Global Issues and Trends in Tourism

Global Issues and Trends in Tourism

Editors Cevdet AVCIKURT Mihaela S. DINU Necdet HACIOĞLU Recep EFE Abdullah SOYKAN Nuray TETİK

ISBN 978-954-07-4138-3

ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS SOFIA  2016

Editors Prof. Dr. Cevdet AVCIKURT Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism Balıkesir-Turkey

Prof. Dr. Recep EFE Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir-Turkey

Prof. Dr. Mihaela S. DINU Romanian American University School of Domestic and International Tourism Economics Bucharest, Romania

Prof. Dr. Abdullah SOYKAN Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir-Turkey

Prof. Dr. Necdet HACIOĞLU Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism Balıkesir-Turkey

Assist. Prof. Dr. Nuray TETIK Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism Balıkesir-Turkey

St. Kliment Ohridski University Press ISBN 978-954-07-4138-3

The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher. © 2016 Recep Efe All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the editors and authors Cover Design: İsa Curebal Back Cover Photo: Recep Efe ii

CONTENTS Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 1  Research into the International Tourism Movements on the Basis of Destination: The Case of Turkey  Necdet HACIOĞLU, Füsun ESENKAL ÇÖZELİ  Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 19  Emotional Labor Behaviors in Tourism: A Study on the Students of Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism  Cevdet AVCIKURT, Pelin YAGCI  Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 33  Gastronomy and Tourism  Osman ÇALIŞKAN, Gökhan YILMAZ  Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 51  The Thermal Tourism Services Provided by Five Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar  Gonca KILIÇ, Asuman PEKYAMAN, Engin AYTEKİN  Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 68  The Role of Gastronomy Tourism in Slow Cities: Case of Turkey  Mehmet SARIOĞLAN, Cevdet AVCIKURT  Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 73  Interpretation of Zeugma Museum by Tourist Guides  Uysal YENIPINAR  Chapter 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 87  Job Insecurity from a Multi-faceted Perspective of the Tourism Sector  Aziz Gökhan ÖZKOÇ, Nurgül ÇALIŞKAN  Chapter 8 ......................................................................................................................................... 103  Leadership in Service Enterprises  Ahmet BAYTOK, Hasan Hüseyin SOYBALI  Chapter 9 ......................................................................................................................................... 120  The Role of Rural Tourism in Rural Development  Gülay ÖZDEMİR YILMAZ  Chapter 10 ....................................................................................................................................... 134  An Ideal Example for Sustainable Tourism Development: Kaiserwinkl, Austria  Barış ERDEM, Eray POLAT, Sami Sonat ÖZDEMİR  Chapter 11 ....................................................................................................................................... 149  Innovative Planning in Thermal Tourism Destinations: Balikesir-Güre Thermal Tourism Destination Case Study  Melike GÜL, Kudret GÜL  Chapter 12 ....................................................................................................................................... 163  Attitudes of University Students towards Mobile Marketing of Food and Beverage Goods and Services  Nuray TETİK, Göksel Kemal GİRGİN 

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Chapter 3 Gastronomy and Tourism Osman ÇALIŞKAN*, Gökhan YILMAZ** INTRODUCTION It is seen that in the last years gastronomy forges ahead towards becoming an academic discipline. For instance, Hegarty (2009) stated that so many academic studies were put forward on gastronomy and culinary arts between 1996-2007. In this context, the existence of academic journals (such as International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, Journal of Foodservice Business Research, Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism) particular to Gastronomy and Food-Beverage Management field and the increase in the number of scientific publications are seen as remarkable developments. On the other hand, it is accepted that gastronomy is in close relationship with tourism. In this framework, it is possible to encounter with lots of academic studies indicating that gastronomy is complement and a significant component of tourism. In the light of all of these, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues. CONCEPTIONAL FRAMEWORK The concept of gastronomy and its relation with tourism The concept of “Gastronomy” composed with the integration of the Greek words “Gastro” and “Nomos”. Gastro-relates to the stomach and, by extension, the whole digestive system, starting at the mouth, while nomos means rule or regulation. Gastronomy therefore refers to rules or norms in respect of eating and drinking (Katz, 2003; Santich, 2004; 2007). In related literature it is seen that the gastronomy concept can be defined with its guidance, process and cultural ways (Yılmaz, 2015). Santich (2004) considers gastronomy concept as rules and regulations about eating–drinking and in this regard, depending on historical, cultural and environmental effects, he defines gastonomy concept as offering proposals related to what, where, when, in which combination and how to eat and drink and making guidance. Beşirli (2010) evaluates gastronomy in cultural frame and states that the doings made during the process of producing, transporting, keeping and consuming of foods are related with culture. Also, Hegarty and O'Mahony (2001) explain gastronomy within the framework of eating and drinking culture as a concept containing elements and recipts used in preparing foods; preparing, cooking and presenting methods of foods; the amount and variety of foods; liked and disliked tastes; customs, traditions and believes about the presentation of foods; the equipments used. Richards (2002), Kivela and Crotts (2006) summarise gastronomy concept as distinctive foods of a country or a region, preparing and cooking methods of foods, presenting and consuming foods and emphasize on the relation with culture. On the other hand, Richards (2002), Hegarty (2005; 2009) and Hegarty and Antun (2010) evaluate gastronomy as a process in their studies (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) and describe this process as producing, handling, gathering, preparing, presenting, consuming of foods and getting pleasure. A significant discussion about gastronomy concept is carried out on its relation with science and art concepts (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, gastronomy is also described as good food eating art and science (Santich, 2004; 2007; Gillespie, 2006). Kivela and Crotts (2006) and Santich (2007) state that gastronomy concept includes both the art of good eating and also the art of good cooking. Hegarty and Antun (2007) qualify gastronomy as an art because of its trying to figure out the reality; as a science due *

Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department Res. Assist., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department

**

to its relation with fields like chemistry, physics and history. In this context, gastronomic products can be considered as art when they contain subjectivity and esthetics factors; the informations produced in gastronomy field can be considered as science when they contain subjectivity and rationality factors. In other words it is accepted that gastronomy is an art for it requires mastership and ability; it is a science for kitchen is not different from a laboratory and for it can get findings based on observation and experiment (Hegarty and Antun, 2010). And, Özdemir and Çalışkan (2011) state that the informations about foods and beverages reveal the scientific aspect of gastronomy; preperation and presentation of foods and beverages to appeal to the five senses of people reveal the artistic aspects of gastronomy. In terms of academic, it is seen that gastronomy is a working field requiring a very disciplined approach and being in relation with several working fields and sciences (Santich, 2007; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly, Radzi and Othman, 2009; Croce and Perri, 2010) like chemistry, literature, biology, geography, history, anthropology, music, philosophy and sociology (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Hegarty, 2009). In this regard, it is possible to say that gastronomy is both connected with social sciences and also physical sciences. For example, Santich (2007) indicates that gastronomy is connected with other fields such as history, literature, medicine, politics, law, ethics, business administration, religion, chemistry, philosophy, physics, communication, cookery, agriculture, geography, economy, trade and technology and in this context he considers the relation of gastronomy with other fields within the framework of production and consumption extents. In other words, while the fields such as cuisine, agriculture, geography, economy, trade, technology constitute the production extent of gastronomy, the fields such as religion, ethics, law, politics constitute the consumption extent of foods which are suitable or allowed for people. Also, communication, history and literature help learning cultural structures, customs and traditions of societies. Similarly, Croce and Perri (2010) state that at the heart of gastronomy there are factors as nature, culture and society and also it is in relation with the fields such as botanic, zoology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, engineering, architecture, painting and geology. Hegarty and Antun (2010) indicate that the gathering, preparing and cooking stages of foods are connected with physics and chemistry sciences. Also, This (2006a; 2006b; 2009) expresses that gastronomy is in relation with nature science due to the classification of foodstuffs; with physics due to the assessment of foodstuff’s quality and content; with chemistry due to the various analysis about the content of foods; with cookery due to the gathering together a variety of foods in harmony and their artistic presentation; with business administration due to getting materials on the cheapest and selling products lucratively; with economy due to its national and international income-generating effects. Despite all these assessments, according to the studies in related literature, it can be possible to say that the science which is in the closest relationship with gastronomy is tourism and gastronomy is being analyzed in the context of this relation. The benefits of gastronomy to tourism While researchers are conceptualising the interactions between gastronomy and tourism, they can consider different factors. For instance, when Tikkanen (2007) evaluates the effects of gastronomy to tourism, he puts forward 4 factors as being an attractiveness of food that can be used in destination’s advertising; being a potential element on the development of local agriculture and economy; being a significant part of experiences tourists are going to liveand being a contact of local culture. Henderson (2009) emphasizes the positive effects of gastronomy in the relations between gastronomy and tourism and indicates that there are 4 factors ranging as being a touristic products of food; being a factor that can be marketable to tourists; being a tool of gastronomy tourism in the development of destination and providing diversification opportunities to the firms in destination. Mak, Lumbers and Eves (2012) explain the determiners of the relations between gastronomy and tourism as foods’ being component of a touristic product or activity; the food consuming behaviours of tourists; the food experiences of tourists and their being specially interested in different foods-beverages and activities related with them. Kivela and Crotts (2009) evaluate the gastronomy or local foods as a travel motivation, a criterion being effective on the decision of a destination, a factor that ensures to visit the destination again and an element that contributes to the general satisfaction of tourists. Yılmaz (2015) summarizes the benefits of gastronomy to tourism as follows:  It forms a basis to the differentiation of destinations 34

      

