampling interval, such that the controller knows when the sensor has successfully switched to the new sam‐ pling interval. If no change is done, the controller repeats the request. Another practical issue is the individual QoS needed by (94). The loops must obtain this information from the other loops. Sharing this information is done with the so called send‐on‐delta approach to minimize the used bandwidth. The send‐on‐delta mechanism means that the loop notify the other loops by sending a packet of its current local QoS ri, if it is above rd and has changed more than a certain threshold since the previous update. Additionally, the nodes send a packet when the QoS returns to the desired region. The results of one of several runs are shown in the following figures. Figure 56 shows the average packet drop of the individual loops where the bold line is the total QoS (92), which is mostly kept below the desired level of 4 %. The control speeds and corresponding sampling intervals for all the loops are shown in Figure 57. Initially all the loops decrease the sampling intervals, until packets start to drop. When loops 5 and 6 starts, congestion occurs and all the loops slow down to accommodate for the increased congestion introduced by the additional loops. Notice how the new loops find an appropriate control speed, even though they initially start with a conservative control speed. The ACS thus compensates for the changing traffic conditions.
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0.1 0.09 0.08 0.07
QoS
0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0
0
1000
2000
3000 Time [s]
4000
5000
6000
Figure 56. Observed average packet drop for all individual loops and total QoS rtot (92) (black line). Desired QoS drawn with dotted line. 40
λ
30 20 10 0
0
1000
2000
3000 Time [s]
4000
5000
6000
0
1000
2000
3000 Time [s]
4000
5000
6000
6
h [s]
4
2
0
Figure 57. Top: control speed for all the control loops, evolution as a func‐ tion of time. Bottom: Corresponding sampling intervals.
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From the experience of the simulations, which include all the network related issues of the media access and routing protocols, one can conclude that the ACS algorithm works as intended. The assumption that the packet drop depends directly on the congestion of the network turns out, in practice, not to hold completely. Packet drop mostly depends on the precise timing of the network, examples are collisions when two nodes transmit simultaneously, or in the case of a queue overflow. This is more probable when the network is congested, but is in nature stochastic. ACS could instead use network congestion information to adjust the control speed. Congestion feedback information, either implicitly through random early drop [51] or explicitly by messaging from the interme‐ diate nodes [136], could be used to accomplish the rate control.
5.2.5. Summary The adaptive control speed algorithm for NCSs changes the tuning λ of an IMC controller depending on the network QoS. The measurement sampling rate is changed as a function of λ, which adjusts the traffic of the network such that it is not congested. If the network is congested the control speeds and sampling rates of all the control loops are reduced, to compensate. The algorithm is unique in the sense, that it adjusts the controller generated traffic in a NCS setting, depending on the offered network QoS. It is a control oriented approach to adapt to a network layer problem. The sampling interval adaptation can as well be applied to sensor network type of monitoring applications where the importance of the measurement is specified by the parameter T. The proper change of sampling interval is considered here, whereas in most works found in the literature the old controller is continued to be used with a new sampling interval and the whole issue is ignored. The adaptive IMC based controller handles online change of the sampling rate without bumps, by an initialization procedure. The presented ACS algorithm is demonstrated with PiccSIM, where six control loops using ACS are simulated. The control speeds are adjusted online as more loops are added to the network, such that the desired QoS is maintained.
5.3. Step Adaptive Controller for Networked MIMO Control Systems In this section the multiple‐input multiple‐output WNCS case is considered. A decentralized wireless 2x2 MIMO control system is depicted in Figure 58. A MIMO process, with wireless sensors measuring all the outputs and separate controllers for the inputs, i.e. diagonal MIMO control, is assumed.
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y1
Controller 1
y r1
Process
Control
u1
G11(s)
Network Sensor 1
G12(s ) G21(s )
y r2
Controller 2
u2 G22(s )
Sensor 2
y2
Figure 58. Diagram of a 2x2 MIMO process in a NCS.