It plays significant role on marketing the destinations It is used as an important factor in promotion of destinations. It can be a travel motivation for tourists. It can be effective on chosing of destination for tourists. It can enable to visit a destination again for tourists. It can contribute to the satisfaction of tourists. It is beneficial to the economic development of destination. When consider from economic angle, the expenses that tourists make for foods and eating out during their travels show the importance of gastronomy in tourism industry. Hall and Sharples (2003) indicate that foods are the second most important factor (28 %) after accomodation (36 %) in daily expenses of tourists. Other researches show that the proportion of expenditures for food in total tourist spending can be between 25 % - 40 %. For instance, while Boyne, Williams and Hall (2002) state that food expenditures constitute 40 % of tourist expenditures Hudman (1986), Ardabili and Rasouli (2011), Canizares and Guzman (2012) and Getz, Robinson, Andersson and Vujicic (2014) state that this proportion is at a level of 25 %. Also Rimmington and Yüksel (1998),Telfer and Wall (2000), Torres (2002) and MacLaurin, Blose and Mack (2007) indicate that food expenditures constitute one third of tourists expenditures. For instance, it is stated that in South Africa, 8 % of foreign tourists’ expenditures and 24 % of domestic tourists’ expenditures are food expenditures (Du Rand, Heath and Alberts, 2003). According to the report of Turkish Statistical Institution it is indicated that 28,6 % of total expenditures of tourists coming to Turkey between 2005-2007 is seperated to food and eating out activities (Yurtseven and Kaya, 2011). Similarly, in Gastronomy Tourism Report published by the Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, it is indicated that the expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey in 2014 are at a level of 19 %. Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey are shown by years in Table 1. Table 1:Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists (2004-2014) Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Total Expenditure ($) 17.076.609 20.322.111 18.593.947 20.042.501 25.415.068 25.064.481 24.940.996 28.115.693 29.351.445 32.308.991 34.305.904

Expenditure on Eating – drinking ($) 3.158.780 3.690.171 3.899.512 4.746.747 5.774.961 5.975.660 5.841.251 6.440.577 6.210.047 6.583.641 6.523.852

Eating – drinking expenditure % 18,4 18,1 20,9 23,6 22,7 23,8 23,4 22,9 21,1 20,3 19

Source: Türkiye Seyahat Acentaları Briliği (TÜRSAB) (URL 1)

Apart from general touristexpenditures, the expenditures made by tourists travelling with the purpose of gastronomy are being important factors contributing economically to local people (HavenTang and Jones, 2005). For instance, it is stated that in 2013, 6.4 million people patricipated in Oktoberfest beer festivity celebrated yearly in Munich Germany and 6.7 million litres beer were consumed (Spiegel Online, 2013). Besides, it is seen that local food products including 549,899 pieces of chicken, 140 225 pair of local sausages, 44.320 kg of fish and 116 pieces of cow were used up (Oktoberfest.net, 2013). Similarly, it is indicated that millions of people visited the Maine Lobster Festivity which has been organised since 1948 in America and it produced economic profit about a billion dolar (TÜRSAB, 2014).

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In another example, it is indicated that gastronomy tourists visiting Canada Ontario Region in 2010 spent 816 million Canadian Dollars (Richards, 2012). In this study, Schmantowsky (2008) states that the tourists travelling in order to discover different local cuisines and taste local foods spend in average 1.194 dollars per person; Green and Dougherty (2008) state they spend in average 1000 dollars per person. Such as to support this, Noseworthy, Martin, Wade, Sabev and Csillag (2005) state that the average daily expenditures of gastronomy tourists double the expenditures of typical tourists. For reaching to these spending levels, the payments tourists made for gastronomic products and services have a great share. In fact, some tourists are eager to pay more in order to be able to experience local foods (Everett and Aitchison, 2008). In this regard, in the research made with 1.440 English tourists by Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2001), it was concluded that the 67 % of tourists are willing to pay more for local foods and drinkings. Westering (1999) states that tourists pay 425 pounds for two-day France Loire Valley wine and mushroom tours and 3.999 pounds for seven-day Greece Odesa wine tour. Also Hunter (2006) indicates that tourists pay 680-1000 dollars to 3-hour gastronomy tours including cookery courses, accomodation, gourmet breakfasts and dinner. Tourism creates value for its stakeholders. Gastronomy helps the development of the economic, social and cultural values of tourism stakeholders (Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002). In a study made by Kivela and Crotts (2006) in Hong Kong it was reached the end of which gastronomy tourism make various contributions to producers, tourism industry, local people and tourists. Haven-Tang and Jones (2005) state that local foods and drinks have various benefits to tourists, tourism establishments and local people. Quan and Wang (2004) summarize the importance of gastronomy tourism on promoting, developing and marketting a destination as creating alternative opportunities and providing added value for food producers who are in rural areas, converting rich and various foods in the region and regional cuisine culture into festivals or activities about foods and creating attraction centers to which tourists are able to come, diversifying tourism activities as a result of presentation of foods seperately as touristic products and developing local people’s identities and cultures and helping to the participation of several people. In the light of all of these, the benefits of gastronomy tourism to tourists, producers, local people, tourism industry and environment are as follows (Quan and Wang, 2004; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Yılmaz, 2015):  Benefits to tourists  Being a discovery tool of local culture  Providing the opportunity of experiencing and purchasing different foods  Providing the opportunity of participating in gastronomy focused activities  Contributing to the tourists satisfaction  Benefits to producers  Developing agricultural activities  Developing local husbandry  Providing the increase of production and selling  Improving the quality and diversity of products and services  Ensuring the local producers’ being a part of tourism industry  Benefits to local people  Creating new business opportunities  Strenghtening of local identity  Increasing the intercultural interaction  Development of local economy  Benefits to tourism industry  Increasing the number of tourists  Extension of staying time  Increasing of touristic expenditures 36



 Development of tourism types  Presentation of alternative products Benefits to the environment  Contributing to the development of local destination  Helping to the keeping of local attractivenesses  Developing the environment friendly infrastructure  Helping to the ensuring sustainability

Gastronomy and tourism studies Researches made about gastronomy and tourism relation constitute a significant conceptional basis in order to understand the gastronomy and tourism relation. In this regard, it is thought that explaining this issue in the light of related literature will be beneficial. Nowadays, it can be said that academic studies made on gastronomy and tourism relation get up to a certain level in quality and quantity and predominantly focus on following issues:  Destination and local cuisine relation (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Barkat & Vermignon, 2006; Guzman & Canizares, 2011; Beer, Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2012; Yılmaz & Özdemir, 2015)  Promotion (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010; Lan, Wu and Lee, 2012) and marketing (Du Rand er al., 2003; Du Rand & Heath, 2006; Okumus, Okumus & McKercher, 2007; Horng & Tsai, 2012c) of local cuisines  The behaviours of tourists to local cuisines (Torres, 2002; Hjalager, 2004; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Chang, Kivela & Mak, 2010; 2011; Mak et al., 2012)  The expectations and satisfactions of tourists about gastronomic experiences (Ryu & Jang, 2006; Correia, Moital, da Costa & Peres, 2008)  The classification of tourists according to their relations with gastronomy (Boyne, Hall & Williams, 2003; Hjalager, 2004; Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Kivela & Crotts, 2009; Yun, Hennessey & MacDonald, 2011; Canizares & Guzman, 2012) and the determination of them as a part of market (Kivela & Crotts, 2005; MacLaurin et al., 2007; Mack, Blose & MacLaurin, 2009; McKercher, Okumus & Okumus, 2008)  Gastronomic identity (Harrington, 2005; Fox, 2007; Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010; Lin, Pearson & Cai, 2011; Çalışkan, 2013)  Gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism (Long, 1998; Hall and Mitchell, 2001; Hjalager, 2002; Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis and Cambourne, 2003; Hall and Mitchell, 2005; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Tikkanen, 2007; Henderson, 2009)  The sources (Deneault, 2002; Smith & Xiao, 2008; Silkes, 2012) and development strategies (Green & Dougherty, 2008; Horng & Tsai, 2012a; 2012b; Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2013) of gastronomy tourism  The usage of local foods in tourism (Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Özdemir, Yılmaz, Çalışkan & Aydın, 2015; Özdemir, Aydın, Çalışkan & Yılmaz, 2015) Gastronomy tourism Traveling of people for the purpose of experiencing local foods is accepted as a different tourism type (Molz, 2007). In order to describe this tourism type, in related literature as shown in Image 1, the development of several number of concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism, meal tourism, gastro tourism or food and wine tourism and from time to time using these concepts interchangeably or seperation of these concepts from each other are seen. Karim and Chi (2010) state that the concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism are used because, in the heart of concepts, there is traveling of people to particular destinations in order to discover foods and drinks and in this context, indeed, the concepts have the same meanings. Lin (2006) indicate that no matter which concept is used, the main aim is using foods and drinks as important means in order to promote and develop tourism in a certain region. In spite of that, Kivela and Crotts (2005) and Ignatov and Smith (2006) allege that there are some differencies between the concepts of 37

culinary tourism and gastronomy tourism. According to this distinction, gastronomy tourism is related to eating and including consumption, enjoying and quality factors. In other saying, the word “gastronomy” in the gastronomy tourism concept emphasize mostly on its consumption extent (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). And culinary tourism comprises foodstuff, the processes of food preperation and production, activities about foods and motivations (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and handles the production and consumption extents together (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). Similarly, Ninemeier (2010) states that culinary tourism grounds on the food preperation process and it is about cuisine. In wine tourism, experiencing wines and visiting wineries or regions are main travelling motivations (Charters and AliKnight, 2002).

Figure 1: The concepts about gastronomy tourism used in literature (Yılmaz, 2015).