Fully decentralized MIMO control results in high network traffic because the information from every sensor is needed for every control input. Due to the communication requirements of full MIMO control, diagonal MIMO control, where separate SISO loops control the MIMO process as shown in Figure 58, is more suitable for WNCSs and thus considered here. The lightweight requirement, due to the low communication capabilities of wireless nodes, demands restricting the algorithms to simple types of control‐ lers, such as PID or IMC controllers. Although the achievable performance with several SISO PID or IMC controllers controlling each input‐output pair may not be as good as with a full MIMO controller, the decomposition is justified in a WNCS, because of the low and local communication needs compared to the full MIMO case. When carefully tuned, the structural simplicity of the individual controllers may outrun the difference in performance of the more complex MIMO controller in a WNCS setting. Thus, the need for good diagonal MIMO PID controller tuning is obvious, of which there are plenty to choose from [145]. Here, a controller tuning switching method is proposed, such that good control is achieved, depending on in which input a step change in the reference is made [P10]. In the multivariable control case, the objectives of the controllers are to produce a feasible step response in one loop and an efficient cross‐interaction elimina‐ tion in all the other loops. The idea of the step adaptive controller (SAC) is simi‐ lar to cascade control, where the disturbance would be suppressed by creating a plain speed difference between the loops. In other words, the controller of the loop which performs a step would correspond to the primary controller of the cascade control, with a lower loop speed (equivalent to a larger IMC λ value). At the same time, the other loop would be tuned faster (smaller λ), and thus more efficient at compensating for the cross‐interaction disturbance. [P10]
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The step adaptive controller thus switches the tuning depending on whether the loop has a change in its own reference or not. If a step response is expected, the tuning is changed in order to ensure a good response. Conversely, if a set point change is made in another interacting loop, a tuning more suitable for cross‐interaction rejection is selected. If there are concurrent reference changes, the latter strategy is selected. The design of the step adaptive controller is naturally done by using the IMC framework (Section 2.7), where the controller can be tuned with only one tun‐ ing parameter related to the speed of the step response. The tuning can be ap‐ plied on a conventional IMC controller or on an IMC‐PID controller, which are considered here, with some design alternatives summarized in Figure 59. The SAC framework, which changes the controller tuning depending on the situa‐ tion, is not restricted to IMC control with the notion of control speed, but can be applied through optimization to any parameterized controller. An example used here is optimizing the parameters of a PID controller. The controller tuning is chosen by optimization, thus, the envisioned speed difference may not necessarily come true. By changing the cost criterion, the operator can choose an acceptable step response. The selection of the cost crite‐ rion is investigated in the next section. Although the step adaptive controller is applied here to a 2x2 process, it can be extended to an n x n MIMO case as well. In the n x n case, the proposed proce‐ dure would yield n‐1 tuning parameter values for every controller, optimized for eliminating the cross‐interaction that originate from the n‐1 other loops. This large amount of different tuning values (n x n‐1) needed for cross‐interaction elimination could be reduced by first analyzing the interactions between the loops and then optimizing only for the loop that causes the largest interaction. The chosen tuning would then be suitable for the other, less significant cross‐ interactions from other loops. Design discrete‐time IMC
Design IMC‐PID
Discrete‐time PID
Discrete‐time PID
Optimize γ
Optimize λ
Optimize Kp , Ki, and Kd
n times for separate steps in all the loops
Figure 59. Step adaptive controller tuning alternatives.
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5.3.1. Controller Tuning by Optimization for MIMO Systems To tune the step adaptive controller, the simulation based tuning procedure [129] is applied. In the MIMO case, unit reference changes are for example made sequentially to each input of the system. Hence, each output response is composed of two different situations where the control performance is assessed: step response and cross‐interaction. These two cases are different in nature, and may set competing requirements for the control actions. Therefore the cost criterion for the tuning optimization is considered in this subsection. A suitable cost criterion is selected to fit the desired control objectives in both of the above‐ mentioned situations for the SAC. In order to evaluate the control performance of a MIMO system a new cost criterion is proposed. The total cost, which is minimized for optimal control tuning, is chosen as a weighted sum of two individual costs: the costs during the step and cross‐interaction response. The ITSE criterion (32) yields good step responses because of the absolute time included in the cost calculation, which discounts the initial step transient and emphasizes the settling down to a steady‐state. The ISE criterion in (31) is more suitable for evaluating the cost under load disturbances, which can occur at any time. Therefore, the cost crite‐ rion is switched from ITSE to ISE at tload when the character of the response changes from step response to cross‐interaction, at the time in another loop has a step response, as shown in Figure 60. A weighted sum of the two cost functions is taken, similarly as in [53]. The weight factor α (0