According to related literature, the concept of gastronomy tourism was used firstly by Lucy Long in 1998 (Long, 1998; Kivela and Crotts, 2005; Karim and Chi, 2010; Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In this context, Long (1998) describes gastronomy tourism as a tourism type developed in order to discover other cultures and civilisations through activities about foods (Kivela and Crotts, 2005; 2006). Thus, Long (2003) emphasises the aim of recognising different cultures along with consumption in gastronomy tourism. The basis of gastronomy tourism bases on agriculture, culture and tourism (Westering, 1999; Cusack, 2000; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Everett and Slocum, 2013). Agriculture is effective in providing products or foods to be consumed; culture is effective in the history or authenticity of destinations. In terms of tourism, it is accepted that gastronomy tourism is one kind of culture tourism. Because, local cuisine forms an inseparable part of destination’s or society’s culture (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). With providing required background and services, agriculture, culture and tourism elements gather under the gastronomy tourism roof (Du Rand and Heath, 2006). In the literature gastronomy toruism is defined as a new type of tourism (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Smith and Costello, 2009; Chaney and Ryan, 2012; Horng and Tsai, 2012b); special interest tourism 38

(McKercher et al., 2008) or a niche market segment (Stewart, Bramble and Ziraldo, 2008; Silkes, 2012; Forga and Valiente, 2012). Some researchers take gastronomy tourism also as one of the fastest growing in tourism industry (Deneault, 2002; Mautner, 2009) and one of the most demanding tourism type (Beer, Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2012). At the heart of gastronomy tourism, there are discovering local foods or cuisines (Horng and Tsai, 2012a), enjoying (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and experiencing unforgettable experiment (McKercher et al., 2008). Traveling to different destinations provides tourists the opportunityof recognising new cultures, cuisines and local foods and experiencing the sense of authenticity(Westering, 1999; Cook, Yale and Marqua, 1999; Okumus et al., 2007). Gastronomy tourism focuses on unique food, cuisine and culture (Yun et al., 2011). In this regard, the definitions related to gastronomy tourism are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Definitions related to gastronomy tourism Study Long (1998; 2003) Richards (2002)

Deneault (2002) Wolf (2002) Hall & Mitchell (2001; 2005) Santich (2004) Ignatov & Smith (2006) Chang, Kivela & Mak (2010) Silkes (2012) Silkes, Cai & Lehto (2013)

Definition Travels including preparing, presenting and consuming of foods, done in order to learn and discover local cuisines and eating patterns that they do not own. Travels from which tourists can learn the producing process of foods, cooking methods, ingredients used and culinary culture of region. Gastronomy tourism, goes well beyond the dining experience. It includes a variety of cuisine and/or agri-tourism activities developed for visitors involving food and beverages. These can range from food festivals to farm visits and factory tours, and often involve the cultural discovery of a region's unique dishes. Travels made in order to search foods and drinks and enjoy. Travels which are made towards primary and secondary food producers, foods festivals, restaurants and special food and wine regions in order to discover or experience foods and drinkings and travels whose main travel reason is foods. A tool of interesting in food and drimk or eating and drinking, traveling motivation and experiencing other cultures. Tourism trips during which the purchase or consumption of regional foods (including beverages), or the observation and study of food production (from agriculture to cooking schools) represent a significant motivation or activity. A tourism type which provides oppotunity to experience local foods and learn local culture with various aspects. Cultural interaction taking place among tourists and local people through sharing experiences about foods.

Source: Yılmaz, 2015

In this regard, it is possible to define gastronomy tourism as travels comprising “the production, preperation, presentation and consumption processes of foods and eating-drinking patterns, being interested in table manners and cuisine culture and participating in activities about foods organised in destinations (visiting food-drink producers, wine and beer factories, farmer markets; meal experience in restaurants; participating in festivals; gastronomy tours; taking part in cookery classes and wine tasting courses); made in order to enjoy, learn and discover and whose main travel motivation are made up of local foods (Yılmaz, 2015). In gastronomy tourism it is seen that during travels, the fact of travel for foods comes to the forefront rather than consuming foods. As of both this definition as well as related literature addressed that the followings are among the distinctive features of gastronomy tourism.  Dining is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (Sparks, Bowen & Klag, 2003; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Quan & Wang, 2004; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009; Munjal & Sharma, 2013; Bessiere & Tibere, 2013) 39

 Tourists dine out when traveling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local food (Deneault, 2002), culture (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kim et al., 2009) and people (Fox, 2007; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009)  Culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that affects all five human senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch (Long, 1998; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim et al., 2009; Chang et al., 2010; Mak et al., 2012)  There is a high positive correlation between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and those interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festivals, and cultural attraction (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Lang Research Inc., 2006; Fox, 2007; Vujicic, Getz & Robinson, 2013), Interest in cuisine when traveling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnic group (Kivela & Crotts, 2006)  Unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of day and in any weather (Deneault, 2002; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Canizares & Guzman, 2012)  More often than not, gastronomy tourists are explorers (Telfer & Wall, 2000; Heldke, 2003; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009). Gastronomic tourism products Gastronomic tourism products can be described as products that tourists can consume during their travels or use for a while, include gastronomic factors (like foods-drinks) at its heart and services or factors formed by the combination of these (Yılmaz, 2015). For instance, local restaurants, wineries and vineyards in destinations are among the main gastronomic tourism products tourists can live an exhilarating experience (Kivela and Crotts, 2006). If it is though more comprehensive, in studies in the related literature traditional or high quality restaurants, food and wine festivals, cookery schools, wine trainings, local markets, cookery and meal competitions or activities (Long, 1998), wineries and vineyards, vegetable and fruit harvesting fields, food and wine routes (Yun et al., 2011), peddlers and farms (Karim and Chi, 2010) are considered among gastronomic tourism products. In order to develop gastronomic tourism products some resourches are required. There are resourchers making comprehensive classification on this issue. For example, Ignatov and Smith (2006) and Smith and Xiao (2008) classify the resources of gastronomic tourism products in four categories as facilities and opportunities, activities, events and organizastions. This classification is shown in Table 3. Facilities comprise buildings, areas and routes where the foods are produced, prepared and disseminated. These facilities are places which are open to tourist visits and where tourists can buy and consume gastronomic products, see the production areas and learn local culture. Among activities, there are eating in local restaurants, visiting wine and agricultural regions, courses about cookery, wine tastement educations and taking part in contests. And within the scope of consumer fairs and festivities, tourists can visit various food and beverage fairs and take part in local festivals. Even if they are not considered directly in gastronomic tourism products, the organizations related to gastronomy have great importance in terms of their functions. For example, the destinations willing to develop gastronomy tourism need to make some arrangements about foods and wines. In this context, it is thought that the arrangements to be made by institutions are going to become important determiners of food quality (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000). The institutions are expressed as systems or organisations which confirm, document and assume control of local foods and wines quality (Smith and Xiao, 2008). The certification of foods guarantees the products and increasing their quality (Horng and Tsai, 2010). For example, it is known that Hong Kong Tourism Bureau started Quality Tourism Services (QTS) implementations in order to guarantee the quality of services in restaurants and increase food standarts and customer security (Chang et al., 2011). This implementation enable tourists to find reliable restaurants and thus to feel safe themselves (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). It is possible to collocate main gastronomic tourism products as gastronomy tours, factories (wine, beer), farms and farmer markets, cooking courses, festivals, museums and restaurants. Gastronomy tours can be events performed on a specific route (like wine region, agricultural region) especially in order to discover different culinary culture, foods and wines and including such activities as making 40

food shopping in local markets (Kivela and Crotts, 2006), participating in cooking and wine tasting classes (Hunter, 2006) and visiting local restaurants (Hjalager, 2002; Ardabili and Rasouli, 2011). Especially local restaurants constitute one of the main gastronomic tourism products (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008) and both gastronomy tourists whose primary travel motivation is local foods and other tourists are willing to live food experience in local restaurants in order to experience local foods (Du Rand et al., 2003; Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). For example, Law, To and Goh (2008) state that in Hong Kong there are restaurants over 9000 where tourists can experience local cuisine or east and west cuisines. Similarly, Au and Law (2002) express that tourists can live unforgettable and unique experience in the restaurants in Hong Kong. On the other hand, in Canada, 8 day gastronomy tours named West Coasts Cuisine are organised and tourists can learn how the local foods are produced and prepared (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006). Farmers markets are indicated as places where the local products, produced or prepared by local people, are presented directly to consumers (Smith and Xiao, 2008) and fresh and organic foods can be bought (Henderson, 2009). Farmers markets offer informations to tourists about local culture and life that they can not obtain from knowledge sources like internet and travel magazines (Chang, Kivela and Mak, 2011). The visits made to factories where the local products like wine or beer are manifactured have similar function. Museums like food, cheese, wine and culinary museums are described as areas where various foods and equipments related to these foods are displayed (Bessiere, 1998). And farm visits enable tourists to make contact with local producers and local products directly (Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). Meal courses are explained as organised by restaurants (Green and Dougherty, 2008) or hotels (Henderson, 2009) and as places where tourists can learn how the local foods are prepared (Bessiere, 1998) and can consume local foods (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). Food festivals combiningeating-drinking culture and entertainment (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) are events in which local foods and products are main themes (Henderson, 2009), organised for short-term as 1-3 days and periodically (Smith and Xiao, 2008). In Canada Ontario Region every year 73 food and wine themed festivals are organised. In some situations, festivals can be comprehensive products in which a lot of gastronomic tourism products are served together. For example, in 2-day Abergavenny Food Festival organised every year, opportunities are given to participants like wine tasting, participating in cookery classes, serving and tasting food, buying local foods from local producers, visiting fish market (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Also many researches in related literature show the importance of gastronomic sources and gastronomic tourism products both for destinations and tourists. Horng and Tsai (2012a) state that developing gastronomy tourism multi directional is going to be possible with gastronomic sources such as food routes, food festivals, consumer fairs, wine tours. In this context, many destinations are trying to show and familiarise the unique gastronomic sources that they own (Cohen and Avieli, 2004). For instance, Canada is trying to present so many and a large variety of gastronomic tourism products such as local festivals, agritourism events, cookery schools, farm holidays, food festivals, dinner activities, vintage, food, wine and beer routes, winery and brevery tours, cheese production centers, food museums, farmer markets and special wine tasting tours (Deneault, 2002) and gourmet restaurants (Stewart et al., 2008). Restaurants generally serving foods belonging to local cuisine and festivals about foods constitute the gastronomic tourism products of Asian countries like Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). Similarly, according to The World Tourism Association’s report cookery classes or courses, food museums, food events, foods, food and beverage fairs, visits to the local food producers or food markets and food tours constitute the main gastronomic sources. In many researches in related literature some findings on the participation of tourists to these activities in destinations are presented. In the study which was done with Taiwanese and Austrian tourists visiting Hong Kong and Macau by Kivela and Crotts (2009), tourists’ participation in events about foods like visiting farms, participating in cookery courses, fruit picking and visiting cheese makers was revealed. Similarly, Yun et al., (2011) line the activities about gastronomy tourism to which tourists participate in as visiting markets selling local foods, taking part in local fairs, participate in food and wine festivals, taking part in cookery and wine courses, eating in the restaurants serving local foods or eating in luxury restaurants, participating in wineries and breweries tours, visiting food and wine routes, visiting farms and food producing places. And, in the study done with 3.137 European tourists 41

visiting Sweden by Vujicic et al., (2013), it was determined that the activities of tourists about foods during their travels are experiencing local foods in local restaurants, visiting local food markets and purchasing local products, living romantic dinner experiences, participating in the food festivals, visiting food routes and taking cookery courses. Table 2: Typology of culinary tourism resources

Facilities

Activities

Events

Organisations

Food processing facilities Wineries Breweries Buildings / Structures Farmers’ markets Food stores Food-related museums Restaurants Farms Orchards Land uses Vineyards Urban restaurant districts Wine routes Routes Food routes Gourmet trails Dining at restaurants Consumption Picnics utilising locally-grown produce Purchasing retail food and beverages Wine regions Touring Agricultural regions City food districts Cooking schools Wine tasting/education Education/Observation Visiting wineries Chef competitions Reading food, beverage magazines and books Food and wine shows Consumer shows Cooking equipment, kitchen shows Product launches Food festivals Festivals Wine festivals Harvest festivals Restaurant classification/ certification systems (e.g. Michelin, Taste of Nova Scotia) Food/wine classification systems (e.g. VQA) Associations (e.g. Cuisine Canada, Slow Food)

Source: Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008.

Similarly, Bessiere and Tibere (2013) line the places where French tourists can discover local foods during their travels as farms and production places, restaurants and local markets and the places where home cookings are made. In the study donein Taiwan by Lin et al., (2011) with tourism officials and 83 people working as senior executives (director, executive..), the activities to which tourists participate in are lined up as, in order of, food festivals, gourmet tours and gourmet holidays. Besides, it is indicated that the most attractive factor about tourists’ experience the cuisine of Taiwan is participating in local festivals, gourmet tours and holidays. In the study made with 42 people in South Africa by Du Rand et al., (2003), gastronomic tourism products are determined as specificial restaurants (62 %), food products produced in local destinations, food routes, food festivals, specific activities about foods and othes. In the research done by Lang Research Inc. (2006) it is indicated that 22 % of Canadian tourists show participating in cookery and wine tasting courses, 17.4 % of them show visiting vinery ans tasting wine, 11.9 % of them show food producing centers like cheese factory, 10.5 % of 42

them show visiting brewery and tasting beer and 3.3 % of them show taking part in all activities as the main travel reasons. In a research made in America it is concluded that 17 % of tourists (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010) and in a research made in Canada 74 % of tourists (Stewart et al., 2008) participate in the activities about food and wine. Gastronomic identity Foods are in close relationship with culture and identity issues (Hall and Mitchell, 2000). Foods and drinkings are seen as main components forming the identity of a destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005; Munjal and Sharma, 2013). In this context, gastronomic identity is stated as an identity reflecting food culture of a particular region or a community (Bessiere, 1998; Lin et al., 2011). And, in the studies about the subject, what are the components of gastronomic identity and which factors are effective on its formation are explained. For instance, Danhi (2003) indicates that there are 6 main factors determining a region’s gastronomic identity and lines these factors as geography, history, ethnic diversity, culinary etiquettes, common tastes and local receipts. Rao, Monin and Du Rand (2003) state that the identity movement in French cuisine during the transition process from classical period to new period took place in 5 dimensions as cuisine expression, cooking rules, materials, chefs and menu management. Harrington (2005) classifies the factors that have impact on the formation of gastronomic identity in two dimensions as culture and environment. While history, ethnical diversity, trial and error, innovations, skills, traditions, believes and values constitute the culture category, geography, climates, microclimates, local products and the harmony of new products constitute the environment category. In this context, with the effects of environment and culture, a gastronomic identity is created comprising of taste profiles, etiquettes, receipts, the entegration of materials or techniques, the harmonisation of wine and food, climatic zones and new world and old world styles in winemaking. Thus, foods that are among the main components of gastronomic identity become reflecting the social, cultural and natural features of a particular region (Lockie, 2001). According to Harrington (2005), during the gastronomic identity formation process geography, climate, historical process and ethnical diversity are the prominent factors. In historical process, migrations, battles, religional visits and discoveries taking place in the region and ethnical diversity that is formed with getting together of the communities from different cultures effect the gastronomic identity of region. By being entegrated with local products, new and different foods and drinks that are brought from remote regions with commercial activities lead to develop new preperation methods and to change the local traditions. Innovations are able to be made with trial-and-error and thus it is possible to meet the growing demands of consumers. Gastronomic identity takes form with the skills of local people apart from trial-and-error and innovations. Environmental factors comprise of the elements that are related to how the foods grow. Geographical and climatical changes such as soil diversities, precipitation, temperature, wind, humid and altitudes effect the food diversity that are produced or grown in a region and eating habits of people. In this regard, the emerging local products are foods and drinks having the characteristics of growing area and generally being perceived as good quality. In the world, it is possible to encounter with succesful samples about gastronomic identity in the world. For example, Harrington and Ottenbacher (2010) state Lyon city as the capital city of both France and the worldwhich has local foods like 140 kind of cheese and Bresse chicken, 61 restaurants with Michelin star and wineyards like Burgundy. Lin et al., (2011) utter that Taiwan has gastronomy destination identity with its various and different local foods. Because the gastronomy culture of Hong Kong is influenced by the cultures of several countries and ethnical groups, it is mentioned at present time as Gastronomy Paradise of Asia. Similarly, due to the cuisine culture that Singapore has is influenced by various ethnical groups, it is known as the Gastronomy Capital of Asia. This situation creates a gastronomic identity for Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). In the study, Chang et al., (2011) state that due to several of animals such as sheep and lambs in Australia, the gastronomic identity of the country includes sheep and lamb dishes. Within the framework of local and ethnical elements it owns, French cuisine takes part in among the special cuisine in the world and thus France is known with cuisine culture it has (Barkat and Vermignon, 2006). In the interview he gave to Newsweek magazine in 1961, former President of France Charles de Gaulle utters 43

the variety of his country has with the sentence “who and how can manage a country that has 246 kinds of cheese?” (Nadeau and Barrow, 2005). Indeed, it can be said that the word “cheese” is one of the most effective gastronomic identity elements indicating the region’s climate, history, culture, geography and cuisine (Çalışkan, 2013). Thus, gastronomic identity become usable for tourists in order to live unique and recollective gastronomic experience (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). A strong gastronomic identity special to a particular destination becomes an inseparable part of that destination’s success in tourism development (Fox, 2007). Gastronomic identity can constitute one of the attractive factors for tourists in order to visit destinations. Tourists are possibly want to experience local foods due to the destinations they travel have strong gastronomic identity (Chang et al., 2011). Grounding on these explanations, the possiblity of being so significant source of gastronomic identity for destinations comes to mind. In this framework, Fox (2007) evaluates the contributions of destination’s gastronomic identity to tourism destinations in five dimensions as differentiation, aestheticization, authentication, symbolization and vitalisation. Differentiation indicates that foods are important signs of cultural difference among regions and communities and by this way the destination is going to become different. Aestheticization expresses making aesthetic of food and beverage experience with tourist experience. Gastronomic identity that involves history, trade, transportation, technology and ethnic diversity, within the framework of authentication, creates desire to live past on tourists. Symbolization expresses that gastronomic identity can be presented with various gastronomic symbols and in this case it gives the symbolisation of Italian gastronomy with pizza as a sample. He states that, via vitalisation, a new image can be gained to destination by providing the use of old traditions and culinary heritage in tourism. The variation of factors from region to region that have impact on the creation of gastronomic identity causes to emerge different gastronomic identities and not to be able to imitate each gastronomic identity (Çalışkan, 2013). Because of its features like being valuable, rare, unimitable and not being replaced, gastronomic identity becomes a strategic source for destinations (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). In this regard, matching of certain areas with certain foods and drinkings become possible with gastronomic identity special to destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Thus, food is strongly correlated with a particular region (Lin et al., 2011). Champagne known as the most qualified sparkling wine of the World can only be produced in Champagne Region of France. Therefore, champagne and Champagne Region matches and a gastronomic identity special to the region emerges (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011). Similarly, matching cognac and Cognac region enables creating unique gastronomic identity (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, especially number of geographical indication products contributes to gastronomic identityalso. For instance, in Turkey, there are 124 geographical indications about foods. On the other hand, entering into the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists of the factors about eating and drinking like “keşkek” oftraditional ceremony, mesir paste festival and Turkish coffee and tradition also have importance in terms of gastronomic identity. Thus, with the integration of gastronomic identity and tourism development of a destination, it is possible for that destination to gain competitive advantage in the fierce competition environment in tourism market (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In order to do this, destinations are required to create and present gastronomic tourism products based on their unique gastronomic identities. CONCLUSIONS In this study, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues. REFERENCES Akkuş, G. & Erdem, O. (2013). Yemek Turizmine Katılma Niyeti: Planlı Davranış Teorisi Kapsamında Bir Uygulama. 14. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi. Bildiriler Kitabı. s.636-654. Kayseri: Erciyes Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi. Ardabili, F. S. & Rasouli, E. H. (2011). The Role of Food and Culinary Condition in Tourism Industry. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 9 (6). 826-833. 44

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